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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

Chapter

6
School of Civil Engineering

Sub-Structures & Bearings

6.1 BEARINGS
INTRODUCTION
Bearings are structural devices positioned between the bridge superstructure and the substructure.
Their principal functions are as follows:
To transmit loads from the superstructure to the substructure, and
To accommodate relative movements between the superstructure and the substructure.
The forces applied to a bridge bearing mainly include superstructure self-weight, traffic loads,
wind loads, and earthquake loads. Movements in bearings include translations and rotations.
Creep, shrinkage, and temperature effects are the most common causes of the translational
movements, which can occur in both transverse and longitudinal directions. Traffic loading,
construction tolerances, and uneven settlement of the foundation are the common causes of the
rotations.
Usually a bearing is connected to the super-structure through the use of a steel sole plate and rests
on the sub-structure through a steel masonry plate. The sole plate distributes the concentrated
bearing reactions to the super-structure. The masonry plate distributes the reactions to the
substructure. The connections between the sole plate and the super-structure, for steel girders, are
by bolting or welding. For concrete girders, the sole plate is embedded into the concrete with
anchor studs. The masonry plate is typically connected to the substructure with anchor bolts.
Types of Bearings
Bearings may be classified as fixed bearings and expansion bearings. Fixed bearings allow
rotations but restrict translational movements. Expansion bearings allow both rotational and
translational movements. There are numerous types of bearings available. The following are the
principal types of bearings currently in use.
Roller Bearings

Roller bearings are composed of one or more rollers between two parallel steel plates. Single roller
bearings can facilitate both rotations and translations in the longitudinal direction, while a group of
rollers would only accommodate longitudinal translations. In the latter case, the rotations are
provided by combining rollers with a pin bearing.
Roller bearings have been used in both steel and concrete bridges. Single roller bearings are
relatively cheap to manufacture, but they only have a very limited vertical load capacity. Multiple
roller bearings, on the other hand, may be able to support very large loads, but they are much more
expensive.

Lecture note by Surafel T.

FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

Chapter

6
School of Civil Engineering

Sub-Structures & Bearings

Sliding Bearings

A sliding bearing utilizes one plane metal plate sliding against another to accommodate
translations. The sliding bearing surface produces a frictional force that is applied to the
superstructure, the substructure, and the bearing itself. To reduce this friction force, PTFE (polytetrafluoro-ethylene) is often used as a sliding lubricating material. PTFE is sometimes referred to
as Teflon, named after a widely used brand of PTFE. In its common application, one steel plate
coated with PTFE slides against another plate, which is usually of stainless steel.
Elastomeric Bearings

An elastomeric bearing is made of elastomer (either natural or synthetic rubber). It accommodates


both translational and rotational movements through the deformation of the elastomer. Elastomer is
flexible in shear but very stiff against volumetric change. Under compressive load, the elastomer
expands laterally. To sustain large load without excessive deflection, reinforcement is used to
restrain lateral bulging of the elastomer. This leads to the development of several types of
elastomeric bearing pads plain, fiberglass-reinforced, cotton duck-reinforced, and steelreinforced elastomeric pads.
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings and steel plate/PTFE (Poly-tetrafluoro-ethylene). Sliding
bearings are relatively cheap and require a minimal construction height. Steel reinforced
elastomeric bearings can take movements in all directions but only to a certain limit. They are
therefore suitable for small or medium sized bridges. The bearing has to be changed after some 30
- 50 years when the rubber is worn out.

DESIGN (ERA Bridge Design Manual 2001)


Contact Stresses
Unless otherwise noted, the resistance factor for bearings, , shall be taken as 1.0.
Friction for bearings: Steel roller bearings and steel plate bearings with PTFE layer in-between
shall be designed with a friction factor of 5 % of the actual vertical load.
At the service limit state, the contact load, Ps, shall satisfy:

For cylindrical surfaces:


8WD1 Fy
Ps note by Surafel

Lecture
D1 Es T.

1 D2

FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

Chapter

6
School of Civil Engineering

Sub-Structures & Bearings

(8.1)

For spherical surfaces:


2

D1
Ps 40
1 D1

D2

Fy 3
Es 2

(8.2)

where: D1 = the diameter of the roller surface (mm), and


D2 = the diameter of the mating surface (mm) taken as:
Positive if the curvatures have the same sign, and
Infinite if the mating surface is flat.
Fy = specified minimum yield strength of the weakest steel at the contact surface (MPa)
Es = Young's modulus for steel (MPa)
W = Width of the bearing (mm)
The service limit state loads are limited so that the contact causes calculated shear stresses no
higher than Fy/3 or surface compression stresses no higher than 1.25 Fy. The maximum
compressive stress is at the surface, and the maximum shear stress occurs just below it.
Concrete Supporting the Bearing
In the absence of confinement reinforcement in the concrete supporting the bearing device, the
factored bearing resistance, Pr, shall be taken as:
Pr = Pn

for which:

Pn = 0.85 f'c A1 m

(8.3)
(8.4)

Where: Pn = nominal bearing resistance (N)


Al = area under bearing device (mm2)
m = modification factor (see formulae below)
A2 = a notional area defined in Figure 8-3 (mm2)
The modification factor (m) shall be determined as follows:
When the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the loaded area:
m = 0.75A2 /A1< 2.0
When the loaded area have non-uniformly distributed bearing stresses:
m=0.75A2 /A1 1.50
Lecture note by Surafel T.

FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

Chapter

6
School of Civil Engineering

Sub-Structures & Bearings

Where the supporting surface is sloped or stepped, A2 shall be taken as the area of the lower base
of the largest frustum of a right pyramid, cone, or tapered wedge contained wholly within the
support and having for its upper base the loaded area, and having side slopes of 1.0 vertical to 2.0
horizontal as shown in Figure 8-3 below.
When the factored applied load exceeds the factored resistance, as specified herein, provisions
shall be made to resist the bursting and spilling forces.

Load Plates and Anchor Bolts


Load Plates
The bearing together with any additional plates shall be designed so that:

The combined system is stiff enough to prevent distortions of the bearing that would impair its
proper functioning.
The bearing can be replaced within a jacking height of 400 mm without damage to the bearing,
distribution plates or supporting structure

In lieu of a more refined analysis, the load from a bearing fully supported by a grout bed shall be
assumed to be distributed at a slope of 1: 1.5, vertical to horizontal, from the edge of the smallest
element of the bearing that resist the compressive load.
Sole plate and base plate connections shall be adequate to resist lateral loads, including seismic
loads. Sole plate shall be extended to allow for anchor bolts inserts, when required.

Lecture note by Surafel T.

FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

Chapter

6
School of Civil Engineering

Sub-Structures & Bearings

Anchorages and Anchor Bolts


All girders shall be positively secured to support bearings by a connection that can resist the
horizontal forces that shall be imposed on it. Separation of bearing components shall not be
permitted. Connections shall resist the least favorable combination of loads at the Strength Limit
State and shall be installed wherever deemed necessary to prevent separation.
The factored resistance of the anchor bolts shall be greater than the factored force effects due to
Strength I or II load combinations and to all applicable extreme event load combinations. The
tensile resistance of anchor bolts shall be determined. The shear resistance of anchor bolts and
dowels shall be determined.
PTFE (Poly-tetrafluoro-ethylene)
For all applications, the thickness of the PTFE shall be at least 1.5 mm after compression.
Recessed PTFE-sheet shall be at least 4.5 mm. thick when the maximum dimension of the PTFE is
less than or equal to 600mm, and 6.0 mm when the maximum dimension of the PTFE is greater
than 600 mm. Woven fabric PTFE, which is mechanically interlocked over a metallic substrate,
shall have a minimum thickness of 1.5 mm and a maximum thickness of 3.0 mm over the highest
point of the substrate.
Mating Surface
The PTFE shall be used in conjunction with the mating surface. Flat mating surfaces shall be steel.
Stainless steel is the most commonly used mating surface for PTFE sliding surfaces. Friction
testing is required for the PTFE and its mating surface because of the many variables involved.
The finish of this mating surface is extremely important because it affects the coefficient of
friction. ASTM A 240M, Type 304, stainless steel, with a surface finish of 4.0x10 -4mm (0.40 m)
RMS or better, is appropriate, but the surface measurements are inherently inexact, and hence it is
not a specified alternative. Friction testing is required for the PTFE and its mating surface because
of the many variables involved.
Steel Mating Surfaces: The thickness of the stainless steel mating surface shall be at least 1.5 mm
when the maximum dimension of the surface is less than or equal to 300 mm and at least 3.0 mm
when the maximum dimension is larger than 300 mm.
Contact Pressure
The contact stress between the PTFE and the mating surface shall be determined at the strength
limit state using the nominal area.
Stresses shall not exceed those given in Table 8-1. Permissible stresses for intermediate filler
contents shall be obtained by linear interpolation within Table 8-1.
Average Contact Stress
Permanent All Loads
Loads
Filled Sheets with Maximum Filler
28
40
Content
Material

Lecture note by Surafel T.

Edge Contact Stress


Permanent
All
Loads
Loads
35
55

FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

Chapter

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School of Civil Engineering

Sub-Structures & Bearings

Coefficient of Friction
Where friction is required to resist non-seismic loads, the design coefficient of friction under
dynamic loading shall be taken as not more than 10 percent of the values listed in Table 8-1 for the
bearing stress and PTFE type indicated.
The coefficients of friction in Table 8-2 are based on a 0.20 m finish mating surface. Coefficients
of friction for rougher surface finishes must be established by test results.

Type PTFE
Dimpled Lubricated
Unfilled or Dimpled
Unlubricated
Filled
Woven

Pressure
MPa
Temperature oC
20
-25
20
-25
20
-25
20
-25

3.5
0.04
0.08
0.08
0.20
0.24
0.44
0.08
0.20

Coefficient of Friction
7
14
0.03
0.045
0.07
0.18
0.17
0.32
0.07
0.18

0.025
0.04
0.05
0.13
0.09
0.25
0.06
0.13

>20
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.10
0.06
0.20
0.045
0.10

Elastomeric Bearings
Steel-reinforced elastomeric bearings are treated separately from other elastomeric bearings
because of their greater strength and superior performance in practice. The design method
described in this section allows higher compressive stresses and more slender bearings than are
permitted for other types of elastomeric bearings, both of which can lead to smaller horizontal
forces on the substructure.
Material Properties
The material requirements shall be as specified in the below specifications, including shear
modulus G, and nominal hardness.
The elastomer shall have a shear modulus between 0.6 and 1.3 MPa and a nominal hardness
between 50 and 60 on the Shore A scale.
The shear modulus of the elastomer at 230C shall be used as the basis for design. If the elastomer is
specified explicitly by its shear m
odulus, that value shall be used in design, and the other properties shall be obtained from Table 83. If the material is specified by its hardness, the shear modulus shall be taken as the least
favorable value from the range for that hardness given in Table 8-3. Intermediate values may be
obtained by interpolation.
Hardness (Shore A)
50
60
70
0.66-0.90 0.90-1.38 1.38-2.07
by
0.25
0.35
0.45

Shear Modulus, G, @ 23oC (MPa)


Creep deflection @ 25 years divided
instantaneous deflection
Table 8-3 Shear Modulus, G
Shear Deformation of the Bearing
Lecture note by Surafel T.

FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

Chapter

6
School of Civil Engineering

Sub-Structures & Bearings

The maximum shear deformation of the bearing, at the service limit state, s, shall be taken as o,
modified to account for the substructure stiffness and construction procedures. If a low friction
sliding surface is installed, s need not be taken to be larger than the deformation corresponding to
first slip.
The bearing shall satisfy: hrt 2s
(8.12)
Where:hrt = total elastomer thickness (mm)
s = maximum shear deformation of the elastomer at the service limit state (mm)
The shear deformation shall be limited in order to avoid rollover at the edges and delaminating due
to fatigue.
Shape Factor
The shape factor of a layer of an elastomeric bearing, S i, shall be taken as the plan area of the layer
divided by the area of perimeter free to bulge. For rectangular bearings without holes, the shape
factor of a layer shall be taken as:
Si =

LW
2hri(L + W)

(8.5)

where: L = length of a rectangular elastomeric bearing (parallel to longitudinal bridge axis) (mm)
W= width of the bearing in the transverse direction (mm)
hri = thickness of ith elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing (mm)
Holes are strongly discouraged in steel-reinforced bearings. However, if holes are used, their effect
should be accounted for when calculating the shape factor because they reduce the loaded area and
increase the area free to bulge. The suitable shape factor formula for rectangular bearings is:
Si =

L W- d2
________ 4_________
hri(2 L+2 W + d )

(8.6)

where: d = the diameter of the hole or holes in the bearing (mm)


Design Requirements
Steel-reinforced bearings are designed to resist relatively high stresses. Their integrity depends on
good quality control during manufacture, which can only be ensured by rigorous testing.
Bearings designed by the provisions herein shall be tested in accordance with the requirements in
the Technical Specifications or in Ref. 3, or similar method approved by the Engineer.
Compressive Stress: In any elastomeric bearing layer, the average compressive stress at the
service limit state shall satisfy:

For bearings subject to shear deformation:


s1.66 G S 11.0 MPa

(8.7)

L 0.66 G S
For bearings fixed against shear deformation:

(8.8)

Lecture note by Surafel T.

FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

Chapter

6
School of Civil Engineering

Sub-Structures & Bearings

s 2.0 G S 12.0 MPa

(8.9)

L 1.0 G S
(8.10)
Where: s = service average compressive stress due to the total load (MPa)
L = service average compressive stress due to live load (MPa)
G = shear modulus of elastomer (MPa)
S = shape factor of the thickest layer of the bearing
These provisions limit the shear stress and strain in the elastomer. The relationship between the
shear stress and the applied compressive load depends directly on the shape factor, with higher
shape factors leading to higher capacities.
Compressive Deflection of Elastomeric Bearings
Deflections of elastomeric bearings due to total load and to live load alone shall be considered
separately. Instantaneous deflection shall be taken as:
= i hri

(8.11)

where: i = instantaneous compressive strain in ith elastomer layer of a laminated bearing


hri = thickness of ith elastomeric layer in a laminated bearing (mm)
Values for i shall be determined from Figure 8-4 (stress strain curve), test results or by analysis
when considering long-term deflections. The effects of creep of the elastomer shall be added to the
instantaneous deflection. Creep effects should be determined from information relevant to the
elastomeric compound used, or from the above specifications.
Limiting instantaneous deflections is important to ensure that deck joints and seals are not
damaged. Furthermore, bearings that are too flexible in compression could cause a small step in
the road surface at a deck joint when traffic passes from one girder to the other, giving rise to
impact loading. A maximum relative deflection across a joint of 3 mm is suggested. Joints and
seals that are sensitive to relative deflections may require limits that are tighter than this.

Figure 8-4: Stress-Strain Curves


Combined Compression and Rotation of Bearings
Lecture note by Surafel T.

FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

Chapter

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School of Civil Engineering

Sub-Structures & Bearings

The provisions of this section shall apply at the service limit state. Rotations shall be taken as the
maximum sum of the effects of initial lack of parallelism and subsequent girder end rotation due to
imposed loads and movements.
Bearings shall be designed so that uplift does not occur under any combination of loads and
corresponding rotations.
Rectangular bearings shall be taken to satisfy uplift requirements if they satisfy:
s B
s 1.0GS

n hri

(8.13)

Rectangular bearings subjected to shear deformation shall also satisfy:

s B
s 1.875GS 1 0.20

n hri

(8.14)

Rectangular bearings fixed against shear deformation shall also satisfy:

s B
s 2.25GS 1 0.167

n hn

(8.15)

Where: n = number of interior layers of elastomer


hri = height of the ith elastomer layer (mm)
s = stress in elastomer (MPa)
B = length of pad if rotation is about its transverse axis, or width of pad if rotation is about
its longitudinal axis (mm)
s = maximum service rotation due to the total load (RAD)
A rectangular bearing should normally be oriented so its long side is parallel to the axis about
which the largest rotation occurs. The critical location in the bearing for both compression and
rotation is then at the midpoint of the long side. If rotation occurs about both axes, uplift and
excessive compression should be investigated in both directions.
Bearing Type
Fixed Rectangular
Movable Rectangular

s_
GS
1.636
1.364

s B

n hri

1.636
1.364

Table 8-5 Steel-Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings - Balanced Design

Stability of Elastomeric Bearings


Bearings shall be investigated for instability at the service limit state load combinations specified
in Table 3-2.
Bearings where 2A B (A and B as per below) shall be considered stable, and no further
investigation of stability is required. For which:

1.92hri / L

2.0L
W
Lecture note by Surafel T.
S 1

(8.16)
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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

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Sub-Structures & Bearings

2.67
L

S(S 20) 1

4W

(8.17)

Where: G = shear modulus of the elastomer (MPa)


L =length of a rectangular bearing (parallel to longitudinal bridge axis) (mm)
W =width of the bearing in the transverse direction (mm)
For a rectangular bearing where L is greater than W, stability shall be investigated by interchanging
L and W in Equations 8.16 and 8.17.
For rectangular bearings, the service average compressive stress due to the total load, s, shall
satisfy:

If the bridge deck is free to translate horizontally:


s <
G
2A - B
If the bridge deck is fixed against horizontal translation:
s

(8.18)

G
AB

Reinforcement of Bearings
The thickness of the steel reinforcement, hs, shall satisfy the following:

At the service limit state:


hs

3hr max s
Fy

(8.20)

At the fatigue limit state:


hs

2.0hr max s
FTH

(8.21)

Where: FTH = Constant amplitude fatigue threshold of 165 MPa


hr max = thickness of thickest elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing (mm)
L = service average compressive stress due to live load (MPa)
s = service average compressive stress due to total load (MPa)
Fy = yield strength of steel reinforcement (MPa)
If holes exist in the reinforcement, the minimum thickness shall be increased by a factor equal to
twice the gross width divided by the net width.

Lecture note by Surafel T.

10

FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

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Design Example
For the girder bridge that is designed in chapter 5(superstructure design); design an Elastomeric
bearing that can be placed between the abutment and exterior girder.
Given
L
= expandable span length
Reaction form girder design
RDL = Self weight reaction
=Reaction due to the diaphragm

RLL

qs
T
SH
G

= DW reaction
`
= LL reaction (without impact)/girder
Lane load
Truck load
= bearing design rotation at service limit state
= maximum temperature change
= girder shortening due to concrete shrinkage
= shear modulus of elastomer
= load factor for uniform temperature, etc.

Lecture note by Surafel T.

= 16.6m
= 231.4 KN
= 3.04 KN
234.44KN
= 20.25 KN
= 53.04 KN
= 266.63KN
319.67KN
= 0.025 rad
= 25C
= 10 mm
= 0.9 ~ 1.38 MPa
= 1.2
11

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Using 60 durometer reinforced bearing:


Fy = yield strength of steel reinforcement

Sub-Structures & Bearings

= 350 MPa

Sliding bearing used:


1. Temperature Movement
For normal density concrete, the thermal coefficient

is

2. Girder Shortenings
3. Bearing Thickness
hrt= total elastomer thickness
hri= thickness of ith elastomeric layer
n= number of interior layers of elastomeric layer
s = bearing maximum longitudinal movement = . (TEMP + SH)
s = 1.2 x (4.48mm + 10mm) = 17.38mm
hrt = bearing thickness 2s . Page 6 eq. 8.12
hrt = 2(17.38mm) = 34.76mm
Try hrt = 100mm, hri = 20mm and n = 4
4. Bearing Size
L = length of bearing; W = width of bearing; G=1MPa
Si = shape factor of thickness layer of the bearing =
For a bearing subjected to shear deformation, the compressive stress should satisfy:
= average compressive stress due to the total load 1.66GS 11
= average compressive stress due to the live load 1.66GS

Using service limit state II


R=1.0VDC+1.0VDW+1.3VLL=234.44+20.25+1.3(319.67) = 670.26KN

Assuming

is critical, solving for L and W by trial and error

L= 450mm and W = 300mm


Lecture note by Surafel T.

12

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0.66GS=0.66(1MPa)(4.5MPa)=2.97MPa
5. Instantaneous Compressive Deflection

For

= 4.96MPa and S = 4.5, one can determine the values of

from figure

For S=5 .. 4.49%


For S=4 ...5.9%
For S=4.5.....?
Interpolated
5.2%

6. Bearing Maximum Rotation


The bearing rotation capacity can be calculated as

..OK
7. Combined Bearing Compression and Rotation
s B

n hri

=1.364 from table 8.5 (ERA bridge design manual 2002)

a. Uplift requirement
Rectangular bearing shall satisfy
Using ERA Bridge Design Manual

b. Shear deformation requirement


Lecture note by Surafel T.

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8. Bearing Stability
Bearings shall be designed to prevent instability at the service limit state load
combinations.
For a rectangular bearing where L is greater than W, stability shall be investigated by
interchanging L and W in Equations 8.16 and 8.17.

Where

2A=2(0.0186) =

> B = 0.0224

.. Check using eq. 8.18

OK

9. Bearing Steel Reinforcement


The bearing steel reinforcement must be designed to sustain the tensile stresses induced by
compression of the bearing. The thickness of steel reinforcement, hs, should satisfy:
At the service limit state:

Where hmax = thickness of thickest elastomeric layer in elastomeric bearing = hri.


Elastomeric Bearings Details
Four interior lays with 20 mm thickness each layer
Two exterior lays with 10 mm thickness each layer
Five steel reinforcements with 0.9 mm each
Total thickness of bearing is 104.5 mm
Lecture note by Surafel T.

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Bearing size: 450 mm (longitudinal) X 300 mm (transverse)

6.2 ABUTMENT AND WINGWALL


ABUTMENTS
Abutments are used at the ends of bridges to retain the embankment and carry the vertical and
horizontal forces from the superstructure. They could be designed as piers or retaining walls and
they should be able to withstand against overturning and sliding. The footings should be designed
to avoid differential settlement and excessive horizontal movements.
Although there are numerous types of abutments and the abutments for the important bridges may
be extremely complicated, the analysis principles and design methods are very similar
ABUTMENT TYPES
There are different types of abutments depending on their shape and the way they are arranged
with the road or the waterway, as well as the slope of the embankment.

Lecture note by Surafel T.

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From the view of the relation between the bridge abutment and roadway or water flow that the
bridge over crosses, bridge abutments can be divided into two categories: open end abutment and
closed end abutment,
I.

Open end abutment


In open end abutment there are slopes between the bridge abutment face and the edge of the
roadway or river canal that the bridge over crosses. Those slopes provide a wide open area for
the traffic flows or water flows under the bridge It imposes much less impact on the
environment and the traffic flows under the bridge than a closed-end abutment. Also, future
widening of the roadway or water flow canal under the bridge by adjusting the slope ratios is
easier. However, the existence of slopes usually requires longer bridge spans and some extra
earthwork. This may result in an increase in the bridge construction cost.

Open End, Monolithic Type Abutment

Open End, Short Stem Seat Type Abutment

II. Closed End Abutment


The closed-end abutment is usually constructed close to the edge of the roadways or water
canals. Because of the vertical clearance requirements and the restrictions of construction
right of way, there are no slopes allowed to be constructed between the bridge abutment face
and the edge of roadways or water canals, and high abutment walls must be constructed. Since
there is no room or only a little room between the abutment and the edge of traffic or water
flow, it is very difficult to do the future widening to the roadways and water flow under the
bridge. Also, the high abutment walls and larger backfill volume often result in higher
abutment construction costs and more settlement of road approaches than for the open-end
abutment.

Lecture note by Surafel T.

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Closed End, Monolithic Type Abutment

Sub-Structures & Bearings

Closed End, High Stem seat Type Abutment

From the view of the how the bridge abutment support the embankment we can classify the bridge
abutments into different categories.
I. Full Height Abutment
A full height abutment is constructed at the lower level roadway and should support the entire
embankment. This abutment is costly and is generally used in congested urban and
metropolitan area where structure depth is critical.

II. Semi-stub Abutment


A semi-stub abutment is constructed somewhere between the top and bottom of an
embankment and its height is between height of full and stub abutment.

Lecture note by Surafel T.

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III. Stub Abutment


A stub abutment is built at the top of embankment slope and is considered as the best type of
abutment for avoiding rough and settled approach pavements. A stub abutment is economical
but gives a longer span length and a higher superstructure cost. However, the overall
structure would be less costly than other alternate

IV. Integral Abutment


Integral abutment is stub abutment on single row of flexible piles and constructed without
joints. Integral abutments allow the expansion and contraction through movement at the
abutments.

ABUTMENT TYPE SELECTION


The selection of an abutment type needs to consider all available information and bridge design
requirements. Those may include bridge geometry, roadway and riverbank requirements,
geotechnical and right-of-way restrictions, aesthetic requirements, economic considerations, etc.
Knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages for the different types of abutments will greatly
benefit the bridge designer in choosing the right type of abutment for the bridge structure from the
beginning stage of the bridge design.
DESIGN CONSIDERATION
Lecture note by Surafel T.

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Abutment design loads usually include vertical and horizontal loads from the bridge
superstructure, vertical and lateral soil pressures, abutment gravity load, and the live-load
surcharge on the abutment backfill materials. An abutment should be designed so as to withstand
damage from the Earth pressure, the gravity loads of the bridge superstructure and abutment, live
load on the superstructure or the approach fill, wind loads, and the transitional loads transferred
through the connections between the superstructure and the abutment. Any possible combinations
of those forces, which produce the most severe condition of loading, should be investigated in
abutment design.
Abutment Design Loads (Service Load Design)
Abutment Design Loads
Dead load of superstructure
Dead load of wall and footing
Dead load of earth on heel of wall including surcharge
Dead load of earth on toe of wall
Earth pressure on rear of wall including surcharge
Live load on superstructure
Temperature and shrinkage
Allowable pile capacity of allowable soil pressure in % or basic

I
X
X
X
X
X
X

100

II
X
X
X
X
X

100

Case
III

X
X
X
X

150

IV
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
125

V
X
X

150

Configuration of abutment design load and load combinations.


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Under seismic loading, the abutment may be designed at no support loss to the bridge
superstructure while the abutment may suffer some damages during a major earthquake.
The current AASHTO Bridge Design Specifications recommend that either the service load design
or the load factor design method be used to perform an abutment design. However, due to the
uncertainties in evaluating the soil response to static, cycling, dynamic, and seismic loading, the
service load design method is usually used for abutment stability checks and the load factor
method is used for the design of abutment components.
For the abutment with spread footings under service load, the factor of safety to resist sliding
should be greater than 1.5; the factor of safety to resist overturning should be greater than
2.0; the factor of safety against soil bearing failure should be greater than 3.0. For the abutment
with pile support, the piles have to be designed to resist the forces that cause abutment sliding,
overturning, and bearing failure. The pile design may utilize either the service load design method
or the load factor design method.
SEISMIC DEISGN CONSIDERATIONS
Investigations of past earthquake damage to the bridges reveal that there are commonly two types
of abutment earthquake damage stability damage and component damage.
Abutment stability damage during an earthquake is mainly caused by foundation failure due to
excessive ground deformation or the loss of bearing capacities of the foundation soil. Those
foundation failures result in the abutment suffering tilting, sliding, settling, and overturning. The
foundation soil failure usually occurs because of poor soil conditions, such as soft soil, and the
existence of a high water table. In order to avoid these kinds of soil failures during an earthquake,
borrowing backfill soil, pile foundations, a high degree of soil compaction, pervious materials, and
drainage systems may be considered in the design.
Abutment component damage is generally caused by excessive soil pressure, which is mobilized
by the large relative displacement between the abutment and its backfilled soil. Those excessive
pressures may cause severe damage to abutment components such as abutment back walls and
abutment wingwalls. However, the abutment component damages do not usually cause the bridge
superstructure to lose support at the abutment and they are repairable. This may allow the bridge
designer to utilize the deformation of abutment backfill soil under seismic forces to dissipate the
seismic energy to avoid the bridge losing support at columns under a major earthquake strike.
For seismic loads in the transverse direction, the same general principles still apply. The 61mm
displacement limit also applies in the transverse direction, if the abutment stiffness is expected to
be maintained. Usually, wingwalls are tied to the abutment to stiffen the bridge transversely. The
lateral resistance of the wingwall depends on the soil mass that may be mobilized by the wingwall.
For a wingwall with the soil sloped away from the exterior face, little lateral resistance can be
predicted. In order to increase the transverse resistance of the abutment, interior supplemental
shear walls may be attached to the abutment or the wingwall thickness may be increased, as shown
in Figure. In some situations larger deflection may be satisfactory if a reasonable load path can be
provided to adjacent bents and no collapse potential is indicated

Lecture note by Surafel T.

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Based on the above guidelines, abutment analysis can be carried out more realistically by a trial
and error method on abutment soil springs. The criterion for abutment seismic resistance design
may be set as follows.
Monolithic Abutment or Diaphragm Abutment
With Footing

EQL Rsoil +Vdiaphragm

EQT Vww + Vkey


Vkeys = 0.75(Vpiles) for pile
footing
Vkeys = (Dead Load reaction
@
bottom of footing)
Without Footing

EQL Rsoil +Vdiaphragm

EQT Vww +

Seismic resistance elements for monolithic abutment. With Footing

Seismic resistance elements for monolithic abutment. Without Footing


Lecture note by Surafel T.

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Seat-Type Abutment
Seat Type Abutment

EQL Rsoil

EQT Vkey
+ 0.75(Vpiles) for pile

Vkeys = Vww
footing
Vkeys = Vww + (Dead Load
reaction @
bottom of

Seismic resistance elements for seat-type abutment.


Where
EQL= longitudinal earthquake force from an elastic analysis
EQT= transverse earthquake force from an elastic analysis
Rsoil= resistance of soil mobilized behind abutment
Rdiaphragm= times the nominal shear strength of the diaphragm
Rww=times the nominal shear strength of the wingwall
Rpiles=times the nominal shear strength of the piles
Rkeys=times the nominal shear strength of the keys in the direction of consideration
= strength factor for seismic loading
= coefficient factor between soil and concrete face at abutment bottom
It is noted that the purpose of applying a factor of 0.75 to the design of shear keys is to reduce the
possible damage to the abutment piles. For all transverse cases, if the design transverse earthquake
force exceeds the sum of the capacities of the wingwalls and piles, the transverse stiffness for the
analysis should equal zero (EQT = 0). Therefore, a released condition which usually results in
larger lateral forces at adjacent bents should be studied.

Lecture note by Surafel T.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN

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Responding to seismic load, bridges usually accommodate a large displacement. To provide


support at abutments for a bridge with large displacement, enough support width at the abutment
must be designed.

The minimum abutment support width, as shown in Figure below, may be equal to the bridge
displacement resulting from a seismic elastic analysis or be calculated as shown in Equation below,
whichever is larger:
N = (305 + 2.5L +10H)(1+ 0.002 S2 )
Where
N= support width (mm)
L= length (m) of the bridge deck to the adjacent expansion joint, or to the end of bridge deck; for
single-span bridges L equals the length of the bridge deck
S= angle of skew at abutment in degrees
H= average height (m) of columns or piers supporting the bridge deck from the abutment to the
adjacent expansion joint, or to the end of the bridge deck; H= 0 for simple span bridges

Seat Type Abutment


Monolithic Abutment
Abutment support width (seismic).
ABUTMENT WINGWALL
Abutment wingwalls act as a retaining structure to prevent the abutment backfill soil and the
roadway soil from sliding transversely. Several types of wingwall for highway bridges are shown
next page. A wingwall design similar to the retaining wall design, however, live-load surcharge
needs to be considered in wingwall design. Bridge wingwalls may be designed to sustain some
damage in a major earthquake, as long as bridge collapse is not predicted.
Lecture note by Surafel T.

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Cantilever Wingwall

Simple Support Wingwall

Continous Support Wingwall


Live Load Surcharges for Wingwall Design
Highway truck loading
2 ft 0 in. (610 mm) equivalent soil
Rail loading E-60
7 ft 6 in. (2290 mm) equivalent soil
Rail loading E-70
8 ft 9 in. (2670 mm) equivalent soil
Rail loading E-80
10 ft 0 in. (3050 mm) equivalent soil
Design loading for cantilever wingwall.

Abutment Slope Protection and Drainage


Lecture note by Surafel T.

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The drainage system embedded in the abutment backfill soil is designed to reduce the possible
buildup of hydrostatic pressure, to control erosion of the roadway embankment, and to reduce the
possibility of soil liquefaction during an earthquake.
Flow water scoring may severely damage bridge structures by washing out the bridge abutment
support soil. To reduce water scoring damage to the bridge abutment, pile support, rock slope
protection and concrete slope paving may be used. The stability of the rock and concrete slope
protection should be considered in the design. An enlarged block is usually designed at the toe of
the protections

Typical abutment drainage system.


MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY; BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL - 2002
ABUTMENTS
Abutments shall be investigated for:
lateral earth pressures, including any live and dead load surcharge,
the self-weight of the abutment
temperature and shrinkage deformation effects, and
Earthquake loads, as specified in Chapter 3: Load Requirements.
Abutments shall be investigated for excessive displacements at the service limit state.
Earth pressures used in design of abutments should be selected consistent with the requirement that
the abutment should not move more than 35 mm laterally.
Surveys of the performance of bridges indicate those horizontal abutment movements less than 35
mm can be tolerated by bridge superstructures without significant damage.
Design of abutments and walls shall be investigated at the strength limit states for:
Bearing resistance failure,
Lateral sliding,
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Excessive loss of base contact,


Overall instability,
Pull out failure of anchors or soil reinforcements, and
Structural failure.
The conditions governing the design depends on:
Type and function of retaining structure,
Earth pressure exerted on the wall by the retained backfill,
Geometry of the ground and the structure,
Strength of the ground,
Ground deformability,
Groundwater, and
Swelling pressure in clay backfills.
In the design of abutment the factored resistance, RR, calculated for each applicable limit state
shall be the nominal resistance, Rn, multiplied by an appropriate resistance factor, .
Abutments, piers, and retaining structures and their foundations and other supporting elements
shall be proportioned for all applicable load combinations specified in CHAPTER 3 Load Factors
and Combinations.
WINGWALL AND RETAINING WALL DESIGN
Wingwalls may either be designed as monolithic with (attached to) the abutment, or be separated
from the abutment wall with an expansion joint and designed to be free standing. The wingwall
lengths shall be computed using the cone and the required roadway slopes. Wingwalls shall be of
sufficient length to retain the roadway embankment and to furnish protection against erosion. The
bottom side of the attached wingwalls shall be buried at least 1.0 m under the slope surface,
measured perpendicular to the slope.

Typical Parallel and 45Wingwalls Attached to the Abutment

Lecture note by Surafel T.

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The vertical stems of cantilever walls shall be designed as cantilevers supported at the base. An
expansion joint shall always be applied between RC wingwall rigidly attached to the abutment and
a free standing RC retaining wall.

Design Example
A concrete T-girder bridge that is designed in Chapter 5 (Superstructure Design) is proposed to
overcrossing a river as shown in Figure below. Based on the roadway requirement and
geotechnical information, an open-end, seat-type abutment is selected. The abutment in transverse
direction is 10m wide and with 5 skew. From the bridge analysis, the loads on abutment and
bridge displacements are as listed below:
Load from the Bridge Analysis
Superstructure dead load, RDC = 231.4KN
Wearing Surface dead load, RDW = 20.25KN

Elastomeric bearing size L=450mm,


W=300mm, H=104.5mm

From Diaphragm
= 3.04KN+ (1.3m)(0.25m)(1m)(24KN/m3)
= 10.84KN
Geotechnical Information
Live load reaction, RLL+IM = 407.12KN
Live-load surcharge = 0.6m
Bearing pad capacity
Unit weight of backfill soil = 19KN/m3
Bridge temperature and shrinkage displacement
Allowable soil bearing pressure = 0.45MPa
= 17.38 mm
Soil lateral pressure coefficient (Ka) = 0.3
Assumed Bridge seismic displacement = 100 mm
Friction coefficient = tan 33
Design Strength of Materials
Reinforcement yield stress, fy = 400MPa; Concrete strength, fc= 20MPa; c = 24KN/m3
Design Criteria
Abutment design Load factor method
Abutment stabilityService load method
Design Assumptions
I.
Superstructure vertical loading acting on the center line of abutment footing;
II.
The soil passive pressure by the soil at abutment toe is neglected;
Lecture note by Surafel T.

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III.
IV.

Sub-Structures & Bearings

A full Earth quick analysis isnt done here, only we conceder the displacement due to earth
quick as per the code requirement.
0.2m wide of wing wall is used in the design.

1. Abutment Support Width Design


Using equation N = (305 + 2.5L +10H)(1+ 0.002 S2 )
L = 16.6 m, H = 0m, S = 5
N = [305 + 2.5(16.6) + 10(0)][1 + 0.002(52)] = 363.83mm
Add 17.38mm required temperature and shrinkage movement, the total required
support width equals 381.21mm.
The required minimum support width for seismic case equals the sum of the bridge
seismic displacement, the bridge temperature and shrinkage displacement, and the
reserved edge displacement (usually 75 mm). In this example, this requirement
equals 192.38mm, not in control.
We have a bearing length of 450mm, add 75mm for edge distance and add
17.38mm for temperature and shrinkage displacement; this requirement equals
542.38mm.The design uses 550 mm.
A preliminary abutment configuration is shown in Figure below based on the given
information and calculated support width.
Lecture note by Surafel T.

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2. Abutment Stability Check


Figure below shows the abutment force diagram,
Where:qsc = soil lateral pressure by live-load surcharge
qe = soil lateral pressure
PDL = superstructure dead load
PLL = Live load
F = longitudinal live load due to breaking force
hsc = height of live-load surcharge
= unit weight of soil
Wi = weight of abutment component and soil block
Longitudinal live load (Braking Force-BR):- Chapter 2 Page 7
BR = 25% of the vehicular live load
Along one direction one design lane loaded
BR = 0.25(145KN + 145KN + 35KN) = 81.25KN
Braking force including multiple presence factor
=81.25KN*1.2 = 97.5KN
This shall be applied equally at all the bearing
Braking force per bearing = 97.5/3 = 32.5KN
This force is applied at the top of the bearing or 104.5mm above the top of the
abutment.

Using Service I limit state


Lecture note by Surafel T.

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F=1.0(32.5KN) = 32.5KN
For Superstructure load vertical, Fv = 1.0RDC + 1.0RDW + 1.0RLL+IM
PDL = 1.0(231.4 + 10.84) + 1.0(20.25) = 262.49KN
PLL = 1.0(407.12) = 407.12KN

The calculated vertical loads, lateral loads, and moment about point A are listed in Table

Load Description
Backwall (W1)
Stem (W2)
Footing (W3)
Backfill soil (W4)
Back soil, lateral
Soil surcharge
Front soil (W5)
Wing walls
PDL
PLL
F

Vertical Forces, Lateral Forces, and Moment about Point A


Vertical Load (KN)
Lateral
Arm to A
Load
(m)
(KN)
= (0.3)(1.405)(24) = 10.12

2.428
= (0.85)(2.5)(24) = 51

2.153
= (4)(0.7)(24) = 67.2

2.0
= (3.9)(1.425)(19) = 105.59

3.291

61.41
1.53

15.64
2.3
= (1)(1.728)(19) = 32.83

0.864
=(0.5)(0.9+3.9)(4.58)(0.2)(24)=52.76

5.483
= 262.49

2.0
= 407.12

2.0

32.5
3.195

Moment at
A (KN.m)
24.57
109.8
134.4
347.5
93.96
35.97
28.37
289.28
524.98
814.24
103.84

The maximum and minimum soil pressure at abutment footing are calculated by

Where:= soil bearing pressure


P = resultant of vertical forces
B = abutment footing width
Lecture note by Surafel T.

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e = eccentricity of resultant of forces and the center of footing

M= total moment to point A


Referring to the Table above and Eqs. (6.2.1) and (6.2.2) the maximum and minimum soil
pressures under footing corresponding to different load cases are calculated. Using Service
load design I or IV (note: - they will give the maximum vertical load)
P = 10.12 + 51 + 67.2 + 105.59 + 32.83 + 52.76 + 262.49 + 407.12 =
M=24.57 + 109.8 + 134.4 + 347.5 + 28.37 + 289.28 + 524.98 + 814.24 =

KN
KN.m

B = 4m

Since the soil bearing pressures are less than the allowable soil bearing pressure, the
soil bearing stability is OK.
Check for the stability resisting the overturning (load case III control):
Note: - this check is done without the wingwall (at the middle section of the abutment)
Load Case III

Load Case
III

Driving Moment
129.93

Resist Moment
644.64

Factor of Safety
4.96

Evaluate
OK

Checking for the stability resisting the sliding (load case III control)
Note: - this check is done without the wingwall (at the middle section of the abutment)
Load Case III

Load Case
III

Driving Force
77.05

Resist Force
173.22

Factor of Safety
2.25

Evaluation
OK

3. Abutment Backwall and Stem Design


The maximum factored loads for abutment backwall and stem are
Lecture note by Surafel T.

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Using Load factor method


1.25DC + 1.5DW +1.75LL +1.5EH + 1.35EV +1.5ES
Where:EH .Horizontal earth pressure
EV .Vertical earth pressure
ES ..Earth Surcharge due to live load
For section A-A
q1 = 1.5 x (0.3)(19)(1.405) x 10-3 = 0.012MPa
qsc = 1.5 x (0.3)(19)(0.6) x 10-3 = 0.0051MPa
VA = [(0.5)(0.012)(1405)(1000) + (0.0051)(1405)(1000)] x 10-3 =

KN

MA = [(0.5)(0.012)(1405)(1000)(1405/3) + (0.0051)(1405)(1000)(1405/2)] x 10-6 =


For section B-B
q = 1.5 x (0.3)(19)(3.9) x 10-3 = 0.0333Mpa

KN.m

PDL,LL = 1.25(231.4 + 10.84) + 1.5(20.25) + 1.75(407.12) =


F=1.75(32.5KN) = 56.88KN
VB = [(0.5)(0.0333 + 0.012)(2495)(1000) + (0.0051)(2495)(1000)] x 10-3 + 56.88 =
MB = [(0.012)(2495)(1000)(2495/2) + (0.5)(0.0333 0.012)(2495)(1000)(2495/3)]
x 10-6 + [(1045.64)(150) + (56.88)(2600)] x 10-3 =
KN.m

KN

Abutment Backwall
Design of reinforcement
Mu = 15.6KN.m; Using 12
Steel ratio =

Here, d = 220 cover diameter/2 = 300 50 12/2 = 244 mm

min = 0.03 *20/400 = 0.0015 > 0.0007


Lecture note by Surafel T.

Hence provide a minimum reinforcement.


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As = 0.0015 * 1000 * 244 = 366 mm

Spacing of 12 bars = (6)2 *1000/ 366 = 309 mm


Provide 12 bars c/c 300 mm
Design for shear

No shear reinforcement needed.


Abutment Stem
Abutment stem could be designed based on the applying moment variations along the
abutment wall height. Here only the section at the bottom of stem is designed.
Design of reinforcement
364.2KN.m
Using 20
Here, d = 850 cover diameter/2 = 850 50 20/2 = 790 mm

min = 0.03 *20/400 = 0.0015 > 0.00165


As = 0.00165 * 1000 * 790 = 1303.05 mm
Spacing of

Hence OK.
2

20 bars = (10)2 *1000/ 1303.05 = 241.1mm

Provide

20 bars c/c 240mm

Design for shear

No shear reinforcement needed.

4. Abutment Footing Design


Considering load combinations of Strength I, the soil bearing pressure diagram under the
abutment footing are calculated and shown in Figure below.
P = 1.25*10.12 + 1.25*51 + 1.25*67.2 + 1.35*105.59 + 1.35*32.83 + 1.25*52.76 + 333.18
+ 1.75*407.12 =

KN

M=1.25*24.57 + 1.25*109.8 + 1.25*134.4 + 1.35*347.5 + 1.35*28.37 + 1.25*289.28 +


666.35 + 1.75*814.24 =

KN.m

B = 4m

Lecture note by Surafel T.

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Using 16
Here, d = 700 cover diameter/2 = 700 75 16/2 = 617 mm

Bearing pressure under abutment footing


a. Design forces:
Section at front face of abutment stem (design for flexural reinforcement):
qa-a = 0.406MPa
Ma-a = 940.996kNm
From the back face of abutment stem (design for shear reinforcement):
qb-b = 0.45MPa
Vb-b = 1077.3kN
b. Design flexural reinforcing (footing bottom):
Try #8 at 12, with 3 in. (75 mm) clearance at bottom
d = 30 3 1 = 660 mm

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No shear reinforcement needed.


Since the minimum soil bearing pressure under the footing is in compression, the tension at
the footing top is not the case. However, the minimum temperature reinforcing, 652 mm2/m
needs to be provided. Using #5 at 305mm at the footing top yields
As = 656 mm2/m
OK

5. Abutment Wingwall Design


The geometry of wingwall is
h = 900 mm;
S = 600 mm
H = 3900 mm;
L = 6000mm
Referring to the Figure below, the design loads are

Lecture note by Surafel T.

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No shear reinforcing needed.


Since the wingwall is allowed to be broken off in a major earthquake, the adjacent bridge
columns have to be designed to sustain the seismic loading with no wingwall resistance. The
abutment section, footing, and wingwall reinforcing details are shown in Figures 4.17a
and b.

Lecture note by Surafel T.

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(a) Abutment typical section design (example). (b) Wingwall reinforcing (example).

Lecture note by Surafel T.

37

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