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SONI PRAGNESH B.
(Roll No. 11)
Guide
Miss.R.N.Shukla
Certificate
(Guide)
Date:
Miss. R. N. Shukla.
Lecturer,Civil Engg. Dept.
L.D.College of engineering.
Ahmedabad 380 015
Examiner:
Prof. K.M.Shah
Head of the Department
Civil Engg. Dept.
L.D.College of engineering.
Ahmedabad 380 015
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude towards the faculty members of
Civil Engineering Department and my colleagues for giving the guidance and
support.
May, 2006
Soni Pragnesh B.
M.E. CIVIL (TRANSPORTATION ENGG.)
ROLL NO: 11
Abstract
Contents
4
Certificate
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Content
List of figure
List of table
Chapter
Description
Page
No.
1
No.
Introduction
1.1 General
9
10
11
11
2.3
Durability
12
2.4
Maintenance need
12
General
13
3.2
13
3.3
14
3.4
14
3.5
15
17
25
30
5
35
38
Conclusion
39
References
40
List of figure
6
Figure
Description
No.
Page
No.
26
Expansion joint
33
Warping joint
33
Longitudinal joint
34
Contraction joint
34
List of Table
Table
Description
Page
No.
No.
Pavement thickness
36
Cost of materials
36
37
37
expressway
5
Chapter 1
38
Introduction
1.1 General
Need of express way system;
Invention of wheel was a giant step in the history of mankind. Then onward the man applied all
his resources to move these wheels faster and faster. Now a days speed, comfort and safety are
vital in transport sector. The national highway system is designed to cater for traffic with 100 km
speed. However the actual operating are never more than 40kmph due to rapid increase in
vehicular traffic and carriage way being shared by both slow and fast traffic. The appropriate
solution lies in construction of expressway with control of access and allowing only fast moving
vehicles. The first national expressway between Ahmedabad and Vadodara has been taken up for
construction in India.
Expressways are costly to build and maintain. Because of a substantial volume of commercial
vehicles likely to use facility, the pavement structure has to receive careful consideration in
design and choice of materials forming the pavement. Pavement costs constitute a significant
proportion of total cost of highway facility. Hence, great care is needed in selecting right type
of pavement and specification for the various courses that make up the pavement. In
expressway schemes, a matter that should not be lost sight of is the cost of maintaining the
pavement, including routine repairs, periodic renewals and overlays. Maintenance operations
in expressway routes can cause considerable in convenience and annoyance to users,
especially if the facility is toll based. An entrepreneur who invests money on a toll based
expressway would prefer to minimize his involvement with maintenance operation to the
barest level. The choice of pavement type, whether flexible or cement concrete, therefore, has
to be very carefully exercised.
Chapter 2
10
2.3 Durability
11
Poorly designed and constructed concrete pavements are known to have very long
service life. The cement concrete road constructed in the country in the past, though
extremely limited in length, have an excellent service track, having given good service
under condition much sever than those for which they are originally intended. The
thinner once among these ultimately succumbed as much under bitumen repair
technology which is not appropriate to them, as under heavy traffic. Adequate design and
good construction practice with needed quality control can together provide durable
concrete pavements with long service life and needed levels of traffic safety and travel
comfort.
Chapter 3
12
13
Concrete pavements have a large surface to volume ratio, era exposed to atmosphere on
one face, with the lower face being in contact with the ground. Such condition lead to
higher susceptibility to shrinkage, calling for adoption of minimum feasible water and
cement compatible with the required strength and its realization, as also for due attention
to curing to obviate early shrinkage cracking. The temperature differential and the
resultant warping resistant stresses to which concrete pavements are subject, due to
different espouser conditions of its two faces, considerable reduce the concrete strength
available for supporting the traffic load and catering to their fatigue effects, calling for
high strength concrete.
be ensured, expeditiously introducing any modification to the mix design by the test
check. Computerization of the quality control data, and software and the export systems
for analysis and interpretation of the data and arriving at the needed adjustments
/corrective action should form an integral part of such quality control system.
Chapter 4
16
14) The analyses of stresses and strain in a pavement should be simple and wellunderstood, making the design precise.
15) The pavement should permit easy repairs to utilize that may be laid underneath it.
16) The pavement should not be affected by occasional spillage of petroleum
products.
17) Technology of construction must be available in the country.
In the succeeding paragraphs, the two pavement types will be assessed against each
of the above desired characteristics.
(b)
Life of pavement
It is well known that an adequately designed and constructed cement concrete pavement
has a life of 30-40 years. This is proved from experiences abroad. Even the thin concrete
slabs constructed by manual means years ago in India have given 30-40 years of
satisfactory life. Against this, flexible pavements have a much shorter life. They are
really, if ever, designed for a life greater than 20 years. This is because the various layer
of the pavement suffer densification under traffic, lose their elastic properties over bay
period of time and tend to disintegrate. Thus, after the design life, flexible pavements
need to be rehabilitated and strengthen substantially. For a super fast facility, an assured
long life is a greater advantage, as it saves the discomfort to traffic during periodic
renewals and rehabilitation.
(c)
As a loads pass over a flexible pavement, it deflects, returning back to its original
position after the passage of the load. When the pavement is new, its behavior is perfectly
elastic, and the recovery of the deflection is perfectly elastic, and the recovery is not full,
the pavement suffering a permanent deflection each time a load goes over it. The
cumulative effect of this time a load goes over it. The cumulative effect of this
phenomenon results in rutting and cracking in the wheel-paths, causing deterioration in
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the performance of the pavement. It can well be said that the deterioration of the
flexible pavement starts right away with its being thrown open to traffic. The rate of
deterioration is governed by the volume and nature of traffic and the initial quality of
construction it self. But, in the case of a concert e pavement, deterioration is hardly
perceptible and one can expect a consistently uniform performance through out its life.
(d)
Structural soundness
Well designed pavements, whether flexible or rigid, are able to withstand the stresses
imposed on them. No superiority can be claimed for a particular pavement type on this
score.
(e)
Though each of the two types of pavements act in a different way their thickness are so
adjusted that the loads get distributed to a safe value on the sub grade soil. The flexible
pavement has only to have a much higher thickness than the concrete pavement to
accomplish this task.
(f)
Wearing surfaces of pavements are subjected to hard abrading action of wheels. Severe
abrasion takes place, particularly on curves, and junctions. Concrete is a much superior
material than bituminous surface in this regard.
(g)Riding quality
A good riding quality is a prime requirement of roads surfaces from various
considerations. A smooth surface ensures rider comfort, particularly, at high speeds.
Vehicle operating costs are low on smooth roads, fuel consumption being one of the
components of these costs. Concrete roads and bituminous surfaces, constructed to
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modern specifications provide a smooth riding quality when constructed. But, whereas a
concrete pavement maintains its initial quality throughout its life, a bituminous surface
deteriorates in riding quality as traffic moves over it. In quantitative terms, both
pavements types when initially constructed can have a roughness value of around 2000
mm / km as measured with a bump integrator. On a concrete road, one can expect the
same surface smoothness to continue over its life. In contrast, the roughness increases on
a bitumen surface and rutting cased by densification of the layer forming the pavement.
Consequently, with in a short period of 2 5 year, roughness values can reach vales as
high as 5000 mm / km, necessitating the provision of a light bitumen treatment to restore
original riding quality. The effect is that riding comfort suffers and vehicle operating cost
increase on a flexible pavement
(h)
Energy conservation
Under the prevailing world wide concern for energy conservation, a road surface that
leads to energy saving must get precedence. Concrete surface results in less fuel
consumption than bitumen surface in two ways. Firstly, the consistently smooth surface
of a concrete road gives a fuel economy of up to 5%. Secondly, concrete surfaces are
rigid and do not deflect to bowl shapes as a flexible does under a heavy load. When a
deflection bowl is caused, the wheel has to climb over the depression, absorbing energy
losses in the process. It has been found from a recent study in U.S.A. that a saving in fuel
up to 20% is possible by adopting concrete roads in place of flexible pavements. Using
these study results, it has been shown that a concrete pavement pays for it self through
full saving alone in a short period of seven years. When India is reeling under fuel crisis,
this single factor should lead to a decision that all future Expressway pavements should
be in concrete.
(i)
skid-resistance
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(j)Imperviousness to water
Because of its dense mass, water can not penetrate through a cement concrete pavement.
If joints are well sealed, ingress of water through them can also be prevented. Concrete
pavements, therefore, enjoy imperviousness to water a property highly valuable in
regions of heavily rainfall and flood-prone locations. The same cannot be said in respect
of bituminous surfaces. The voids in the mixture, cracks and potholes allow water to
penetrate into the lower layers and the subgrade.
(j)
Reflectivity properties
Being light colored, concrete offers good reflectivity property so that night driving
becomes safer. On the other hand, bituminous surfaces are dark colored and do not
reflect the vehicle light or street light adequately.
(l) Conservation of natures resources
Road construction consumes natures resources in large quantities. Though India has
good reserves of stone, gravel, moorum and sand, yet there are regions where stone
materials are very scarce (e.g. Gangetic plains, Tripura, Mizoram etc.) even where stone
aggregates are available in abundance, reckless use of these materials should be avoided.
Thus, when there is a choice, a pavement type which consumes the least quantity of
stone materials should get preference.
21
22
Flexible pavements can be constructed in stage. But this is an advantage which can be
availed of only on lower category road, and certainly not on expressways. On
expressways the full requirement of pavement needs to be provided at the start it self.
(p) Design precision
Though recent advances in pavement design have rendered the analysis of stresses and
strains in pavements very precise, the design of flexible pavement is still largely based
on empirical methods. The characterization of various materials in a flexible pavement
difficult. On the other hand, concrete is a material whose properties are well understood,
making it easy to analyse the stresses and strains accurately.
(q) Repairs of utilities
Many utility services like telephone cables, electricity cables, water pipes and sewers are
laid underneath the road pavement. Any repairs to or remodeling of these involves
cutting open the road pavement. This is easily done in a flexible pavement, but is
difficult in concrete roads. In expressway, a little bit of planning can easily get over this
problem, either by laying ducts to accommodate the utilities or by clustering the utilities
at one place across the road where a flexible width can be laid.
23
Chapter 5
24
25
Alternate bay construction method of construction means constructing bay or one slab in
alternation succession leaving the next or intermediate bay to follow up after a gap of one
week or so.
As shown in fig. in alternate bay construction the slabs constructed are in
sequence of x, y, z etc. leaving the gaps of bay x , y ,z etc. This technique provides
additional working convenience for laying of slabs. The construction of joints is easier.
diverted.
In continuous bay method all the slab or bay are laid in sequence .i.e x,y,z,.
The sub grade or sub base for laying of concrete slab should comply with the following
requirements; that no soft spots are present in the sub grade or sub base; that the
uniformly compacted sub grade or sub base extends at least 30cm on either side of the
width to be concreted; that the sub grade is properly drained; that the minimum modulus
of sub grade reaction obtained with a plate bearing test is 5.54 kg/cm2.
The sub grade is prepared and checked at least two days in advance of concreting. The
sub grade or sub base is kept in moist condition at the time when the cement concrete is
placed. If necessary, it should be saturated with water for 6 to 20 hours in advance of
placing concrete. Water proof paper may also be placed whenever the cement concrete is
laid directly over the soil sub grade. In such a case, the moistening of the sub grade prior
to placing of the concrete is not required.
2.
Placing of forms
3.
After determining proportions of ingredients for the field mix, the fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate are proportioned by weight in a weigh-batching plant and placed in to
the hopper along with the necessary quantity of cement. Cement is measured by the bag.
All batching of material is done on the basis of one or more whole bag of cement, the
weight of one bag is taken as 50 kg or the unit weight of cement is taken as 1440 kg/m3.
The mixing of cement concrete is done in batch mixer which will ensure a uniform
distribution of materials through out the mass, so the mix is uniform in color and is
homogenous.
The batch of cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate is lead together in to the
mixture. The water for mixing is introduced in to the drum within the first 15 second of
mixing. The mixing of each batch is commenced within one and half minute after all the
materials are placed in mixture.
4.
The cement concrete is mixed in quantities required for immediate use and is deposited
in soil sub grade or sub base to required depth and width of the pavement section within
the frame work in continuous operation. Care is taken to see that no segregation of
materials results while the concrete is being transported from mixture to its placement.
The spread is done uniformly. A certain amount of re distribution is done with shovels.
Needle vibrator is employed in lieu of Roding splicing of the concrete.
5.
Concrete, as soon as placed, is struck off uniformly and screeded to the crown
The tamper is placed on the side form and is drawn ahead in combination with a
The entire pavement of the newly laid cement concrete is cured in accordance with the
following method:
Initial curing; the surface of the pavement is entirely covered with burlap, cotton or jute
mats. Prior or being placed, they are thoroughly saturated with water and are placed with
the wet side down to remain in intimate contact with the surface.
Final curing; the final curing is done with the any one of the following method:
Curing with wet soil exposed edges of the slab are banked with a soil free from stone is
placed. The soil is thoroughly kept saturated with water for 14 days.
Impervious membrane method; use of an impervious membrane which does not impart a
slippery surface to the pavement is used. Liquid is applied under pressure with a spray
nozzle to cover the entire surface with a uniform film. It hardens with 30 minutes after
the surface finishing.
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When the concrete attains the required strength or after 28 days of curing the concrete
road is open to traffic.
(Source: 5)
5. The construction of the joints must interfere as little at possible with lying of the
concrete.
1. Expansion joints:
Expansion joints, as the name itself signifies, are intended to provide space in the
pavement for expansion of the slabs. Expansion takes place when the temperature of the
slab rises above the value when it was laid. It is normally a transverse joint. Expansion
joints also relive stresses caused by contraction and warping. Expansion joints are
omitted altogether in modern practice
2. Contraction joints
When the temperature of concrete falls below the laying temperature the slab contracts.
If a long length of slab is laid, the contraction induces tensile stresses and the slab
cracks. If joints are provided at suitable intervals transversely, the appearance of cracks
at places other than the joints can be eliminated. Contraction joist also relieve warping
stresses to some extent.
3. Warping joints
Warping joints, also known as hinge joints, are joints which are intended to relieve
warping stresses. They permit hinge action but no appreciable separation of adjacent
slabs. Warping joints can be longitudinal or transverse. A major difference between the
warping joints and the expansion or contraction joints is that in the former appreciable
changes in the joints width are prevented.
4. Construction joint
31
A construction joint becomes necessary when work has to be stopped at a point where
there would be otherwise no other joint. It is advisable to plan a days work such that the
work stops at a contraction or expansion joints. Such joints should be regular in shape,
by placing a cross-form in position. The reinforcement should be continued across the
joint. A groove in the joints with a sealing compound will arrest the entry of foreign
matter and desirable.
5. Longitudinal joints
When the pavement width is more than, say 5 m, it is necessary to provide a longitudinal
joint and construct the pavement in strips. These joints allow for warping and uneven
settlement of the sub grade. The very purpose of the longitudinal joints being warping
stresses and uneven settlements, it is very necessary to provided for some form of load
transferring device.
Spacing of joints:
The spacing of joints is governed by a number of factors such as (1) temperature
variation, (2) thickness of slab and (3) amount of reinforcement provided. The usual
practice in respect of reinforced cement concrete slabs is to space joints at 7.5-25 m and
to make every third or fourth joint an expansion joints. The remaining joints are made
contraction joints.
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33
34
Chapter 6
35
Macadam base
Wet mix
Dense
Bituminous
Macadam
Aspheltic
Concrete
Total
CBR:2
690
250
120
40
1100
CBR:5
CBR:7
410
330
250
250
120
120
40
40
820
740
Rigid Pavement
(For all CBR values)
Thickness (mm)
Sub base of Lean concrete
Pavement in M-40 concrete
100
300
Material
Case1
Case2
Case3
Case4
Rs 100
Rs 125
Rs 150
Rs 175
Rs 100
Rs 125
Rs 150
Rs 175
Stone aggregates 40 mm
Rs 150
Rs 175
Rs 200
Rs 225
Stone aggregate 20 mm
Rs 175
Rs 200
Rs 225
Rs 250
Stone aggregate 10 mm
Rs 200
Rs 225
Rs 250
Rs 275
Rs 100
Rs 125
Rs 150
Rs 175
Rs 85
Rs 3000
Rs 12000
Rs 500
(source:3,4)
Table: 3 Formulae for costs of expressway pavements
(Rs per km, 4 lanes )
36
Flexible Pavement
CBR:2
CBR:5
CBR:7
Rigid pavement
All CBR values
Table: 4 Comparison of initial cost of flexible and rigid pavements for expressway
(Rs per km, 4 lanes)
Pavement type
Aggregate
Case1
Case2
Case3
Case4
5.7
5.2
6.2
5.2
6.8
5.2
5.4
5.2
5.9
5.2
6.4
5.2
4.7
5.2
5.1
5.2
5.4
5.2
Cost:
CBR: 2
Flexible
Rigid
5.1
5.2
CBR: 5
Flexible
Rigid
4.9
5.2
CBR: 7
Flexible
Rigid
4.3
5.2
and at present value for the two pavements are given in table. The maintenance costs are
assumed as Rs 40,000 per Km for bituminous pavements and Rs 4000 per Km for
concrete pavements.
The conclusion from life cycle cost analysis is that concrete rods will able to bring about
considerable saving over the design period for all cost of aggregates and all soil
conditions
Added to the above savings are the savings in fuel, which are also of a very high order.
Table: 5 Comparison of life-cycle cost of flexible and rigid pavements for expressway
(Rs per km, 4 lanes)
Pavement type
Aggregate
Case1
Case2
Case3
Case4
6.4
5.2
6.9
5.2
7.9
5.2
6.1
5.2
6.6
5.2
7.1
5.2
5.4
5.2
5.8
5.2
6.2
5.2
Cost:
CBR: 2
Flexible
Rigid
5.8
5.2
Flexible
Rigid
5.6
5.2
Flexible
Rigid
(source:3,4)
5.0
5.2
CBR: 5
CBR: 7
Chapter 7
Conclusion
Cement concrete have number of advantages over flexible pavement for adoption on
expressways. Adequately design and properly constructed concrete pavement have good
functional stability, long service life and very little maintenance needs. The special
requirement viz. structural mechanism of concrete, environmental mechanism of paving
concrete and rigidity of paving concrete needs to be adequately meet to realize the full
service potential of concrete pavement for expressways.
38
As regards cost, they compare very favorably with bituminous pavements even in initial
cost. When whole life-cycle costs are considered, their cost advantages is very attractive.
As an added benefit, they give fuel economy.
Hence, concrete pavements enjoy many advantages and can be a good specification for
Indias Expressway programme.
References
(1) Kadiyali L. R. Principles and practice of a highway engineering Khanna Tech.
Publications, Delhi, 1989.
(2) Road user cost study in India, final report, central road research institute, New
Delhi 1982.
(3) Modernisation of Indias road through cement concrete pavement, cement
manufacturers association, New Delhi, 1988.
(4) Chakravarty, S.M.and Kadiyali, L.R., Economics of concrete roads, Indian concrete
journal, Bombay, 1989.
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