Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE THESIS

1.1

INTRODUCTION
Industries such as food processing industries and bio mass based sectors use
the fermentation process with different substrates based on the desired end
products and application. Mathematical model of the milk fermentation
process is developed through real time data acquisition.

1.2

OBJECTIVE OF THESIS
The specific objective of this thesis is
To develop a mathematical model of milk fermentation process and
design a controller to speed up the process and maintain the operating
conditions.

1.3

ORGANISATION OF THESIS
Chapter1:Thischapter

introducesthedomainofthe

problemconsideredandalsotheobjective of thethesis.
1

 Chapter2:Thischapter

dealswiththeliteraturesurveyedduringthe

courseoftheprojectwork.
Chapter3:Thischapter dealswiththe fundamentalsof orifice meter and
explains the theory behind.
Chapter4:Thischapter dealswith the computation of flow in a restriction
type flow meter.
Chapter5: Thischapter dealswiththe methodology proposed for a
variable area orifice meter
Chapter6:Thischapter dealswiththesignalprocessingandmotor circuits
along with the component specifications.
Chapter7: Thischapter dealswith the design procedure and schematic
diagrams of all the components.
Chapter8: Thischapter dealswith the conclusionandscope for future workof
theproject

CHAPTER 2
LITERARY REVIEW
Binnur Kaptan, Serap Kaysoglu and Omer Oksuz, 2015 proposed a
method to obtain the mathematical model of fermentation process using
kefir grains with pH variation as a function of time and temperature. It was
found that fermentation temperature (2535 deg C), total fat level (3.0, 1.7,
0.15 %) and inoculum level (2%) w/v had simultaneous effects on the
acidification process in kefir fermentation. The changes in pH of
pasteurized cow milk inoculated with 2 % culture were investigated during
fermentation at 25-35 degree Celsius. Measurement of pH change followed
first order kinetics during kefir fermentation. The optimal kinetics model
for pH change during fermentation of kefir was the linear mathematical
model. Furthermore, statistical analysis indicated that fermentation
temperature and time significantly affected pH change of kefir. pH
reduction rate of kefir was maximum at semi-skimmed milk (1.7 %) at 35
deg C.

CHAPTER 3
THE PROCESS OF FERMENTATION
3.1 FERMENTATION PROCESS IN GENERAL
Fermentation is a metabolic process in which an organism converts a
carbohydrate, such as starch or a sugar, into an alcohol or an acid. For
example, yeast perform fermentation to obtain energy by converting sugar
into alcohol. Bacteria perform fermentation, converting carbohydrates into
lactic acid. Fermentation is a natural process. People applied fermentation
to make products such as wine, meat, cheese and beer long before the
biochemical process was understood. In the 1850s and 1860s Louis
Pasteur became the first zymurgist or scientist to study fermentation when
he demonstrated fermentation was caused by living cells.

3.2 WHY FERMENTATION

The definition of fermentation is "breaking down into simpler
components". Fermentation makes the foods easier to digest and the
nutrients easier to assimilate. In effect, much of the work of digestion is
done for you. Since it doesn't use heat, fermentation also retains enzymes,
vitamins, and other nutrients that are usually destroyed by food processing.
The active cultures that pre-digest the food as part of the fermentation
process actually generate nutrients. So there are more vitamins--especially
B-vitamins--and minerals like iron are released from the chemical bonds
that prevent them from being assimilated. In effect, the nutritional value of
a food goes up when it has been fermented. The fermentation process
4

also preserves the food. You start with a wholesome, raw food and preserve
it in a way that leaves its nutrients intact, so you have the health benefits of
raw food with having to run to the grocery store every other day for more-which is what happens, unless you're lucky enough to have a garden.

3.3 CHEMISTRY BEHIND FERMENTATION

Fermentation is the process by which living organisms recycle in
the absence of oxygen. NAD is a required molecule necessary for the
oxidation of Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to produce the high energy
molecule 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. Fermentation occurs in the cytosol of
cells. Because NAD is used in Glycolysis it is important that living cells
have a way of recycling NAD from NADH. One way that a cell recycles is
by reducing oxygen in theelectron transport chain. As NADH transfers its
electrons to oxygen in the form of a hydride ion it is reduced to NAD.
Another way that NAD is recycled from NADH is by a process called
fermentation.

3.4 MILK FERMENTATION PROCESS

3.4.1 Overview
The primary function of fermenting milk was, originally, to extend its
shelf life. With this came numerous advantages, such as an improved taste
and enhanced digestibility of the milk, as well as the manufacture of a wide
variety of products. Historically the fermentation of milk can be traced
back to around 10000 B.C. It is likely that fermentation initially arose
spontaneously from indigenous microflora found in milk. Fortunately, the
5

bacteria were lactococci and lactobacilli which typically suppress spoilage

and pathogenic organisms effectively. The evolution of these products
likely came as a result of the climate of the region in which they were
produced: thermophilic lactic acid fermentation favours the heat of the subtropics; mesophilic lactic acid fermentation occurs at cooler temperatures.
Today the fermentations are controlled with specific starter cultures and
conditions. Some of the many fermented milk products are: acidophilus
milk, crme frache, cultured buttermilk, kefir, koumiss, filmjlk, sour
cream, and viili. Yogurt and cheese are also fermented milk products.
More detail on yogurt and cheese can be found under their specific
ingredient profiles.
Fermented milk products can be classified into 3 categories:
viscous products
beverage products
carbonated products
Within these categories, the fermented milk products may be fresh, or
have an extended shelf life. The fresh products contain live starter culture
bacteria, including probiotics, while the extended shelf life products contain
no live microorganisms.

Typical shelf life (at

4 deg C)
2 wks
10 d
4 wks
10-14 d
10-14 d
10-14 d
14 d
10 d

Product
Acidophilus Milk
Cultured Buttermilk
Sour Cream
Kefir
Koumiss
Filmjlk
Viili
Crme Frache

Table 1 Shelf life of fermented products

There are numerous factors which affect the outcome of the product
including the chemical composition of the milk, additives and starter
cultures used, as well as the processing of the product. They affect the
ultimate flavour, texture, and consistency of the final product. It is not
uncommon for the manufacturer to add stabilizers such as pectins and
gums, in order to avoid the sedimentation of milks solids and the separation
of whey in the package, while improving the mouthfeel of the product.
The general process by which fermented milk products are made
begins with a preliminary treatment of milk which may include
clarification, fat separation and standardization, and evaporation.
Processing

follows

next,

with

de-aeration,

homogenization,

and

pasteurization. The milk is then cooled to the appropriate fermentation

temperature and starter cultures are added.
Starter cultures differ for each product.

They consist of

microorganisms added to the milk to provide specific characteristics in the

finished fermented milk product in a controlled and predictable manner.
The primary function of lactic acid starters is to ferment lactose into lactic
acid, but they may also contribute to flavour, aroma and alcohol production,
while inhibiting spoilage microorganisms. A single strain of bacteria may
7

be added, or a mixture of several microorganisms may be introduced. The

bacteria,
well.

yeasts

and moulds

work at

different

temperatures

as

Thermophilic lactic acid fermentation favour hot temperatures (40-

45C) while mesophilic lactic acid fermentation 0occurs at cooler

temperatures (25 and 40C).
As the starter cultures grow within the milk, fermentation takes
place. Fermentation is the chemical conversion of carbohydrates into
alcohols or acids. In fermented milk products both alcohol and lactic acid
may be produced, like in kefir and koumiss, or just lactic acid, like in sour
cream. The bacteria ingest the lactose (milk sugar), and release lactic acid
as waste causing the acidity to increase. This rise in acidity causes the milk
proteins to denature (unfold) and tangle themselves into masses (curds)
while also inhibiting the growth of other organisms that are not acid
tolerant. Following the completion of fermentation, flavourings can be
added and the products are packaged, labeled and put into cold storage
before being sent to stores.

3.4.2 Characteristics
Kefir is a milk product traditionally fermented by kefir grains. The
grains are curds which act as a starter culture in each batch of kefir.
These grains contain active microorganisms and when added to fresh
milk, they produce kefir. Kefir grains have a complex microbial
composition consisting of 83-90% lactic acid bacteria and 10-17% yeast,
as well as acetic acid bacteria and possibly mould. Commercial starter
cultures have been developed that allow production to be made more
efficient and may also provide a longer shelf life for the product. The
8

fermentation of the lactose by the microorganisms yields a sour,

carbonated, slightly alcoholic beverage with the consistency of thin
yogurt. It is white or yellowish in colour with a yeasty aroma. The taste
is acidic, but refreshing with compounds including lactic acid, diacetyl,
carbon dioxide and ethanol influencing its sensory properties. Kefir is
sometimes commercially available without carbonation and alcohol
(when yeast is not added to the starter culture), resulting in a product
that is very similar to yogurt. Its composition and flavour is dependent
on milk type and lactic acid content in the final product. Typical milks
used for kefir include cow, goat, and sheep, with each eliciting varying
nutritional and sensory qualities.
Koumiss (koumiss, kumiss, kumis, kymis, kymmyz) is a fermented
drink traditionally made from the milk of horses by people in Central
Asia and from camels milk in Mongolia . The word koumiss is thought
to derive from the name of the Turkic Kumyks people. The capital
of Kyrgyzstan, Bishkek, is named after the paddle used to churn the
fermenting milk, showing the importance of the drink in the national
culture. It would have been originally fermented in a horse hide bag
which would have contained the microflora from the previous batch.
Koumiss is similar to kefir, but is not produced using grains, but using
a liquid starter culture composed of lactobacilli and non-lactosefermenting yeasts instead. As mares milk has a higher sugar content
than cows and goats milk, the resulting koumiss has a slightly higher
alcohol content than kefir. Today, cows milk is generally used for
koumiss, with the addition of sugar to better approximate the
composition of mares milk.

Koumiss is a milky white liquid with a grayish cast and is very

light in body compared to most dairy beverages. It has a slightly sour
flavour from lactic acid, and ethyl alcohol, and a fizziness from carbon
dioxide.
Filmjlk is Swedish fermented milk. Fermented milk products have a
long history in the Scandinavian countries, dating back to the Vikings.
Traditional fermented milks of the Nordic countries are fermented at
lower temperatures by mesophilic bacteria (specifically ).

Filmjlk is

the modern variant of the traditional surmjlk. It is the most common

fermented milk in Sweden and is frequently consumed for breakfast or
lunch. Filmjlk is similar to yogurt or kefir, but it is fermented using
different strains of bacteria, giving it a unique flavour. Filmjlk is a
spoonable, semi-solid product made with standardized fat contents.

It

has a mild, slightly acidic flavour, with aromas from diacetyl and carbon
dioxide.
Viili is traditional Finnish fermented milk made from unhomogenized
milk. As the milk begins to ferment a layer of cream rises to the surface
and a surface growing mould, Geotrichumcandidum, forms a thin
velvety

surface.

Viili

is

inoculated

with

containing Lacobacilluslactis subsp. cremoris that

starter

creates

its

culture
ropy

character. It is advised that viili be eaten with a tablespoon so that it can

be cut into portions. If it is mixed or eaten with a teaspoon the texture
becomes ropy, making it difficult to consume. Viili has a mild acidic
flavour and aroma with a thick consistency that maintains its shape
without collapsing when placed on a plate.

10

 Acidophilus milk is typically a lowfat or nonfat milk to which active

cultures ofLactobacillus acidophilus have been added. The milk can be
refrigerated to prevent further growth of the harmless bacteria producing
sweet acidophilus milk. It can also be incubated at 38C until a curd
forms. Bifidobacteriumbifidum may also be included.
Cultured Buttermilk has been produced as long as butter has been
made. Traditionally butter was made by churning milk or cream, but an
improved method for fermenting milk became the preferred method for
cultured buttermilk production. Cultured buttermilk is pasteurized skim
milk fermented by a lactic acid bacteria culture (Lactobacillus
lactis subsp. lactis, Lactobacillus
and Lactobacillus

lactis subsp.cremoris,
lactis subsp lactis biovar. diacetylactis,

andLeuconostocmesenteroides subsp. cremoris) and by aroma bacteria.

It possesses a mild acid flavour with a diacetyl overtone and a smooth
texture. Cultured buttermilk has a soft white colour and may contain
added butterflakes, fruit condiments, or flavourings.
Sour Cream is an extremely viscous product that has been used for
many years in a great number of countries. Traditionally, cream was left
to sour, but today sour cream is made by lactic acid fermentation of
cream using Streptococcus lactis, with or without the addition of rennet
to create a thicker product. Stabilizers may be added to improve and
maintain the consistency. Sour cream has a mild, subtle, tangy flavour
and aroma which is similar to cultured buttermilk. It has a smooth, thick
body and typically has a fat content of 10-14%. Lower fat varieties are
also produced. Sour cream has a limited shelf life due to yeast and
mould growth. The shelf life can be extended by a heat treatment after
the fermentation has taken place.
11

 Crme frache is French for fresh cream. It is mild in taste and slightly
acidic, with a smooth, rich, thick texture. It is made in the same manner
as sour cream, and used for many of the same applications. It is higher
in fat content (usually 30-40% fat) and as a result crme frache can be
whisked into whipped cream. It also has a high enough fat content and
low enough protein content that it can be cooked directly without
curdling.

3.4.3 Varieties
Kefir is made most often from partially skimmed cows milk. It can be
packaged either as natural or plain kefir with no added fruit or flavours
or as flavoured kefir. The final product contains live bacteria and yeasts
that produce carbon dioxide gas. This gas production gives kefir a
"sparkling" sensation on the tongue when eaten. Kefir has been referred
to as the champagne of fermented dairy products.
Koumiss: Mares milk has higher sugar content than cows and goats
milk, and as a result koumiss has a slightly higher alcohol content than
kefir. Today, cows milk is generally used for koumiss, with the addition
of sugar to better approximate the composition of mares milk.
Cultured Buttermilk may contain added butterflakes, fruit condiments,
or flavourings. It is also available with different fat contents.
Viili comes in a wide range of varieties, including products of different
fat content,lactose-reduced varieties and flavoured versions. Viili can be
made from homogenizedmilk and without mould growing on the
surface.
12

 Sour cream comes in full fat (minimum 14% fat), low fat and fat free
varieties.
Filmjlk has fruit flavoured variants and can have the addition of
beneficial probiotic bacteria such as Bifidobacteriumlactis and many
species of lactobacilli.

3.4.4 Functional Properties

Fermented milk products have numerous functional properties:
Preservation: bacteria are inhibited from growing through pH reduction
when lactic acid is formed, and shelf life is increased
Flavour Enhancement: the sour characteristic of fermented milk
products comes from fermentation products (lactic acid, diactyl, carbon
dioxide, ethanol); these products act as excellent flavour carriers for
herbs, spices and other flavourings
Texture Enhancement: some fermented milk products (sour cream or
crme frache) can add body and thickness to sauces, dips or vinagrettes
Reducing Caloric Content: many fermented milk products come in
low fat or fat free varieties and can be used to substitute for higher fat
ingredients
Emulsification: milk proteins help stabilize fat emulsions in salad
dressings, soups and cakes
Foaming and Whipping: crme frache is capable of being whipped
like whip cream
13

 Nutritional benefits: fermented milk products may contain probiotics

(bacteria that are beneficial to health) as well as many vitamins and
minerals.

3.5 Industrial Yogurt Production

3.5.1 Introduction
Yogurt is a fermented milk product that contains the characteristic
bacterial cultures Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus.
All yogurt must contain at least 8.25% solids not fat. Full fat yogurt must
contain not less than 3.25% milk fat, lowfat yogurt not more than 2% milk
fat, and nonfat yogurt less than 0.5% milk. The full legal definitions for
yogurt, lowfat yogurt and nonfat yogurt are specified in the Standards of
Identity listed in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), in
sections 21 CFR 131.200, 21 CFR 131.203, and 21 CFR 131.206,
respectively.
The two styles of yogurt commonly found in the grocery store are set
type yogurt and swiss style yogurt. Set type yogurt is when the yogurt is
packaged with the fruit on the bottom of the cup and the yogurt on top.
Swiss style yogurt is when the fruit is blended into the yogurt prior to
packaging.

3.5.2 Ingredients
The main ingredient in yogurt is milk. The type of milk used depends
on the type of yogurt whole milk for full fat yogurt, lowfat milk for lowfat
yogurt, and skim milk for nonfat yogurt. Other dairy ingredients are
allowed in yogurt to adjust the composition, such as cream to adjust the fat
14

content, and nonfat dry milk to adjust the solids content. The solids content
of yogurt is often adjusted above the 8.25% minimum to provide a better
body and texture to the finished yogurt. The CFR contains a list of the
permissible dairy ingredients for yogurt.
Stabilizers may also be used in yogurt to improve the body and
texture by increasing firmness, preventing separation of the whey
(syneresis), and helping to keep the fruit uniformly mixed in the yogurt.
Stabilizers used in yogurt are alginates (carageenan), gelatins, gums (locust
bean, guar), pectins, and starch.
Sweeteners, flavors and fruit preparations are used in yogurt to
provide variety to the consumer. A list of permissible sweeteners for yogurt
is found in the CFR.

3.5.3 Bacterial Cultures

The main (starter) cultures in yogurt are Lactobacillus bulgaricus and
Streptococcusthermophilus. The function of the starter cultures is to
ferment lactose (milk sugar) to produce lactic acid. The increase in lactic
acid decreases pH and causes the milk to clot, or form the soft gel that is
characteristic of yogurt. The fermentation of lactose also produces the
flavor

compounds

that

are

characteristic

of

yogurt. Lactobacillus

bulgaricus and Streptococcusthermophilus are the only 2 cultures required

by law (CFR) to be present in yogurt.
Other

bacterial

cultures,

such

as Lactobacillus

acidophilus, Lactobacillus subsp. casei, and Bifido-bacteria may be added

to yogurt as probiotic cultures. Probiotic cultures benefit human health by

15

improving lactose digestion, gastrointestinal function, and stimulating the

immune system.

3.5.4 General Manufacturing Procedure

The following flow chart and discussion provide a general outline of
the steps required for making yogurt.
General Yogurt Processing Steps
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Adjust Milk Composition & Blend Ingredients

Pasteurize Milk
Homogenize
Cool Milk
Inoculate with Starter Cultures
Hold
Cool
Add Flavours & Fruit
Package

1. Adjust Milk Composition & Blend Ingredients

Milk composition may be adjusted to achieve the desired fat and
solids content. Often dry milk is added to increase the amount of whey
protein to provide a desirable texture. Ingredients such as stabilizers are
added at this time.
2. Pasteurize Milk
The milk mixture is pasteurized at 185F (85C) for 30 minutes or at
203F (95C) for 10 minutes. A high heat treatment is used to denature the
16

whey (serum) proteins. This allows the proteins to form a more stable gel,
which prevents separation of the water during storage. The high heat
treatment also further reduces the number of spoilage organisms in the milk
to provide a better environment for the starter cultures to grow. Yogurt is
pasteurized before the starter cultures are added to ensure that the cultures
remain active in the yogurt after fermentation to act as probiotics; if the
yogurt is pasteurized after fermentation the cultures will be inactivated.
3. Homogenize
The blend is homogenized (2000 to 2500 psi) to mix all ingredients
thoroughly and improve yogurt consistency.
4. Cool Milk
The milk is cooled to 108F (42C) to bring the yogurt to the ideal
growth temperature for the starter culture.
5. Inoculate with Starter Cultures
The starter cultures are mixed into the cooled milk.
6. Hold
The milk is held at 108F (42C) until a pH 4.5 is reached. This
allows the fermentation to progress to form a soft gel and the characteristic
flavor of yogurt. This process can take several hours.
7. Cool
The yogurt is cooled to 7C to stop the fermentation process.
8. Add Fruit &Flavors
17

Fruit and flavors are added at different steps depending on the type of
yogurt. For set style yogurt the fruit is added in the bottom of the cup and
then the inoculated yogurt is poured on top and the yogurt is fermented in
the cup. For swiss style yogurt the fruit is blended with the fermented,
cooled yogurt prior to packaging.
9. Package
The yogurt is pumped from the fermentation vat and packaged as
desired.

18

CHAPTER 4
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Method of

simulating

real-life

situations

with

mathematical equations to forecast their future behaviour is

mathematical

modeling.

modeling uses tools such

theory,

and linear

Mathematical

as decision-theory, queuing
programming,

large amounts of

and

number

requires
crunching.

Mathematical models are used particularly in the natural

sciences and engineering disciplines (such as physics,
biology, and electrical engineering) but also in the social
sciences

(such

as

economics,

sociology

and

political

science); physicists, engineers, computer scientists, and

economists use mathematical models most extensively.

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MATHEMATICAL MODELING

Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited
to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game
theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given
model involving a variety of abstract structures. There are six basic groups
19

of variables: decision variables, input variables, state variables, exogenous

variables, random variables, and output variables. Since there can be many
variables of each type, the variables are generally represented by vectors.
Mathematical modeling is often classified into black box or white box
models, according to how much a priori information is available of the
system. A black-box model is a system of which there is no a priori
information available. A white-box model (also called glass box or clear
box) is a system where all necessary information is available. Practically all
systems are somewhere between the black-box and white-box models, so
this concept only works as an intuitive guide for approach. Usually it is
preferable to use as much a priori information as possible to make the
model more accurate.

4.3 BLACK BOX MODELLING

A black box model is a computer program into which
users enter information and the system utilizes preprogrammed logic to return output to the user.

The "black box" portion of the system contains formulas and

calculations that the user does not see or need to know to use the system.
Black box systems are often used to determine optimal trading practices.
These systems generate many different types of data including buy and sell
signals.
20

4.3.1 MODELLING USING MATLAB

Black-box modeling is useful when your primary interest is in fitting

the data regardless of a particular mathematical structure of the model. The
toolbox provides several linear and nonlinear black-box model structures,
which have traditionally been useful for representing dynamic systems.
These model structures vary in complexity depending on the flexibility you
need to account for the dynamics and noise in your system. You can choose
one of these structures and compute its parameters to fit the measured
response data.
Black-box modeling is usually a trial-and-error process, where you
estimate the parameters of various structures and compare the results.
Typically, you start with the simple linear model structure and progress to
more complex structures. You might also choose a model structure because
you are more familiar with this structure or because you have specific
application needs.
The simplest linear black-box structures require the fewest options to
configure:
Transfer function, with a given number of poles and zeros.
Linear ARX model, which is the simplest input-output polynomial model.
21

 State-space model, which you can estimate by specifying the number of

model states
Estimation of some of these structures also uses noniterative
estimation algorithms, which further reduces complexity.
A model structure using the model order can be configured. The
definition of model order varies depending on the type of model you select.
For example, if you choose a transfer function representation, the model
order is related to the number of poles and zeros. For state-space
representation, the model order corresponds to the number of states. In
some cases, such as for linear ARX and state-space model structures, you
can estimate the model order from the data.
If the simple model structures do not produce good models, you can
select more complex model structures by:
Specifying a higher model order for the same linear model
structure. Higher model order increases the model flexibility
for capturing complex phenomena. However, unnecessarily
high orders can make the model less reliable.
Explicitly modeling the noise:
y(t)=Gu(t)+He(t)
where H models the additive disturbance by treating the disturbance
as the output of a linear system driven by a white noise source e(t).
Using a model structure that explicitly models the additive
disturbance can help to improve the accuracy of the measured
22

component G. Furthermore, such a model structure is useful when your

main interest is using the model for predicting future response values.

4.3.2

MODEL

ESTIMATION

USING

SYSTEM

IDENTIFICATION TOOLBOX

The System Identification app or commands are used to estimate

linear and nonlinear models of various structures. In most cases, you choose
a model structure and estimate the model parameters using a single
command.
Consider the mass-spring-damper system. If the equation of motion
of the system is not known, a black-box modeling approach can be used to
build a model. For example, transfer functions or state-space models can be
estimated by specifying the orders of these model structures.
A transfer function is a ratio of polynomials:

For the mass-spring damper system, this transfer function is:

23

which is a system with no zeros and 2 poles.

In discrete-time, the transfer function of the mass-spring-damper
system can be:

where the model orders correspond to the number of coefficients of

the numerator and the denominator (nb = 1 and nf = 2) and the input-output
delay equals the lowest order exponent of z1 in the numerator (nk = 1).
In continuous-time, you canbuild a linear transfer function model
using the tfest command:
m = tfest(data,2,0)
where data is your measured input-output data, represented as
an iddata object and the model order is the set of number of poles (2) and
the number of zeros (0).
Similarly, you can build a discrete-time model Output Error structure
using the following command:
m = oe(data,[1 2 1])
The model order is [nbnfnk] = [1 2 1]. Usually, you do not know the
model orders in advance. You should try several model order values until
you find the orders that produce an acceptable model.
24

Alternatively, you can choose a state-space structure to represent the

mass-spring-damper system and estimate the model parameters using
the ssest or the n4sid command:
m = ssest(data,2)
where order = 2 represents the number of states in the model.

CHAPTER 5
SMITH PREDICTOR CONTROL
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The Smith predictor (invented by O. J. M. Smith in 1957) is a type of
predictive controller for systems with pure time delay. The idea can be
illustrated as follows.
Suppose the plant consists of G(z) followed by a pure time delay

25

As a first step, suppose we only consider G(z) (the plant without a

delay)and design a controller C(z) with a closed-loop transfer function

that we consider satisfactory.

Next, our objective is to design a controller
so that the closed loop transfer function

for the plant

equals

Solving,

we obtain,

The controller is implemented as shown in the following figure,

where

has been changed to

to indicate that it is a model used by

the controller.

5.2 OVERCOMING PROCESS DEAD TIME

A controller equipped with an accurate process model
can ignore dead time. Dead time generally occurs when
material is transported from the actuator site to the sensor
measurement location. Until the material reaches the
26

sensor, the sensor cannot measure any changes effected by

the actuator.
For the purposes of feedback control, dead time is the delay between
the application of a control effort and its first effect on the process variable.
During that interval, the process does not respond to the controller's activity
at all, and any attempt to manipulate the process variable before the dead
time has elapsed inevitably fails.
Dead time generally occurs when material is transported from the site
of the actuator to another location where the sensor takes its reading. Not
until the material has reached the sensor can any changes effected by the
actuator be detected.

5.3 DE-TUNING THE CONTROLLER

The preferred method for curing a dead time problem is to physically
modify the process to reduce dead time. But if dead time cannot be cured
by relocating the sensor or speeding up the process, its symptoms can still
be addressed by modifying the control algorithm. The simplest method is to
de-tune the controller to slow its response rate. A de-tuned controller will
not have time to overcompensate unless dead time is particularly long.
The integrator in a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller is
particularly sensitive to dead time. By design, its function is to continue
ramping up the controller's output so long as there is an error between the
set point and the process variable. In the presence of dead time, the
27

integrator works overtime. Ziegler and Nichols determined that the best
way to de-tune a PID controller to handle a dead time of D seconds is to
reduce the integral tuning constant by a factor of D2. They also found that
the proportional tuning constant should be reduced by a factor of D. The
derivative term is unaffected by dead time since it only comes in to play
after the process variable has begun to move.
De-tuning can restore stability to a control loop that suffers from chronic
overcompensation, but it would not even be necessary if the controller
could first be made aware of the dead time, and then endowed with the
patience to wait it out.

5.4 REMOVING DEAD TIME FROM THE LOOP

Fig. 1 Closed loop control without overcoming dead time

28

Smith's strategy is shown in the "Smith Predictor" block diagram. It

consists of an ordinary feedback loop plus an inner loop that introduces two
extra terms directly into the feedback path. The first term is an estimate of
what the process variable would look like in the absence of any
disturbances. It is generated by running the controller output through a
process model that intentionally ignores the effects of disturbances. If the
model is otherwise accurate in representing the behavior of the process, its
output will be a disturbance-free version of the actual process variable.
The mathematical model used to generate the disturbance-free
process variable consists of two elements hooked up in series. The first
element represents all of the process behavior not attributable to deadtime.
The second element represents nothing but the deadtime. The deadtime-free
element is generally implemented as an ordinary differential or difference
equation that includes estimates of all the process gains and time constants.
The second element of the model is simply a time delay. The signal that
goes in to it comes out delayed, but otherwise unchanged.
The second term that Smith's strategy introduces into the feedback
path is an estimate of what the process variable would look like in the
absence of both disturbances and dead time. It is generated by running the
controller output through the first element of the process model (the gains
and time constants), but not through the time delay element. It thus predicts
what the disturbance-free process variable will eventually look like once the
dead time has elapsed, hence the expression Smith Predictor.
Subtracting the disturbance-free process variable from the actual
process variable yields an estimate of the disturbances. By adding this
difference to the predicted process variable, Smith created a feedback
variable that includes the disturbances, but not the dead time.
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The purpose of all these mathematical manipulations is best

illustrated by the "Smith Predictor Rearranged" block diagram. It shows the
Smith Predictor with the same blocks arranged to yield the same
mathematical results, only computed in a different order. This arrangement
makes it easier to see that the Smith Predictor effectively estimates the
process variable (including both disturbances and dead time) by adding the
estimated disturbances back into the disturbance-free process variable. The
result is a feedback control system with the dead time outside of the loop.

Fig. 2 Closed loop control overcoming dead time

8.4 Comparison of PI and Smith predictor control for a long dead

time process:

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Fig. 3- Comparison of PI and Smith predictor control

CHAPTER 6
REAL TIME DATA ACQUISITION
In order to model the process, data acquisition is necessary. A real
time set up was built. The set up consists of a pH analyser, pH electrode, A
heating system, weighing system, the substrate and inoculate. Milk and
curd were used as the substrate and inoculate respectively. The pH and
temperature data was obtained for various operating conditions by heating
the substrate to the desired temperature. It was found that the process is
fastest when the substrate was at 42 degcelsius throughout.
The values obtained are as follows
Table 2 - Process data at room temperature Total time taken is 4.5 hrs
31

Table 3- Process data at 42 deg C Total time taken is 2 hrs and 40 mins

32

33

Table 4- Process data with increased quantity of inoculum (curd) Total

time taken is 2.5 hrs

34

Table 5- Process data with temperature at 50 deg C Total time taken is 6

hrs

Table 6- Process data with temperature variation as input and pH as output

Total time taken is 5 hrs

35

CHAPTER 7
36

MODELING OF FERMENTATION PROCESS

Mathematical modeling was done using system identification tool box in
MATLAB. From the obtained values, the input to the process is temperature
variation and the output is the pH obtained with respect to time. This data was fed
to the system identification tool box and a approximate model was generated. A
transfer function model was obtained with Kp, Ti, Td parameters. The obtained
model was adjusted to fit the input output curve by changing the process
parameters.

Fig. 4 Sys ID tool box Process models

37

Fig. 5 Sys ID tool box Estimation

The process model obtained T d s

K e
G ( s )= p
1+T p s

K p = 0.101
T d = 13
Tp

= 0.1309
For validation of the process model, the percentage of curve fitting is

considered. The above process parameters derived the highest fit of 97%

38

Fig 6 Measured and simulated Input/Output graph

X- axis Time
Y-axis pH variation

39

CHAPTER 8
CONTROLLING OF FERMENTATION PROCESS
8.1 pH control in fermentation process
A typical batch fermentation process starts with sterilization so that
all micro-organisms found in the mash and reactor are completely
destroyed. The mash is heated in the fermenter or a special cooking vessel
by injecting live steam or by means of steam coils set in the vessel. Holding
the temperature at 121C (250F) for 30 minutes is usually adequate to
destroy all living organisms in the mash. However some processes require
higher temperatures. A heating/cooling jacket maintains the temperature of
the fermentor. A fermentation cycle can be divided into two phases:
(1) the growth phase and
(2) the production phase.
Initially during the growth phase, cells grow very slowly while
adapting to the reactor environment. After the adaptation period, the cell
culture grows exponentially, releasing enzymes as a by product of the
metabolic process. During the production phase, the molecular products are
formed through a series of chemical reactions catalyzed by the enzymes.
For many fermentation processes, these two phases are concurrent.
pH is one of the most important chemical environmental
measurements used to indicate the course of the fermentation process. It
40

detects the presence of specific chemical factors that influence growth,

metabolism, and final product. For example, the pH of commercial mash of
P. chrysogenum (penicillin production) must be closely monitored and
controlled in both the growing phase and the production phase. Early in the
growth phase, the pH of the mash is carefully maintained between 4.5
and 5.5, depending on the mash formulation. The range is set to ensure the
most favorable condition for growth. The metabolism of glucose and rapid
consumption of ammonia during this phase adversely affect the medium by
lowering the pH. If the medium is not adjusted, growth may be inhibited
and the fermentation may take a long time to reach the optimal range
required for penicillin production.

Fig. 7 Fermentation control

41

8.2 Incorporating Smith predictor control

Since the fermentation process has a very large dead time Smith
predictor control is incorporated to eliminate the dead time.

Fig. 8 Smith predictor control loop

The Smith Predictor uses an internal model Gp to predict the delayfree response yp of the process (e.g., what water temperature a given knob
setting will deliver). It then compares this prediction yp with the desired
setpoint ysp to decide what adjustments are needed (control u). To prevent
drifting and reject external disturbances, the Smith predictor also compares
the actual process output with a prediction y1 that takes the dead time into
account. The gap dy = y-y1 is fed back through a filter F and contributes to
the overall error signal e. Note that dy amounts to the perceived
temperature mismatch after waiting long enough for the shower to react.

42

Deploying the Smith Predictor scheme requires

A model Gp of the process dynamics and an estimate tau of the
process dead time
Adequate settings for the compensator and filter dynamics
(C and F)
Based on the process model, we use:
GP =

0.101
,T =13
1+0.1309 S D

8.2.1 OUTPUT GRAPH OBTAINED

Fig. 9 Controller output of PI and Smith predictor controller

43

X- axis : Time
Y-axis : pH
A matlab code was developed to simulate the smith predictor
algorithm for the process. Refer appendix for the code.

44

CHAPTER 9
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
9.1 CONCLUSION
An approximate mathematical model is obtained for the biological
fermentation process and it is found that pH variation depends on temperature
factors with respect to time. Furthermore, smith predictor control algorithm has
been studied and incorporated to the fermentation process as an experiment.

9.2 FUTURE WORK

Using the mathematical model various control strategies can be
experimented and the perfect control can be effectuated for the fermentation
process in industires

45

CHAPTER 10
APPENDIX
MATLAB CODE
clear all;
s = tf('s');
P = exp(-13*s) * 0.101/(0.1309*s+1);
P.InputName = 'u';
P.OutputName = 'y';
P;
step(P), grid on
Cpi = pidtune(P,pidstd(1,1));
Cpi;
Tpi = feedback([P*Cpi,1],1,1,1); % closed-loop model [ysp;d]->y
Tpi.InputName = {'ysp' 'd'};
step(Tpi), grid on
Kp3 = [0.06;0.08;0.1];

% try three increasing values of Kp

Ti3 = repmat(Cpi.Ti,3,1); % Ti remains the same

C3 = pidstd(Kp3,Ti3);

% corresponding three PI controllers

T3 = feedback(P*C3,1);
T3.InputName = 'ysp';
step(T3)
46

title('Loss of stability when increasing Kp')

F = 1/(20*s+1);
F.InputName = 'dy';
F.OutputName = 'dp';
% Process
P = exp(-13*s) * 0.101/(0.1309*s+1);
P.InputName = 'u';
P.OutputName = 'y0';
% Prediction model
Gp = 0.101/(0.1309*s+1);
Gp.InputName = 'u';
Gp.OutputName = 'yp';
Dp = exp(-13*s);
Dp.InputName = 'yp'; Dp.OutputName = 'y1';
% Overall plant
S1 = sumblk('ym','yp','dp');
S2 = sumblk('dy','y0','y1','+-');
Plant = connect(P,Gp,Dp,F,S1,S2,'u','ym');
% Design PI controller with 0.08 rad/s bandwidth and 90 degrees phase
margin
Options = pidtuneOptions('PhaseMargin',90);
C = pidtune(Plant,pidstd(1,1),Options);
C.InputName = 'e';
C.OutputName = 'u';
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C;
% Assemble closed-loop model from [y_sp,d] to y
Sum1 = sumblk('e','ysp','yp','dp','+--');
Sum2 = sumblk('y','y0','d');
Sum3 = sumblk('dy','y','y1','+-');
T = connect(P,Gp,Dp,C,F,Sum1,Sum2,Sum3,{'ysp','d'},'y');
%Use STEP to compare the Smith Predictor (blue) with the PI controller (
red):
Step(T,'b',Tpi,'r--')
grid on
legend('Smith Predictor','PI Controller')

48

CHAPTER 11
REFERENCE
1. Binnur Kaptan, Serap Kaysoglu and Omer Oksuz (2015) Mathematical
Modeling of pH Variation as a Function of Temperature and Time in Kefir
Production, American Journal of Food Science and Nutrition Research.
Vol. 2, No. 2, 2015, pp. 57-61.
2. R. K. Finn, R. E. Wilson (1954) Fermentation Process Control,
Population Dynamics of a Continuous Propagator for Microorganisms, J.
Agric. Food Chem., 2 (2), pp 6669.

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