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_
ISTON, Istanbul Concrete Elements and Ready Mixed Concrete Factories, Istanbul,
Turkey
_
TBITAK
Marmara Research Centre, Materials Institute, Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey
h i g h l i g h t s
Aggregate recycling from construction and demolition wastes.
Concrete masonry production with recycled aggregate addition.
Optimum waste addition ratio was determined in concrete products.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 11 September 2015
Received in revised form 15 January 2016
Accepted 20 January 2016
Keywords:
Aggregate
Concrete
Construction
Construction and demolition
Waste recycled aggregate
Recycling
a b s t r a c t
The main objective of this research is to investigate the utilization criteria of the recycled aggregates
gained from construction and demolition wastes, in the production of various ready-mixed and precast
concrete elements. Within this scope, construction and demolition waste materials were selectively separated to have homogeneous concrete wastes in the recycling plant. Then, fine and coarse aggregates
were achieved from concrete wastes. Recycled concrete aggregates were than crushed to specific sizes;
physical properties were determined and compared with those of normal aggregates. Finally, these recycled aggregates were investigated about their utility in the industrial production of various concrete
products like ready-mixed concrete, concrete pipe, paving stone and kerbs. Also some studies were done
to determine durability and permeability properties of these products. It can be concluded that the use of
recycled aggregates in the production of various concrete elements is possible with proper separation and
classification. Moreover, lower replacement rates should be applied to obtain sufficient conditions which
are specified in related product standards.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Solid wastes become one of the most important environmental
problems nowadays. As a result of increasing construction activities, construction and demolition waste represent a substantial
percentage of the overall solid waste.
After urban renewal programs or natural disasters like earthquakes, demolition of older buildings leads to environmental problems particularly in larger urban areas. In addition, scarcity of raw
material sources resulting from increased aggregate usage, have
motivated stakeholders in construction industry about utilization
of recycled aggregates [1]. Older buildings with expiring service
_
Corresponding author at: TBITAK
Marmara Research Centre, Materials Institute, P.K. 21, 41470, Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey.
E-mail address: aylin.sahin@tubitak.gov.tr (A. Sahin).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.01.030
0950-0618/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
life and the buildings which cannot meet new structural requirements and expectations are being demolished during the recent
years in Turkey.
Construction wastes mainly occur as a result of this demolition
activities and natural disasters like earthquakes. In a study, the
composition of construction and demolition wastes was given (in
Fig. 1) [2].
The European Union construction industry generates 531 million tonnes construction and demolition wastes per year which
represents nearly one quarter of the existing waste materials in
the world (Table 1) [3].
In the European Unions 27 member countries, approximately
46% of the construction and demolition waste is recycled.
After the examination of recycled aggregate standards, some
classification studies were performed based on the test results of
these aggregates, waste source and waste content. Table 2 shows
18
5% 5%
10 %
40 %
Metal
10 %
Plasc
Wood
30 %
Other
Ceramic
Concrete
Table 1
EU construction and demolition waste quantity and recycling rates [3].
Country
CDW
Recycling %
Country
CDW
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxemburg
5.27
1.51
5.21
85.65
72.40
11.04
10.12
2.54
46.31
2.32
3.45
0.67
94
92
26
45
86
5
16
80
0
46
60
46
Malta
0.8
Holland
23.9
Poland
38.19
Portuguese
11.42
Romania
21.71
Slovakia
5.38
Slovenia
2.00
Spain
31.34
Sweden
10.23
England
99.10
EU-27
531.38
Million tonnes
Recycling %
0
98
28
5
0
0
53
14
0
75
46
the allowed utilization rates of recycled aggregate in concrete production in different countries [4].
The most effective way to eliminate the waste problem in construction is reuse, recycling and reduces the construction materials
in construction activities. The most usual way to recycle concrete
rubble is indicated as bound (normal aggregate replacement in
new concrete) and unbound (road base, trench, etc.). According
to researches, acceptable recycled aggregate replacement is specified as 30% into new concrete products [5]. Silva et al. stated that
recycled aggregates usually belong to normal weight in terms of
density and almost always exhibit higher water absorption values
than normal aggregates. They concluded that selective demolition
should be promoted and enforced after their statistical analysis of
data available in the literature [6].
In a study, five mixes with water-to-cementing material (w/cm)
ratio of 0.40 were produced with various recycled aggregate contents and tested against two control mixes. The recycled aggregate
contents in the mixes were 10%, 20%, and 30% by coarse aggregate
volume replacement, as well as 10% and 20% fine and coarse (granular) aggregate volume replacement. The coarse recycled aggregate
2. Experimental procedure
Some aggregate tests were conducted in order to determine the properties of
recycled aggregates and to compare with normal aggregates. In this scope, 49
experimental samples were prepared for 10 different aggregate tests, 42 experimental samples were prepared for 6 different fresh and hardened concrete tests
and 36 experimental samples were prepared to be used in 11 different industrial
products. Mechanical and durability properties of concrete mixes which were produced by substitution of normal aggregates with recycled aggregates were determined. At the final stage of the study, industrial scale productions were carried
out with these concrete mixtures containing recycled aggregates and properties
of the industrial products were determined.
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Cement
The cement used is CEM I 42.5R type, while its specific weight is 3.14 g/cm3 and
the Blaine specific surface is 345 m2/kg. Its composition is shown in Table 3.
Table 2
Allowed recycled aggregate utilization in some countries [4].
Countries
Applications
Recycled aggregate
in volume (%)
Concrete grade
Belgium
In nonaggressive environmental
effects
In nonaggressive environmental
effects
Except in strong chemical effect
and reinforced concrete
In moisture free components
0100
Denmark
Germany
Japan
Holland
USA
In nonaggressive environmental
effects
In concrete and reinforced
concrete components
The splitting tensile strength, water absorption and wear resistance test were conducted according to EN 1338 [16]. The images
of the production and applications can be seen in the Figs. 2 and 3.
3.2. Kerb production with recycled aggregates
For the production of kerbs, the aggregates which are recycled
from construction and demolition wastes were used instead of fine
(05) mm and coarse (512) mm aggregates separately. Replacement ratios were 25% for both aggregate fractions. Product test
were conducted according to EN 1340 [13]. The images of the production can be seen in the Fig. 4.
3.3. Concrete and reinforced concrete pipes produced with recycled
aggregates
Aggregates which are recycled from construction and demolition were used in the production of concrete and reinforced concrete pipes. Replacement ratio was 10% for both (05) mm and
(512) mm sized aggregates. Thus the concrete and reinforced concrete pipes were produced with totally 20% replacement range of
normal aggregates. Diameters of 300 mm were selected for concrete and diameters of 800 mm were selected for reinforced concrete pipe productions.
Compression and pipe crushing strength tests were performed
according to EN 1916 [17]. The images of the concrete and reinforced concrete pipe products can be seen in the Figs. 5 and 6,
respectively.
4. Results and discussion
Particle size distributions of recycled fine aggregates (RFA) in 0
5 mm sized, recycled coarse aggregates (RCA) in 512 mm sized
and recycled coarse aggregates (RCA) in 1222 mm sized are represented in Fig. 7.
Based on experimental results, close and loose unit weights of
recycled aggregates have lower values than normal aggregates. It
might be because of the porous cement mortar which is adhered
to recycled aggregates. The water absorption values of recycled
aggregates were higher than that of normal aggregates (i.e. 12%
and 810% for normal and recycled aggregates, respectively). Los
Angeles wear test results of recycled aggregates increased 43%
than those of normal aggregates. Recycled and normal aggregates
showed similar results in sand equivalent, methylene blue, flakiness and determination of organic material tests.
Some physical properties of recycled and normal aggregates
were determined Experimental results of recycled and normal
aggregates are compared in Tables 4 and 5.
Table 3
Cement composition.
Composition
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
Na2O equivalent
Chloride (Cl )
Loss on ignition
19.80
4.43
3.20
63.70
1.08
2.59
0.50
2.77
19
20
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0,1
(0-5 mm)
RCA
(5-12 mm)
RCA
(12-22 mm)
10
100
Fig. 5. Concrete pipes and reinforced concrete pipe produced from C&D waste.
Table 6 shows the mix amounts of materials used in reference concrete. For C25/30, the mixing proportions are determined as follow.
Cement: water: sand (03 mm): stone powder (05 mm): crushed
aggregate
(512 mm):
crushed
aggregate
(1222 mm)
= 1:0.55:1.56:1.51:1.56:1.56. Also, the mixing proportions of
C30/37 concrete class are indicated as follow. Cement: water: sand
(03 mm): stone powder (05 mm): crushed aggregate (512 mm):
crushed aggregate (1222 mm) = 1:0.40:1.33:1.50:2.16:0.80.
In addition, specific weight of produced concretes is represented in Table 7. Since the recycled aggregates have lower specific
weight, considerable reduction is observed in the unit weight values of fresh concretes which are produced with recycled
aggregates.
21
Recycled coarse
aggregate (1222 mm)
Normal crushed
aggregate (1222 mm)
Recycled coarse
aggregate (512 mm)
Normal crushed
aggregate (512 mm)
1350
1229
2700
7.9
1.2
7.1
38.5
1547
1352
2750
0.8
0.55
9
21.9
1278
1160
2700
9.0
0.70
1564
1381
2760
0.8
0.92
Table 5
Physical properties of recycled fine aggregates and normal fine crushed aggregates.
Physical properties
Recycled fine
aggregate (05 mm)
Recycled fine
aggregate (012 mm)
Normal stone
powder (05 mm)
Normal sand
(03 mm)
1462
1298
2690
10.8
3.70
1.0
0.73
4.33
67
1469
1348
2690
8.5
4.00
1.25
0.55
6.15
62
1823
1540
2820
1.1
3.51
1.0
1.19
10.94
76
1554
1246
2700
1.1
2.04
0.75
6.76
0.6
92
Table 6
Materials used in concrete (kg/m3).
Concrete class
Cement (kg)
Sand (kg)
Slump class
C25/30
C30/37
310
360
483
480
469
465
483
671
485
288
S4
Zero slump
Table 7
Specific weight of concrete products.
Test (S4
slump)
Slump
(cm)
Unit weight
(kg/m3)
Test (0slump)
Slump
(cm)
Unit weight
(kg/m3)
40FC
40C
40F
30FC
30C
30F
20FC
20C
20F
Reference
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
19
2258
2266
2268
2273
2269
2265
2303
2301
2314
2391
25F
25C1
15F
15C1
15C2
Reference
5.5
6
5.5
5
5
5
2204
2225
2239
2295
2288
2331
Note: For S4 slump, F = fine aggregate replacement; C = coarse aggregate replacement; CF = both fine and coarse aggregate equally replacement; for 0-slump, C1 =
(512) mm sized coarse aggregate replacements; C2 = (1222) mm sized coarse
aggregate replacements; F = only crushed-stone powder replacement.
22
Table 8
Compression test results.
Test (S4 slump)
40FC
40C
40F
30FC
30C
30F
20FC
20C
20F
Ref.
28 days
SR (%)
SD
19
19
18
22
22
23
25
24
22
29
24
22
22
25
29
27
31
30
29
36
67
61
61
69
81
75
86
83
81
100
0.7
0.2
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.2
1.1
1.3
0.8
1.2
Test (0-slump)
28 days
SR (%)
SD
25F
25C1
15F
15C1
15C2
Ref.
26
28
25
32
31
32
28
33
27
34
37
38
74
87
71
89
97
100
2.5
2.3
1.7
2.1
1.3
1.8
Table 9
Splitting tensile test results.
Mixtures (C25/30)
40FC
40C
40F
30FC
30C
30F
20FC
20C
20F
Ref.
SR (%)
SD
2.9
3.1
3.4
3.6
3.0
3.2
3.2
2.9
3.2
3.9
74
79
87
92
77
82
82
74
82
100
0.2
0
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
Mixtures (0-slump)
SR (%)
SD
25F
25C1
15F
15C1
15C2
Ref.
3.5
3.7
3.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
80
84
70
95
98
100
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.1
Table 10
Rapid chloride permeability tests results.
Test
Permeability class
SD
Test (0-slump)
Permeability class
SD
40FC
40C
40F
30FC
30C
30F
20FC
20C
20F
Ref.
6122
5627
8018
6345
6550
5816
4921
5442
3811
2941
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
High
Medium
Medium
420.1
214.0
104.5
216.9
236.2
130.0
375.0
183.5
159.6
123.0
25F
25C1
15F
15C1
15C2
Ref.
6710
4266
2630
3657
2366
2425
High
High
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
91.0
261.1
215.8
140.6
201.8
139.0
23
Cement
content
(kg/m3)
Sand
(kg/m3)
Normal crushed-stone
(512 mm)/waste (5
12 mm)
(kg/m3)
Splitting
strength
28 days (MPa)
Water
absorption
28 days (%)
Reference
40% Replacement
360
360
519
509
504/0
98/376
1037/0
608/378
4.2
2.4
5.4
8.7
23.0
25.0
Table 12
Amount of mixes and test results of bordure products.
Mixture
Cement
content
(kg/m3)
Sand
(kg/m3)
Normal crushedstone
(05 mm)/waste (0
5 mm) (kg/m3)
Normal crushed-stone
(512 mm)/waste (5
12 mm) (kg/m3)
Water absorption
28 days (%)
Wear on 28th
days (mm)
Reference
25% stone powder
25% no1
420
420
420
486
477
476
471/0
0/443
462/0
970/0
953/0
475/443
5.0
3.9
4.4
4.6
6.1
5.3
22.0
24.0
22.5
Table 13
Top load strength and other test results on concrete and reinforced concrete pipes produced from recycled aggregates.
Pipe diameter
(mm) and
replacement
Cement
content
(kg/m3)
Sand (kg/m3)
Normal crushed-stone (0
5 mm)/waste (05 mm)
(kg/m3)
Normal crushed-stone (5
12 mm)/waste (512 mm)
(kg/m3)
Crushed-stone
(1222 mm)
(kg/m3)
Compression
strength after
28 days (MPa)
Crushing
strength
(kN/m)
Ref. 300
300, 20%
Ref. 800
800, 20%
400
400
400
400
841
828
544
536
342/0
150/179
378/0
186/178
762/0
558/180
719/0
517/178
0
0
292
288
48.3
37.8
52.2
42.6
49
43
140.4
129.8
[3] European Commission (DG ENV), Final Report Task 2Service Contract on
Management of Construction and Demolition Waste, 2011 (ENV.G.4/FRA/
2008/0112).
[4] F. Roos, Ein Beitrag zur Bemessung von Beton mit Zuschlag aus Rezyklierter
Gesteinskrnung nach DIN 1045-1 (Ph.D. thesis), Technische Universitt
Mnchen, 2002.
[5] V.W.Y. Tam, C.M. Tam, A review on the viable technology for construction
waste recycling, Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 47 (2006) 209221.
[6] R.V. Silva, J. Brito, R.K. Dhir, Properties and composition of recycled aggregates
from construction and demolition waste suitable for concrete production,
Constr. Build. Mater. 65 (2014) 201217.
[7] A. Lotfy, M. Al-Fayez, Performance evaluation of structural concrete using
controlled quality coarse and fine recycled concrete aggregate, Cem. Concr.
Compos. 61 (2015) 3643.
[8] T.Y. Tu, Y.Y. Chen, C.L. Hwang, Properties of HPC with recycled aggregates,
Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (2006) 943950.
[9] F. Lpez-Gayarre, C. Lpez-Colina, M.A. Serrano-Lpez, E. Garca Taengua, A.
Lpez Martnez, Assessment of properties of recycled concrete by means of a
highly fractioned factorial design of experiment, Constr. Build. Mater. 25
(2011) 38023809.
[10] P. Lovato, E. Possan, D. Dal Molin, A. Masuero, J. Ribeiro, Modeling of
mechanical properties and durability of recycled aggregate concretes, Constr.
Build. Mater. 26 (2012) 437447.
[11] EN 1097, Tests for Mechanical and Physical Properties of Aggregates.
[12] EN 933, Tests for Geometrical Properties of Aggregates.
[13] EN 1340, Concrete Kerb Units Requirements and Test Methods, 2005.
[14] EN 12390-6, Testing Hardened Concrete Tensile Splitting Strength of Test
Specimens, 2010.
[15] ASTM C1202, Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concretes
Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration, American Society for Testing and
Materials, USA, 2012.
[16] EN 1338, Concrete Paving Blocks Requirements and Test Methods, 2005.
[17] EN 1916, Concrete Pipes and Fittings, Unreinforced, Steel Fibre and Reinforced,
2005.