CREEP OF CONCRETE

Creep of concrete is the continued deformation with time under applied load. Sometimes it is defined as
increase in strain in concrete with time under sustained stress. This is also known as plastic flow or time
yield. The rate of creep decrease with time and the creep strains at five years are taken as terminal
values. Creep increases rapidly with the stress, loading at an early age of concrete, broken ballast, soft
and porous aggregate, poorly graded and improperly compacted concrete. The deformation of hardened

concrete is shown in Fig. below.

The Causes of Creep are.
1.

Closer of internal voids of Concrete

2.

Viscous flow of the cement paste inside concrete

3.

Flow of water out of the cement gel inside concrete.

In reinforced concrete structures it is of advantage since it causes better distribution of stresses. For
example in a R.C.C. column there is a reduction of stress in concrete and a corresponding increase of
stress in steel due to creep. As another example creep relieves the high stressed portions of concrete in a
continuous beam and increases the stress in the adjacent less stressed portion. Creep causes large
deformations and deflections and is undesirable.

RHEOLOGY
Originated from a Greek word rheo which means flow and logia which means study Rheology is the
study of flow of matter in liquid, soft solid or solid state under conditions in which they respond to plastic
flow other deforming elastically when a external force is applied.
Rheological properties of a cement mix means deformation of hardened concrete and placing and mixing
of freshly mixed concrete.The mechanical behaviour of hardened cement paste,which exhibits both
elastic and inelastic deformations, can be expressed in rheological terms.
Factors Affecting Rheological Properties:1. If the amount of coarse aggregate in a concrete mix is more the desirable amount the voids cannot be
filled with the available mortar, which will lead to loss of cohesion and mobility. Such a mix is termed
harsh and requires a great amount of effort to place and compact. On the other hand, an excessive
amount of fine aggregate or entrained air in a concrete mixture will greatly increase the cohesion and
render the concrete difficult to move.
2. Slump test is the measure of consistency of concrete mix or it is an indicator of relative water content of
the mix. An increase in the water content or slump above that required to achieve a workable mix
produces greater fluidity and decreased internal friction. Thus, a water content more than that needed will
not improve the rheological properties of concrete. But very low slump with decrease the workability of a
concrete mix making it impossible to place is some areas.
3. Elevated temperature, use of rapid hardening cement, cement deficient in gypsum and use of
accelerating admixtures, increase the rate of hardening which reduce the mobility of concrete.

4. The rough and highly angular aggregate particles will result in higher percentage of voids being filled by
mortar, requiring higher fine aggregate contents and correspondingly higher water content. Similarly an
angular fine aggregate will increase internal friction in the concrete mixture and require higher water
contents than well rounded natural sands.
5. A well graded aggregate gives good workability. Gap graded aggregate affects void system and
workability. These effects are greater in fine aggregate.
6. An increase in the maximum size of aggregate will reduce the fine aggregate requirement to maintain a
given workability and will thereby reduce the surface area to be wetted and hence the cement content
necessary for a constant water/cement ratio .
7. The admixtures which have significant effect on the rheology of concrete are plasticizers and superplasticizers, air-entraining agents, accelerators and retarders.Lignosulphate salt based plasticizers
(0.15%) reduce the water content by 10% without any detrimental effect. Super-plasticizers and
plasticizers prevent the formation of flocculated structure by changing the inter-particle
attraction/repulsion.
With proper attention to the rheological properties can increase work efficiency and reduce the material
cost as well as the cost of construction.

ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT

Cement is one of the most important base products of construction industry and Ordinary Portland
cement or OPC is by far the most important type of cement. Prior to 1987, there was only one grade of
OPC [which was governed by IS 269-1976]. After 1987 higher grade cements were introduced. The OPC
was classified into three grades, namely..
1.

OPC-33 Grade

2.

OPC-43 Grade

3.

OPC-53 Grade

These classifications are based on the strength of the cement at 28 days when tested as per IS 40311988. If the 28 days strength is not less than 33N/mm2, it is called 33 grade cement, if the strength is not
less than 43N/mm2, it is called 43 grade cement, and if the strength is not less then 53 N/mm2, it is called
53 grade cement. But the actual strength obtained by these cements at the factory are much higher than
the BIS specifications.
The physical and chemical properties of different types of OPC are shown in Table below.

It has been possible to upgrade the qualities of cement by using high quality limestone, modern
equipments, closer on line control of constituents, maintaining better particle size distribution, finer
grinding and better packing. Generally use of high grade cements offer many advantages for making
stronger concrete. Although they are little costlier than low grade cement, they offer 10-20% savings in
cement consumption and also they offer many other hidden benefits. One of the most important benefits
is the faster rate of development of strength. In the modern construction activities, higher grade cements
have become so popular that 33 grade cement is almost out of the market. Table shows the grades of
cement manufactured in various countries of the world.
The manufacture of OPC is decreasing all over the world in view of the popularity of blended cement on
account of lower energy consumption, environmental pollution, economic and other technical reasons. In
advanced western countries the use of OPC has come down to about 40 per cent of the total cement
production. In India for the year 1998-99 out of the total cement production i.e., 79 million tons, the
production of OPC in 57.00 million tons i.e., 70%. The production of PPC is 16 million tone i.e., 19% and
slag cement is 8 million tons i.e., 10%. In the years to come the use of OPC may still come down, but all
the same the OPC will remain as an important type for general construction.

CEMENT MORTAR
Mortar is a material used in masonry construction to fill the gaps between the bricks and blocks used
in construction. Mortar is a mixture of sand, a binder such as cement or lime, and water and is applied
as a paste which then sets hard.

Puzzolana Portland cement and sulphate-resisting cement form mortar which are used for
constructions exposed to aggressive and waste waters. Cement mortars are used for plastering,

rendering
smooth
finishes
and
damp
The mix proportions of cement mortar are given in Table below

proof

courses.

Preparation:-Manual mixing is applied for Small quantities of mortar; mechanical mixers are used for
large quantities.

For manual mixing,sand is sieved, cleaned with water to remove dirt and dust and dried. This dry sand
is laid uniformly, on a pucca platform, over which cement is uniformly spread. The whole mass is then
thoroughly mixed with spades till it becomes uniform in colour. A depression is then made in the
middle of the mix and required quantity of water is added. The dry mix from the sides is moved and
placed on the edges of the depression formed till the water is completely absorbed by the mix. The
wet mix is then worked with spades to give a uniform consistency to the mortar.

For mechanical mixing the calculated quantity of cement, sand and water are fed into the cylindrical
container of the mixer. A rotar with blades, inside the container, rotates and thoroughly mixes the
ingredients.

Precautions:-Basic property of Cement mortar should be uniformity and workability. It should be

consumed within 30 minutes from the instant of adding water to the mix. The bricks, stones and
blocks should be fully saturated in water before laying. The masonry and plastered or pointed surface
should be kept completely wet by sprinkling water for at least 7 days.

High-Performance concrete
Recently a new term has come in the field of concrete technology High Performance Concrete or HPC.
The properties of HPC are

High Workability

High Strength

High Modulus of Elasticity

High Density

High Dimensional Stability

Low Permeability and

Resistance to Chemical Attack

There is a little controversy between the terms high-strength and high performance concrete. Highperformance concrete is also, a high-strength concrete but it has a few more attributes specifically
designed as mentioned above. It is, therefore, logical to describe by the more widely embracing term
High Performance Concrete (HPC).

In normal concrete, relatively low strength and elastic modulus are the result of high heterogeneous
nature of structure of the material, particularly the porous and weak transition zone, which exists at the
cement paste-aggregate interface. By densification and strengthening of the transition zone, many
desirable properties can be improved many fold. A substantial reduction of quantity of mixing water is the
fundamental step for making HPC. With reduction of w/c ratio strength concrete will increase. But
reduction in w/c ratio to less than 0.3 will greatly improve the qualities of transition zone to give inherent
qualities expected in HPC.
Use of silica fume is also found to be necessary to improve the qualities of transition zone.Silica fumes
becomes a necessary ingredient for strength above to 80 MPa. The best quality fly ash and GGBS may
be used for other nominal benefits. Inspite of the fact that these pozzolanic materials increase the water
demand, their benefits will out weigh the disadvantages. The crux of whole problem lies in using very low
w/c ratio, consistant with high workability at the time of placing and compacting. Neville opines that the
lowest w/c ratio that could be used is 0.227.9
Only with the use of superplasticizer, w/c ratio in the range of 0.25 to 0.3 can be adopted and a high
slump is possible to achieve. Therefore, use of appropriate superplasticizer is a key material in making
HPC. The associated problem is the selection of superplasticizer and that of cement so that they are

compatible and retain the slump and rheological properties for a sufficiently long time till concrete is
placed and compacted.

PUMPABLE CONCRETE
Pumpable concrete is that type of concrete which can be pushed through a pipeline for construction. It is
made in such a manner that its friction at the inner wall of the pipeline does not become very high and
that it does not wedge while flowing through the pipeline. It is very important to have a clear
understanding of what happens to concrete when it is pumped through pipeline to any study of concrete
pumping. Pumpable concrete emerging from a pipeline flows in the form of a plug which is separated from
the pipe wall by a thin lubricating layer consisting of cement paste. The water in the paste is hydraulically
linked with the interparticle water layer in the plug. Fig- 1 below shows the concrete flow under pressure.

The pressure generated by the flow resistance must not be greater than the pump pressure rating for
maintaining continuous plug movement. However, if the concrete is too saturated at higher w/c ratio, the
concrete at certain pump pressures may be such that water is forced out of the mix, creating an increase
in flow resistance and a possible blockage. Fig.2 illustrates such a condition. In other words, a very stiff
concrete is not pumpable and also a concrete with high w/c ratio is also not pumpable. It is interesting to
note that if a concrete is pumpable, it is implied that it is a good concrete.

GEL/SPACE RATIO
As propounded by Duff Abrams many research workers commented on the validity of water/cement
ratio law. They have focused on a few of the limitations of the water/ cement ratio law and argued that
Abrams water/cement ratio law can only be called a rule and not a law because Abrams statement does
not include many qualifications necessary for its validity to call it a law. Some of the limitations are that the
strength at any water/cement ratio depends on the following things
1.Degree of hydration
2.Chemical and Physical properties
3.The temperature at which the hydration takes place
4.Air content (in case of air entrained concrete)
5.the change in the effective water/cement ratio and the formation of fissures and cracks due to
bleeding or shrinkage
Instead of relating the strength to water/cement ratio, the strength can be more correctly related to the
solid products of hydration of cement to the space available for formation of this product. Powers and
Brownyard have established the relationship between the strength and gel/space ratio. This ratio is
defined as the ratio of the volume of the hydrated cement paste to the sum of volumes of the hydrated

cement and of the capillary pores.

Powers experiment showed that the strength of concrete bears a specific relationship with the gel/space
ratio. He found the relationship to be 240 x3, where x is the gel/space ratio and 240 represents the
intrinsic strength of the gel in MPa for the type of cement and specimen used.
The strength calculated by Powers expression holds good for an ideal case.
The fig. below shows the relationship between strength and gel/space ratio. It is pointed out that the
relationship between the strength and water/cement ratio will hold.

SEGREGATION
Segregation is the separation of the different materials of concrete. A good concrete is one which is
homogeneous in nature.If a sample of concrete exhibits a tendency for separation of say, coarse
aggregate from the rest of the ingredients, then, that sample is said to be showing the tendency for
segregation. Such concrete is not only going to be weak; lack of homogeneity is also going to induce all
undesirable properties in the hardened concrete.

There are considerable differences in the sizes and specific gravities of the constituent ingredients of
concrete. Therefore, it is natural that the materials show a tendency to fall apart.
Segregation may be of three types firstly, the coarse aggregate separating out or settling down from
the rest of the matrix, secondly, the paste or matrix separating away from coarse aggregate and thirdly,
water separating out from the rest of the material being a material of lowest specific gravity. A well made
concrete, taking into consideration various parameters such as grading, size, shape and surface texture
of aggregate with optimum quantity of waters makes a cohesive mix. Such concrete will not exhibit any
tendency for segregation. The cohesive and fatty characteristics of matrix do not allow the aggregate to
fall apart, at the same time, the matrix itself is sufficiently contained by the aggregate. Similarly, water also
does not find it easy to move out freely from the rest of the ingredients.
The conditions favourable for segregation are, as can be seen from the above para, the badly
proportioned mix where sufficient matrix is not there to bind and contain the aggregates. Insufficiently
mixed concrete with excess water content shows a higher tendency for segregation. Dropping of concrete
from heights as in the case of placing concrete in column concreting will result in segregation. When
concrete is discharged from a badly designed mixer, or from a mixer with worn out blades, concrete
shows a tendency for segregation. Conveyance of concrete by conveyor belts, wheel barrow, long
distance haul by dumper, long lift by skip and hoist are the other situations promoting segregation of
concrete.
The most important method of concrete compaction is Vibration. Only comparatively dry mix should be
vibrated. When a too wet a mix is excessively vibrated, it is likely to get segregated. Vibration also to be
continued just for required time for optimum results. If the vibration is continued for a long time,
particularly, in too wet a mix, it is likely to result in segregation of concrete due to settlement of coarse
aggregate in matrix.
Concrete is used with very high slump now a days particularly in RMC. The slump value required at the
batching point may be in the order of 150 mm and at the pumping point the slump may be around 100
mm. At both these points cubes are cast. One has to take care to compact the cube mould with these
high slump concrete. If sufficient care and understanding of concrete is not exercised, the concrete in the
cube mould may get segregated and show low strength. Similarly care must be taken in the compaction
of such concrete in actual structures to avoid segregation.
In case of floors or pavement finishing, with a view to achieve a smooth surface, masons work too much
with the trowel, float or tamping rule immediately on placing concrete. This immediate working on the

concrete on placing, without any time interval, is likely to press the coarse aggregate down, which results
in the movement of excess of matrix or paste to the surface. Segragation caused on this account, impairs
the homogeneity and serviceability of concrete. The excess mortar at the top causes plastic
shrinkagecracks.
So it can be concluded that the tendency for segregation can be remedied by correctly proportioning the
mix, by proper handling, transporting, placing, compacting and finishing. If segregation is observed, it is
advisable to remixing for a short time which would make the concrete again homogeneous. As mentioned
earlier, a cohesive mix would reduce the tendency for segregation. For this reason, use of certain
workability agents and pozzolanic materials greatly help in reducing segregation. The use of air-entraining
agent appreciably reduces segregation.
Segregation is difficult to measure quantitatively, but it can be easily observed at the time of concreting
operation. The pattern of subsidence of concrete in slump test or the pattern of spread in the flow test
gives a fair idea of the quality of concrete with respect to segregation.

USE OF SEA WATER FOR CONCRETING

Sea Water should not be used for preparation of any concrete (PCC or RCC). It has a salinity of about 3.5
per cent. In that about 78% is sodium chloride and 15% is chloride and sulphate of magnesium. Sea
water also contain small quantities of sodium and potassium salts. This can react with
reactive aggregates in the same manner as alkalies in cement. Therefore sea water should not be used
even for PCC if aggregates are known to be potentially alkali reactive.

The strength of concrete reduces when sea water is used for mixing.It can also corrode the
reinforcement in certain cases which can lead to massive structure failure. However some research
workers says that sea water can be used in un-reinforced concrete or mass concrete. Sea water slightly
accelerates the early strength of concrete. But it reduces the 28 days strength of concrete by about 10 to
15 per cent. This loss of strength could be made up by redesigning the mix or by addition of proper
admixtures. Water containing large quantities of chlorides in sea water may cause efflorescence and
persistent dampness. When the appearance of concrete is important sea water may be avoided. The use
of sea water is also not advisable for plastering purpose which is subsequently going to be painted.

Different researches has different opinion about corrosion of reinforcement due to the use of sea water.
Some research workers cautioned about the risk of corrosion of reinforcement particularly in tropical
climatic regions, whereas some research workers did not find the risk of corrosion due to the use of sea
water. Experiments have shown that corrosion of reinforcement occurred when concrete was made with
pure water and immersed in pure water when the concrete was comparatively porous, whereas, no
corrosion of reinforcement was found when sea water was used for mixing and the specimen was
immersed in salt water when the concrete was dense and enough cover to the reinforcement was given.
From this it could be inferred that the factor for corrosion is not the use of sea water or the quality of water
where the concrete is placed. The factors effecting corrosion is permeability of concrete and lack of
cover. However, since these factors cannot be adequately taken care of always at the site of work, it may
be wise that sea water be avoided for making reinforced concrete. For economical or other passing
reasons, if sea water cannot be avoided for making reinforced concrete, particular precautions should be
taken to make the concrete dense by using low water/cement ratio coupled with vibration and to give an
adequate cover of at least 7.5 cm.

In prestressed concrete work the use of sea water must be avoided because of stress corrosion and
undue loss of cross section of small diameter wires. The IS 456 of 2000 prohibits the use of Sea Water for
mixing and curing of reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete work. However, this specification
permits the use of Sea Water for mixing and curing of plain cement concrete (PCC) under unavoidable
situation..
It is pertinent at this point to consider the suitability of water for curing. Water that contains impurities
which caused staining, is objectionable for curing concrete members whose look is important. The most
common cause of staining is usually high concentration of iron or organic matter in the water. Water that
contains more than 0.08 ppm. of iron may be avoided for curing if the appearance of concrete is
important. Similarly the use of sea water may also be avoided in such cases. In other cases, the water,
normally fit for mixing can also be used for curing.

AIR-ENTRAINING CEMENT
Invented in 1930 Air Entraining Cement is used for all types of concrete specially to improve resistance to
freezing when exposed to water and deicing chemicals.
This cement is made by mixing a small amount of an air-entraining agent with ordinary Portland cement
clinker at the time of grinding. The different types of air entraining agents are as follows
(a) Alkali salts of wood resins.
(b) Synthetic detergents of the alkyl-aryl sulphonate type.
(c ) Calcium lignosulphate derived from the sulphite process in paper making.
(d) Calcium salts of glues and other proteins obtained in the treatment of animal hides.
In powder, or in liquid forms these agents are added to the extent of 0.0250.1 per cent by weight of
cement clinker. There are other additives including animal and vegetable fats, oil and their acids could be
used. Wetting agents, aluminium powder, hydrogen peroxide could also be used. Air-entraining cement
will produce at the time of mixing, tough, tiny, discrete non-coalesceing air bubbles in the body of the
concrete which will modify the properties of plastic concrete with respect to workability, segregation and
bleeding. It will
enrich the properties of hardened concrete with respect to its resistance to frost action. Airentraining
agent can also be added at the time of mixing ordinary Portland cement with rest of the ingredients.

Heat of Hydration
The term heat of hydration is applied to the heat generated by the chemical reactions, which occur in
setting concrete between the water and cement.

The reaction of cement with water is exothermic.The reaction liberates a considerable quantity of
heat.This can be easily observed if the cement is gauged with water and placed in a thermos flask.Much
attention has been paid to the heat evolved during the hydration of cement in the interior of mass
concrete dams.It is estimated that about 120 calories of heat is generated in the heat of hydration of of
1gm of cement.From that we can assessed the quantum of heat produced in a conservative system such
as interior of a mass concrete dam.A temp. rise of 50 oC has been observed.This unduly high temp.
developer at the interior of concrete dam causes serious expansion of the body of the dam and with the
subsequent cooling considerable shrinkage takes place resulting in serious cracking of concrete.

The use of lean mix,use of pozzolanic cement,artificial cooling of constituent materials and
incorporation of pipe system in the body of the dam as the concrete work progress for circulating cold
brine solution through the pipe system to absorb the heat are some of the methods adopted to offset the
heat generation in the body of dams due to heat of hydration.

Test for heat of hydration is essentially required to be carried out for low heat cement only.This test
is carried out over a few days by vaccum flak methods,or over a longer period in an adiabatic
calorimeter.When tested in a standard manner the heat of hydration of low heat portland cement shall not
be more than 65 cal/gm. at 7days and 75 cal/gm. at 28 days.

COMPRESSION TEST
The compressive strength of Concrete is the most common performance measure to determine the
strength of concrete for designing.This is measured by breaking cubical of cylindrical concrete specimen
in Compression Testing Machine.
AIM
To determine the compressive strength of concrete specimens as per IS: 516 - 1959.
APPARATUS

i) Compression testing machine

conforming to IS: 516 1959
AGE AT TEST
Tests should be done at recognized ages of the test specimens, usually being 7 and 28 days. The ages
should be calculated from the time of the addition of water to the drying of ingredients.
NUMBER OF SPECIMENS
At least three specimens, preferably from different batches, should be taken for testing at each selected
age.
PROCEDURE
i) The specimens, prepared according to IS: 516 - 1959 and stored in water, should be tested immediately
on removal from the water and while still in wet condition. Specimens when received dry should be kept in
water for 24hrs. before they are taken for testing. The dimensions of the specimens, to the nearest 0.2mm
and their weight should be noted before testing.
ii) The bearing surfaces of the compression testing machine should be wiped clean and any loose sand or
other material removed from the surfaces of the specimen, which would be in contact with the
compression platens.
iii) In the case a of cubical specimen, the specimen should be placed in the machine in such a manner
that the load could be applied to the opposite sides of the cubes, not to the top and the bottom. The axis
of the specimen should be carefully aligned with the centre of thrust of the spherically seated platen. No
packing should be used between the faces of the test specimen and the steel platen of the testing
machine. As the spherically seated block is brought to rest on the specimen, the movable portion should
be rotated gently by hand so that uniform seating is obtained.
iv) The load should be applied without shock and increased continuously at a rate of approximately
140kg/sq.cm/minute until the resistance of the specimen to the increasing load breaks down and no
greater load can be sustained. The maximum load applied to the specimen should then be recorded and
the appearance of the concrete and any unusual features in the type of failure should be noted.
CALCULATION
The measured compressive strength of the specimen should be calculated by dividing the maximum load
applied to the specimen during the test by the cross - sectional area, calculated from the mean
dimensions of the section and should be expressed to the nearest kg/sq.cm. An average of three values

should be taken as the representative of the batch, provided the individual variation is not more than
15% of the average. Otherwise repeat tests should be done.
A correction factor according to the height/diameter ratio of the specimen after capping should be
obtained from the curve given below:-

The product of this correction factor and the measured compressive strength is known as the corrected
compressive strength, this being the equivalent strength of a cylinder having a height/diameter ratio of
two. The equivalent cube strength of the concrete should be determined by multiplying the corrected
cylinder strength by 1.25.
REPORTING OF RESULTS
The following information should be included in the report on each test specimen:
i) Identification mark
ii) Date of test
iii) Age of specimen
iv) Curing conditions, including date of manufacture of specimen
v) Weight of specimen
vi) Dimensions of specimen
vii) Cross-sectional area
viii) Maximum load
ix) Compressive strength
x) Appearance of fractured faces of concrete and type of fracture, if unusual.

Showing posts with label concrete. Show all posts

CREEP OF CONCRETE
Creep of concrete is the continued deformation with time under applied load. Sometimes it is defined as
increase in strain in concrete with time under sustained stress. This is also known as plastic flow or time

yield. The rate of creep decrease with time and the creep strains at five years are taken as terminal
values. Creep increases rapidly with the stress, loading at an early age of concrete, broken ballast, soft
and porous aggregate, poorly graded and improperly compacted concrete. The deformation of hardened

concrete is shown in Fig. below.

The Causes of Creep are.
1.

Closer of internal voids of Concrete

2.

Viscous flow of the cement paste inside concrete

3.

Flow of water out of the cement gel inside concrete.

In reinforced concrete structures it is of advantage since it causes better distribution of stresses. For
example in a R.C.C. column there is a reduction of stress in concrete and a corresponding increase of
stress in steel due to creep. As another example creep relieves the high stressed portions of concrete in a

continuous beam and increases the stress in the adjacent less stressed portion. Creep causes large
deformations and deflections and is undesirable.

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Labels: concrete

RHEOLOGY
Originated from a Greek word rheo which means flow and logia which means study Rheology is the
study of flow of matter in liquid, soft solid or solid state under conditions in which they respond to plastic
flow other deforming elastically when a external force is applied.
Rheological properties of a cement mix means deformation of hardened concrete and placing and mixing
of freshly mixed concrete.The mechanical behaviour of hardened cement paste,which exhibits both
elastic and inelastic deformations, can be expressed in rheological terms.
Factors Affecting Rheological Properties:1. If the amount of coarse aggregate in a concrete mix is more the desirable amount the voids cannot be
filled with the available mortar, which will lead to loss of cohesion and mobility. Such a mix is termed
harsh and requires a great amount of effort to place and compact. On the other hand, an excessive
amount of fine aggregate or entrained air in a concrete mixture will greatly increase the cohesion and
render the concrete difficult to move.
2. Slump test is the measure of consistency of concrete mix or it is an indicator of relative water content of
the mix. An increase in the water content or slump above that required to achieve a workable mix
produces greater fluidity and decreased internal friction. Thus, a water content more than that needed will
not improve the rheological properties of concrete. But very low slump with decrease the workability of a
concrete mix making it impossible to place is some areas.
3. Elevated temperature, use of rapid hardening cement, cement deficient in gypsum and use of
accelerating admixtures, increase the rate of hardening which reduce the mobility of concrete.
4. The rough and highly angular aggregate particles will result in higher percentage of voids being filled by
mortar, requiring higher fine aggregate contents and correspondingly higher water content. Similarly an
angular fine aggregate will increase internal friction in the concrete mixture and require higher water
contents than well rounded natural sands.
5. A well graded aggregate gives good workability. Gap graded aggregate affects void system and
workability. These effects are greater in fine aggregate.
6. An increase in the maximum size of aggregate will reduce the fine aggregate requirement to maintain a
given workability and will thereby reduce the surface area to be wetted and hence the cement content
necessary for a constant water/cement ratio .
7. The admixtures which have significant effect on the rheology of concrete are plasticizers and superplasticizers, air-entraining agents, accelerators and retarders.Lignosulphate salt based plasticizers
(0.15%) reduce the water content by 10% without any detrimental effect. Super-plasticizers and
plasticizers prevent the formation of flocculated structure by changing the inter-particle
attraction/repulsion.
With proper attention to the rheological properties can increase work efficiency and reduce the material
cost as well as the cost of construction.

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Labels: concrete

ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT

Cement is one of the most important base products of construction industry and Ordinary Portland
cement or OPC is by far the most important type of cement. Prior to 1987, there was only one grade of
OPC [which was governed by IS 269-1976]. After 1987 higher grade cements were introduced. The OPC
was classified into three grades, namely..
1.
2.
3.

OPC-33 Grade
OPC-43 Grade
OPC-53 Grade

These classifications are based on the strength of the cement at 28 days when tested as per IS 40311988. If the 28 days strength is not less than 33N/mm2, it is called 33 grade cement, if the strength is not
less than 43N/mm2, it is called 43 grade cement, and if the strength is not less then 53 N/mm2, it is called
53 grade cement. But the actual strength obtained by these cements at the factory are much higher than
the BIS specifications.
The physical and chemical properties of different types of OPC are shown in Table below.

It has been possible to upgrade the qualities of cement by using high quality limestone, modern
equipments, closer on line control of constituents, maintaining better particle size distribution, finer
grinding and better packing. Generally use of high grade cements offer many advantages for making
stronger concrete. Although they are little costlier than low grade cement, they offer 10-20% savings in
cement consumption and also they offer many other hidden benefits. One of the most important benefits
is the faster rate of development of strength. In the modern construction activities, higher grade cements
have become so popular that 33 grade cement is almost out of the market. Table shows the grades of
cement manufactured in various countries of the world.
The manufacture of OPC is decreasing all over the world in view of the popularity of blended cement on
account of lower energy consumption, environmental pollution, economic and other technical reasons. In
advanced western countries the use of OPC has come down to about 40 per cent of the total cement
production. In India for the year 1998-99 out of the total cement production i.e., 79 million tons, the
production of OPC in 57.00 million tons i.e., 70%. The production of PPC is 16 million tone i.e., 19% and
slag cement is 8 million tons i.e., 10%. In the years to come the use of OPC may still come down, but all
the same the OPC will remain as an important type for general construction.

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CEMENT MORTAR
Mortar is a material used in masonry construction to fill the gaps between the bricks and blocks used
in construction. Mortar is a mixture of sand, a binder such as cement or lime, and water and is applied
as a paste which then sets hard.

Puzzolana Portland cement and sulphate-resisting cement form mortar which are used for
constructions exposed to aggressive and waste waters. Cement mortars are used for plastering,
rendering
smooth
finishes
and
damp
proof
courses.
The mix proportions of cement mortar are given in Table below

Preparation:-Manual mixing is applied for Small quantities of mortar; mechanical mixers are used for
large quantities.

For manual mixing,sand is sieved, cleaned with water to remove dirt and dust and dried. This dry sand
is laid uniformly, on a pucca platform, over which cement is uniformly spread. The whole mass is then
thoroughly mixed with spades till it becomes uniform in colour. A depression is then made in the
middle of the mix and required quantity of water is added. The dry mix from the sides is moved and
placed on the edges of the depression formed till the water is completely absorbed by the mix. The
wet mix is then worked with spades to give a uniform consistency to the mortar.
For mechanical mixing the calculated quantity of cement, sand and water are fed into the cylindrical
container of the mixer. A rotar with blades, inside the container, rotates and thoroughly mixes the
ingredients.
Precautions:-Basic property of Cement mortar should be uniformity and workability. It should be
consumed within 30 minutes from the instant of adding water to the mix. The bricks, stones and
blocks should be fully saturated in water before laying. The masonry and plastered or pointed surface
should be kept completely wet by sprinkling water for at least 7 days.

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High-Performance concrete
Recently a new term has come in the field of concrete technology High Performance Concrete or HPC.
The properties of HPC are

High Workability

High Strength

High Modulus of Elasticity

High Density

High Dimensional Stability

Low Permeability and

Resistance to Chemical Attack

There is a little controversy between the terms high-strength and high performance concrete. Highperformance concrete is also, a high-strength concrete but it has a few more attributes specifically
designed as mentioned above. It is, therefore, logical to describe by the more widely embracing term
High Performance Concrete (HPC).

In normal concrete, relatively low strength and elastic modulus are the result of high heterogeneous
nature of structure of the material, particularly the porous and weak transition zone, which exists at the
cement paste-aggregate interface. By densification and strengthening of the transition zone, many
desirable properties can be improved many fold. A substantial reduction of quantity of mixing water is the
fundamental step for making HPC. With reduction of w/c ratio strength concrete will increase. But
reduction in w/c ratio to less than 0.3 will greatly improve the qualities of transition zone to give inherent
qualities expected in HPC.
Use of silica fume is also found to be necessary to improve the qualities of transition zone.Silica fumes
becomes a necessary ingredient for strength above to 80 MPa. The best quality fly ash and GGBS may

be used for other nominal benefits. Inspite of the fact that these pozzolanic materials increase the water
demand, their benefits will out weigh the disadvantages. The crux of whole problem lies in using very low
w/c ratio, consistant with high workability at the time of placing and compacting. Neville opines that the
lowest w/c ratio that could be used is 0.227.9
Only with the use of superplasticizer, w/c ratio in the range of 0.25 to 0.3 can be adopted and a high
slump is possible to achieve. Therefore, use of appropriate superplasticizer is a key material in making
HPC. The associated problem is the selection of superplasticizer and that of cement so that they are
compatible and retain the slump and rheological properties for a sufficiently long time till concrete is
placed and compacted.

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PUMPABLE CONCRETE
Pumpable concrete is that type of concrete which can be pushed through a pipeline for construction. It is
made in such a manner that its friction at the inner wall of the pipeline does not become very high and
that it does not wedge while flowing through the pipeline. It is very important to have a clear
understanding of what happens to concrete when it is pumped through pipeline to any study of concrete
pumping. Pumpable concrete emerging from a pipeline flows in the form of a plug which is separated from
the pipe wall by a thin lubricating layer consisting of cement paste. The water in the paste is hydraulically
linked with the interparticle water layer in the plug. Fig- 1 below shows the concrete flow under pressure.

The pressure generated by the flow resistance must not be greater than the pump pressure rating for
maintaining continuous plug movement. However, if the concrete is too saturated at higher w/c ratio, the
concrete at certain pump pressures may be such that water is forced out of the mix, creating an increase
in flow resistance and a possible blockage. Fig.2 illustrates such a condition. In other words, a very stiff
concrete is not pumpable and also a concrete with high w/c ratio is also not pumpable. It is interesting to
note that if a concrete is pumpable, it is implied that it is a good concrete.

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Effect of Maximum size of Aggregate on

Strength of CONCRETE
Earlier it was thought that the use of larger size aggregate leads to higher strength.This was due to the
fact that the larger the aggregate the lower is the total surface area and, therefore, the lower is the
requirement of water for the given workability. So, a lower water/cement ratio can be used which will
result in higher strength of Concrete.
However, later it was found that the use of larger size aggregate did not contribute to higher strength as
expected from the theoretical considerations due to the following reasons..
1.
The larger maximum size aggregate gives lower surface area for developments of gel bonds
which is responsible for the lower strength of the concrete.
2.
Secondly bigger aggregate size causes a more heterogeneity in the concrete which will prevent
the uniform distribution of load when stressed.
When large size aggregate is used, due to internal bleeding, the transition zone will become much weaker
due to the development of micro-cracks which result in lower compressive strength.
Generally, high strength concrete or rich concrete is adversely affected by the use of large size
aggregate. But in lean mixes or weaker concrete the influence of size of the aggregate gets reduced. It is
interesting to note that in lean mixes larger aggregate gives highest strength while in rich mixes it is the

smaller aggregate which yields higher strength. The Fig. below shows the influence of maximum size of
aggregate on compressive strength of concrete..

Following Figure depicts the influence of size of aggregate on compressive strength of concrete for
different w/c ratio.

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GEL/SPACE RATIO
As propounded by Duff Abrams many research workers commented on the validity of water/cement
ratio law. They have focused on a few of the limitations of the water/ cement ratio law and argued that
Abrams water/cement ratio law can only be called a rule and not a law because Abrams statement does
not include many qualifications necessary for its validity to call it a law. Some of the limitations are that the
strength at any water/cement ratio depends on the following things
1.Degree of hydration
2.Chemical and Physical properties
3.The temperature at which the hydration takes place
4.Air content (in case of air entrained concrete)
5.the change in the effective water/cement ratio and the formation of fissures and cracks due to
bleeding or shrinkage
Instead of relating the strength to water/cement ratio, the strength can be more correctly related to the
solid products of hydration of cement to the space available for formation of this product. Powers and
Brownyard have established the relationship between the strength and gel/space ratio. This ratio is
defined as the ratio of the volume of the hydrated cement paste to the sum of volumes of the hydrated
cement and of the capillary pores.
Powers experiment showed that the strength of concrete bears a specific relationship with the gel/space
ratio. He found the relationship to be 240 x3, where x is the gel/space ratio and 240 represents the
intrinsic strength of the gel in MPa for the type of cement and specimen used.
The strength calculated by Powers expression holds good for an ideal case.

The fig. below shows the relationship between strength and gel/space ratio. It is pointed out that the
relationship between the strength and water/cement ratio will hold.

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SEGREGATION
Segregation is the separation of the different materials of concrete. A good concrete is one which is
homogeneous in nature.If a sample of concrete exhibits a tendency for separation of say, coarse
aggregate from the rest of the ingredients, then, that sample is said to be showing the tendency for
segregation. Such concrete is not only going to be weak; lack of homogeneity is also going to induce all
undesirable properties in the hardened concrete.

There are considerable differences in the sizes and specific gravities of the constituent ingredients of
concrete. Therefore, it is natural that the materials show a tendency to fall apart.
Segregation may be of three types firstly, the coarse aggregate separating out or settling down from
the rest of the matrix, secondly, the paste or matrix separating away from coarse aggregate and thirdly,
water separating out from the rest of the material being a material of lowest specific gravity. A well made
concrete, taking into consideration various parameters such as grading, size, shape and surface texture
of aggregate with optimum quantity of waters makes a cohesive mix. Such concrete will not exhibit any
tendency for segregation. The cohesive and fatty characteristics of matrix do not allow the aggregate to
fall apart, at the same time, the matrix itself is sufficiently contained by the aggregate. Similarly, water also
does not find it easy to move out freely from the rest of the ingredients.
The conditions favourable for segregation are, as can be seen from the above para, the badly
proportioned mix where sufficient matrix is not there to bind and contain the aggregates. Insufficiently
mixed concrete with excess water content shows a higher tendency for segregation. Dropping of concrete
from heights as in the case of placing concrete in column concreting will result in segregation. When
concrete is discharged from a badly designed mixer, or from a mixer with worn out blades, concrete
shows a tendency for segregation. Conveyance of concrete by conveyor belts, wheel barrow, long
distance haul by dumper, long lift by skip and hoist are the other situations promoting segregation of
concrete.
The most important method of concrete compaction is Vibration. Only comparatively dry mix should be
vibrated. When a too wet a mix is excessively vibrated, it is likely to get segregated. Vibration also to be
continued just for required time for optimum results. If the vibration is continued for a long time,
particularly, in too wet a mix, it is likely to result in segregation of concrete due to settlement of coarse
aggregate in matrix.
Concrete is used with very high slump now a days particularly in RMC. The slump value required at the
batching point may be in the order of 150 mm and at the pumping point the slump may be around 100
mm. At both these points cubes are cast. One has to take care to compact the cube mould with these
high slump concrete. If sufficient care and understanding of concrete is not exercised, the concrete in the
cube mould may get segregated and show low strength. Similarly care must be taken in the compaction
of such concrete in actual structures to avoid segregation.
In case of floors or pavement finishing, with a view to achieve a smooth surface, masons work too much
with the trowel, float or tamping rule immediately on placing concrete. This immediate working on the
concrete on placing, without any time interval, is likely to press the coarse aggregate down, which results
in the movement of excess of matrix or paste to the surface. Segragation caused on this account, impairs
the homogeneity and serviceability of concrete. The excess mortar at the top causes plastic
shrinkagecracks.
So it can be concluded that the tendency for segregation can be remedied by correctly proportioning the
mix, by proper handling, transporting, placing, compacting and finishing. If segregation is observed, it is

advisable to remixing for a short time which would make the concrete again homogeneous. As mentioned
earlier, a cohesive mix would reduce the tendency for segregation. For this reason, use of certain
workability agents and pozzolanic materials greatly help in reducing segregation. The use of air-entraining
agent appreciably reduces segregation.
Segregation is difficult to measure quantitatively, but it can be easily observed at the time of concreting
operation. The pattern of subsidence of concrete in slump test or the pattern of spread in the flow test
gives a fair idea of the quality of concrete with respect to segregation.

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USE OF SEA WATER FOR

CONCRETING
Sea Water should not be used for preparation of any concrete (PCC or RCC). It has a salinity of about 3.5
per cent. In that about 78% is sodium chloride and 15% is chloride and sulphate of magnesium. Sea
water also contain small quantities of sodium and potassium salts. This can react with
reactive aggregates in the same manner as alkalies in cement. Therefore sea water should not be used
even for PCC if aggregates are known to be potentially alkali reactive.

The strength of concrete reduces when sea water is used for mixing.It can also corrode the
reinforcement in certain cases which can lead to massive structure failure. However some research
workers says that sea water can be used in un-reinforced concrete or mass concrete. Sea water slightly
accelerates the early strength of concrete. But it reduces the 28 days strength of concrete by about 10 to
15 per cent. This loss of strength could be made up by redesigning the mix or by addition of proper
admixtures. Water containing large quantities of chlorides in sea water may cause efflorescence and
persistent dampness. When the appearance of concrete is important sea water may be avoided. The use
of sea water is also not advisable for plastering purpose which is subsequently going to be painted.

Different researches has different opinion about corrosion of reinforcement due to the use of sea water.
Some research workers cautioned about the risk of corrosion of reinforcement particularly in tropical
climatic regions, whereas some research workers did not find the risk of corrosion due to the use of sea
water. Experiments have shown that corrosion of reinforcement occurred when concrete was made with
pure water and immersed in pure water when the concrete was comparatively porous, whereas, no
corrosion of reinforcement was found when sea water was used for mixing and the specimen was
immersed in salt water when the concrete was dense and enough cover to the reinforcement was given.
From this it could be inferred that the factor for corrosion is not the use of sea water or the quality of water
where the concrete is placed. The factors effecting corrosion is permeability of concrete and lack of
cover. However, since these factors cannot be adequately taken care of always at the site of work, it may
be wise that sea water be avoided for making reinforced concrete. For economical or other passing
reasons, if sea water cannot be avoided for making reinforced concrete, particular precautions should be
taken to make the concrete dense by using low water/cement ratio coupled with vibration and to give an
adequate cover of at least 7.5 cm.

In prestressed concrete work the use of sea water must be avoided because of stress corrosion and
undue loss of cross section of small diameter wires. The IS 456 of 2000 prohibits the use of Sea Water for
mixing and curing of reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete work. However, this specification
permits the use of Sea Water for mixing and curing of plain cement concrete (PCC) under unavoidable
situation..
It is pertinent at this point to consider the suitability of water for curing. Water that contains impurities
which caused staining, is objectionable for curing concrete members whose look is important. The most
common cause of staining is usually high concentration of iron or organic matter in the water. Water that
contains more than 0.08 ppm. of iron may be avoided for curing if the appearance of concrete is
important. Similarly the use of sea water may also be avoided in such cases. In other cases, the water,
normally fit for mixing can also be used for curing.

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AIR-ENTRAINING CEMENT
Invented in 1930 Air Entraining Cement is used for all types of concrete specially to improve resistance to
freezing when exposed to water and deicing chemicals.
This cement is made by mixing a small amount of an air-entraining agent with ordinary Portland cement
clinker at the time of grinding. The different types of air entraining agents are as follows
(a) Alkali salts of wood resins.
(b) Synthetic detergents of the alkyl-aryl sulphonate type.
(c ) Calcium lignosulphate derived from the sulphite process in paper making.
(d) Calcium salts of glues and other proteins obtained in the treatment of animal hides.
In powder, or in liquid forms these agents are added to the extent of 0.0250.1 per cent by weight of
cement clinker. There are other additives including animal and vegetable fats, oil and their acids could be
used. Wetting agents, aluminium powder, hydrogen peroxide could also be used. Air-entraining cement
will produce at the time of mixing, tough, tiny, discrete non-coalesceing air bubbles in the body of the
concrete which will modify the properties of plastic concrete with respect to workability, segregation and
bleeding. It will
enrich the properties of hardened concrete with respect to its resistance to frost action. Airentraining
agent can also be added at the time of mixing ordinary Portland cement with rest of the ingredients.

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Heat of Hydration
The term heat of hydration is applied to the heat generated by the chemical reactions, which occur in
setting concrete between the water and cement.
The reaction of cement with water is exothermic.The reaction liberates a considerable quantity of
heat.This can be easily observed if the cement is gauged with water and placed in a thermos flask.Much
attention has been paid to the heat evolved during the hydration of cement in the interior of mass
concrete dams.It is estimated that about 120 calories of heat is generated in the heat of hydration of of
1gm of cement.From that we can assessed the quantum of heat produced in a conservative system such
as interior of a mass concrete dam.A temp. rise of 50 oC has been observed.This unduly high temp.
developer at the interior of concrete dam causes serious expansion of the body of the dam and with the
subsequent cooling considerable shrinkage takes place resulting in serious cracking of concrete.
The use of lean mix,use of pozzolanic cement,artificial cooling of constituent materials and
incorporation of pipe system in the body of the dam as the concrete work progress for circulating cold
brine solution through the pipe system to absorb the heat are some of the methods adopted to offset the
heat generation in the body of dams due to heat of hydration.

Test for heat of hydration is essentially required to be carried out for low heat cement only.This test
is carried out over a few days by vaccum flak methods,or over a longer period in an adiabatic
calorimeter.When tested in a standard manner the heat of hydration of low heat portland cement shall not
be more than 65 cal/gm. at 7days and 75 cal/gm. at 28 days.
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COMPRESSION TEST
The compressive strength of Concrete is the most common performance measure to determine the
strength of concrete for designing.This is measured by breaking cubical of cylindrical concrete specimen
in Compression Testing Machine.
AIM
To determine the compressive strength of concrete specimens as per IS: 516 - 1959.
APPARATUS

i) Compression testing machine

conforming to IS: 516 1959
AGE AT TEST
Tests should be done at recognized ages of the test specimens, usually being 7 and 28 days. The ages
should be calculated from the time of the addition of water to the drying of ingredients.
NUMBER OF SPECIMENS
At least three specimens, preferably from different batches, should be taken for testing at each selected
age.
PROCEDURE
i) The specimens, prepared according to IS: 516 - 1959 and stored in water, should be tested immediately
on removal from the water and while still in wet condition. Specimens when received dry should be kept in
water for 24hrs. before they are taken for testing. The dimensions of the specimens, to the nearest 0.2mm
and their weight should be noted before testing.
ii) The bearing surfaces of the compression testing machine should be wiped clean and any loose sand or
other material removed from the surfaces of the specimen, which would be in contact with the
compression platens.
iii) In the case a of cubical specimen, the specimen should be placed in the machine in such a manner
that the load could be applied to the opposite sides of the cubes, not to the top and the bottom. The axis
of the specimen should be carefully aligned with the centre of thrust of the spherically seated platen. No
packing should be used between the faces of the test specimen and the steel platen of the testing
machine. As the spherically seated block is brought to rest on the specimen, the movable portion should
be rotated gently by hand so that uniform seating is obtained.
iv) The load should be applied without shock and increased continuously at a rate of approximately
140kg/sq.cm/minute until the resistance of the specimen to the increasing load breaks down and no
greater load can be sustained. The maximum load applied to the specimen should then be recorded and
the appearance of the concrete and any unusual features in the type of failure should be noted.
CALCULATION
The measured compressive strength of the specimen should be calculated by dividing the maximum load
applied to the specimen during the test by the cross - sectional area, calculated from the mean
dimensions of the section and should be expressed to the nearest kg/sq.cm. An average of three values
should be taken as the representative of the batch, provided the individual variation is not more than
15% of the average. Otherwise repeat tests should be done.
A correction factor according to the height/diameter ratio of the specimen after capping should be
obtained from the curve given below:-

The product of this correction factor and the measured compressive strength is known as the corrected
compressive strength, this being the equivalent strength of a cylinder having a height/diameter ratio of
two. The equivalent cube strength of the concrete should be determined by multiplying the corrected
cylinder strength by 1.25.
REPORTING OF RESULTS
The following information should be included in the report on each test specimen:
i) Identification mark
ii) Date of test
iii) Age of specimen
iv) Curing conditions, including date of manufacture of specimen
v) Weight of specimen
vi) Dimensions of specimen
vii) Cross-sectional area
viii) Maximum load
ix) Compressive strength
x) Appearance of fractured faces of concrete and type of fracture, if unusual.

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Flow Trough Test

The flow trough test (Bartos, Sonebi, and Tamimi 2002) is used to measure the workability of highly
flowable concretes. It was originally developed for measuring repair concretes.
The test apparatus consists of a 230 mm wide, 1000 mm long horizontal steel trough. Approximately 6
liters of concrete is placed in a conical hopper and allowed to fall from the hopper onto one end of the
trough. The time required for concrete to flow a certain distance (typically 750 mm) down the trough is
recorded. The test is conducted three times immediately after mixing and another three times thirty
minutes after mixing. The set of tests is conducted at thirty minutes in order to characterize the workability
of the concrete at the time of placement. The concrete is agitated every five minutes in the thirty minutes
between the initial and final sets of tests.
Advantages:
The test method is simple and inexpensive.

 The results are a function of the time required for the concrete to flow both out of the cone and down the
trough.
Disadvantages:
The test is only appropriate for highly flowable concrete mixtures.
The test is not standardized and not widely used.

Concrete
Definition-Concrete is a mixture of cement,sand(Fine Aggregates),pebbles or crushed
rock(coarseaggregates) and water, which when placed in the skeleton of forms and allowed to cure,
becomes hard like stone.
Properties of Cement Concrete.
1.
It has a high compressive strength.
2.

It is free from corrosion and there is no applicable effect of atmospheric agents on it.

3.
It hardens with its age and process of hardening goes for a long time after concrete has obtained
its sufficient strength.
4.

It is more economical than steel.

5.
It binds with steel rapidly and creates a very good bond. As concrete is weak in tension the steel
reinforcement placed in concrete takes up the tensile strength. This is termed as RCC.
6.

Under the following conditions is has a tendency to shrink.

i) There is initial shrinkage limit of concrete which is mainly due to loss of water through forms
and water absorption by surface of forms
ii) The shrinkage of cement concrete occurs in hardness.
7. Concrete forms a hard surface Capable of resisting abrasion.
8. Its final strength and quality mainly depends on handling and local conditions.

Various Lab Test On Concrete

There are many tests which are conducted to check the quality of concrete. These tests are basically
divided into two categories
1. Various Lab Test On Fresh Concrete.
a) Slump Test Workability
b) Compacting Factor
c) Vee- Bee Test
2.Various Lab Test On Hardened Concrete.
There are two kinds of tests which are done on hardened concrete. These are non destructive test
and destructive tests. In non destructive test, the sample is not destroyed and this test is very useful in
determining the strength of existing buildings or structures where as in destructive test a sample is made
and then destroyed to find out the strength of concrete.Compression test is the example of destructive
test. Here are the nondestructive tests.
a) Rebound Hammer Test
b) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

Ductal- A Stronger Concrete

What is Ductal?
Few Years back in 2006; researchers at Iowa State University have developed a new type of concrete
that is much stronger than conventional concrete. It can withstand pressures up to 595,000 pounds
more than the weight of seven semi trucks.
A new kind of concrete called Ductal that might allow bridges to hold more weight and last longer.
Although it is 10 times more expensive than traditional materials but stronger and virtually impermeable,
helping bridges become more durable.
The researchers conducted a load-bearing capacity test using a 71-foot beam made out the new
concrete. They applied increasing amounts of hydraulic pressure to the top of the beam to see how much
it could withstand before breaking. It finally broke with a loud pop at 595,000 pounds. The ultra-high
performance concrete is made from sand, cement, water and small steel fibers. Standard concrete uses
coarser materials. The new concrete is specifically engineered to include finer materials and steel fibers,
making it denser and stronger.
We are extremely thankful to Dr. Varenyam Achal for sharing this research on our site and thus
helping civil engineering students.

Flow Table Test (DIN Flow Table)

The flow table test (Tattersall 1991; Bartos 1992; Wong et al. 2000; Bartos, Sonebi, and Tamimi 2002)
measures the horizontal spread of a concrete cone specimen after being subjected to jolting. Multiple
versions of the test have been proposed since its original introduction in Germany in the 1930s. The test
was added to the British Standards in 1983 in response to the increase use of highly fluid concretes. The
test is sometime referred to as the DIN flow table, in
reference to its inclusion in German standard DIN 1048. The test is currently standardized in the Europe
as EN 12350-5.
The apparatus consists of a 700 mm square wooden top plate lined with a thin metal sheet, as shown
in Figure. The plate is hinged on one end to a base, while on the other end, clips allow the plate to be
lifted a vertical distance of 40 mm. Etched into the metal sheet are two perpendicular lines that cross in
the center of the plate and a 200 mm circle concentric with the center of the plate. The frustum of a cone
used to mold the concrete is shorter than the slump cone, with a top diameter of 130 mm and with a
bottom diameter and height of 200 mm.

To perform the test, the cone mold is placed in the center of the plate and filled in two layers, each of
which is compacted with a tamping rod. The plate is lifted with the attached handle a distance of 40 mm
and then dropped a total of 15 times. The horizontal spread of the concrete is measured. Resistance to
segregation can be assessed qualitatively: in concrete mixes that are susceptible to segregation, the
paste will tend separate from the coarse aggregate around the perimeter of the concrete mass.
The test is applicable to a wide range of concrete workability, and is especially appropriate for highly
fluid mixes that exhibit a collapsed slump. The results of the test can be correlated to slump, although it
has been suggested that the initial horizontal spread, prior to jolting, correlates better to slump (Juvas
1994). Despite its simplicity, the test apparatus is large and must be placed on firm, level ground. The
jolting of the concrete does not accurately simulate field practices and cannot easily be treated
analytically. In fact, the further the concrete spreads, the thinner the layer of concrete becomes and the
less this thin layer represents the bulk properties of the concrete. Research has suggested that spread
measurements for different concrete mixtures converge with an increasing number of drops of the top
plate (Tattersall 1991).
Advantages:
The test is simple and can be used in the field.
The test quickly provides a direct result.
The test is dynamic, making it especially appropriate for highly thixotropic concrete mixtures.
Disadvantages:
The test procedure does not represent actual placement conditionsconcrete is typically vibrated, not

jolted.
The test results tend to converge as the number of drops is increased. Near the end of the test, the
properties of the thin layer of concrete do reflect the bulk properties of the concrete.
The results are not given in terms of fundamental units. An analytical treatment of the test would be
difficult.

J-Ring Test
The J-ring test (EFNARC 2002; Bartos, Sonebi, and Tamimi 2002) extends common filling ability test
methods to also characterize passing ability.
The J-ring test device can be used with the slump flow test, the orimet test, or the V-funnel test. The
J-ring, as shown in Figure 25, is a rectangular section (30 mm by 25 mm) open steel ring with a 300 mm
diameter. Vertical holes drilled in the ring allow standard reinforcing bars to be attached to the ring. Each
reinforcing bar is 100 mm long. The spacing of the bars is adjustable,
although 3 times the maximum aggregate size is typically recommended. For fiber-reinforced concrete,
the bars should be placed 1 to 3 times the maximum fiber length.

To conduct the J-ring test in conjunction with the slump flow test, the slump cone is placed in the
center of the J-ring and filled with concrete. The slump cone is lifted and concrete is allowed to spread
horizontally through the gaps between the bars. Alternatively, the orimet device or the Vfunnel can be
positioned above center of the J-ring. Instead of measuring just the time for concrete to exit the orimet or
the V-funnel, the concrete is also allowed to spread horizontally through the J-ring.
Various interpretations of the test results have been suggested. The measures of passing ability and
filling ability are not independent. To characterize filling ability and passing ability, the horizontal spread of
the concrete sample is measured after the concrete passes through the gaps in the bars of the J-ring and
comes to rest. Also, the difference in height of the concrete just inside the bars and just outside the bars is
measured at four locations. The smaller this difference in heights is, the greater the passing ability of the
concrete will be. Alternatively, the horizontal spread with and without the J-ring can be compared as a
measure of passing ability.

Vebe Consistometer

The Vebe consistometer (Bartos 1992; Scanlon 1994; Bartos, Sonebi, and Tamimi 2002) measures
the remolding ability of concrete under vibration. The test results reflect the amount of energy required to
remold a quantity of concrete under given vibration conditions. The Vebe consistometer is applicable to
concrete with slumps less than 2 inches.
The apparatus, shown in Figure below, consists of a metal cylindrical container mounted on a
vibrating table, which produces a sinusoidal vibration. In the version of the test standardized in Europe as
EN 12350-3, a slump cone is placed in the center of the cylinder and filled in the same manner as in the
standard slump test. After the slump cone is removed, a clear plastic disk is set
atop the fresh concrete. The Vebe table is started and the time for the concrete to remold from the slump
cone shape to the shape of the outer cylindrical container is recorded as a measure of consistency. The
sliding clear plastic disk facilitates the determination of the end of the test.

Juvas (1994) has presented a modified Vebe test to more efficiently measure low slump concretes
that exhibit standard Vebe times greater than 30 seconds. In the modified Vebe test, a 20 kg surcharge is
attached to the rod above the clear plastic disk. The remainder of the test apparatus and procedure is
unchanged. The modified Vebe test more closely represents the production of precast concrete elements
that are both vibrated and pressed.
ASTM C1170 describes two variations on the procedure described above for use with
rollercompacted concrete. Instead of placing concrete in a slump cone in the cylinder, concrete is placed
directly into the 9 -inch diameter, 7 -inch tall cylinder without compaction. For Test Method A, a 50
pound surcharge is placed on the sliding plastic disk. The vibrator is started and the time for the concrete
to consolidate and a mortar ring to form around the plastic disk is recorded. The surcharge is then
removed and the concrete is vibrated further until the total vibration time is 2 minutes. The density of the
consolidated concrete in the mold is then determined. When the Vebe time by Test Method A is less than
5 seconds, Test Method B should be used. In Test Method B, the surcharge is not used. Both the time for
a mortar ring to form around the perimeter of the cylinder and the final density of the compacted concrete

are recorded. Both methods are applicable for concretes with maximum aggregate sizes up to 2 inches. A
minimum of 50 pounds of concrete is required for each test method.
Since the test apparatus is large and heavy, it is inappropriate for field use. The vibrating table must be
mounted on a large and stable base of sufficient mass to absorb the tables vibrations. The main use for
the test has been in the laboratory and in the precast industry, where low slump concrete mixes are
commonly used (Bartos 1992). The apparatus is neither directly related to slump nor plastic viscosity.

Advantages:
The Vebe consistometer is a dynamic test and can be used on concretes that are too dry for the slump
test.
The test device is standardized in ASTM and identified by ACI Committee 211 (2002) in its guide for
proportioning low slump concrete.
Test results are obtained directly.
Disadvantages: Due to the need to ensure that all vibration is kept within the test device, the size of the
test device makes the Vebe consistometer generally unsuitable for field use.
The test device only works for low slump concretes.
No analytical treatment of the test method has been developed. Such treatment would be complex
because the shear rate declines during the duration of the test as the concrete specimen changes shape.