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Applications
for reproduction
of this book
or parts thereof, should be directed to:
EMC Proceedings
Editor, ETH Zentrum - IKT,
8092 Zurich, Switzerland.
EMC
7985
Honorary Patron:
Mr. F. Locher, Berne
Under the auspices of:
Mr. R. Trachsel, Director-General of the Swiss PTT, Berne
Sponsor:
Association of Swiss Electrotechnicians
(SEVIASE)
Organized by:
Institute for Communication Technology of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich
Cooperating:
International Union of Radio Science (URSI), Convention of the
National Societies of Electrical Engineers of W. Europe (EUREL),
international Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR), IEEE Electromagnetic Compatibility Society, IEEE Switzerland Section,
Association of Polish Electrical Engineers (SEP), Committee AE-4
on Electromagnetic Compatibility of the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE), Information Technology Society of the SEV (ITG)
Organizing Commlttee:
Prof. Dr. P. Leuthold, Zurich (Symposium President); E. Diinner, Zurich
(Vice-President); Prof. Dr. F. L. Stumpers, Eindhoven (Vice-President);
Dr. T. DvoNk, Zurich (Organizing Chairman); Prof. Dr. R. M. Showers,
Philadelphia (Technical Program Chairman); H. K. Mertel, San Diego
(Workshops Program Chairman); U. Welte, Zurich (Exhibition Chairman); B. Szentkuti, Berne (Publicity Chairman); Dr. M. lanovici,
Lausanne (Joint Events Chairman); R. Bandle, Zurich; R. Danieli, Zug;
G. Meyer, Stafa; J. @rum, Zurich (Chairpersons, Local Arrangements);
G. Georg, Allenwinden (Treasurer); Mrs. E. Danieli, Zug; Mrs. V.
Szentkuti, Berne (Ladies Program).
Technical Program Committee:
Chairman: Prof. Dr. R. M. Showers
Prof. Dr. P. Degauque, Villeneuve-dAscq; Dr. T. Dvorak, Zurich (Pro
ceedings Editor); Prof. Dr. C. Egidi, Turin; Dr. J. J. Goedbloed,
Eindhoven; Prof. Dr. S. Lundquist, Uppsala; Dr. A. D. Spaulding,
Boulder; Dr. R. Sturm, Munster; Dr. A. Whitehouse, London; Prof.
Dr. F. Zach. Wien.
Advisory CommIttee:
H. Bachmann, Noordwijk; Prof. Dr. F. E. Gardiol, Lausanne (Swiss National Committee of the URSI); Ft. Gressmann, Bruxelles (EBU); J.
Hamelin, Lannion; J. S. Hill, Springfield (IEEE EMCS); G. A. Jackson,
Leatherhead; R. C. Kirby, Geneva (CCIR); J. L. Moe, Fort Worth (SAE
AE-4); Prof. Dr. J. J. Morf, Lausanne; W. Moron, Wroclaw (SEP); Prof.
Dr. J. Neirynck, Lausanne (IEEE Switzerland Section); Prof. Dr. R.
Sato, Sendai; Ch. Scherrer, Berne (BAUEM); Prof. Dr. Ft. Struzak,
Wroclaw; Prof. Dr. A. Wedam, Ljubljana; Prof. Dr. R. Zwicky, Zurich.
79754985:
Certificates of Acknowledgement:
(for outstanding support of the Symposium)
J. S. Hill (1977), H. K. Mertel (1977), J. C. Toler (1977).
Prof. Dr. F. L. Stumpers (1983)
I Year
Attendance
Papers in Record
Exhibitors
Techn. excursions
Workshops
*15 summaries
of the Session
on Sequency
1975
1977
1979
1961
1963
396
108
18
444
106
19
507
107
23
529
102
25
829
103
29
-4
41
Techniques
not included
* recipients of monetaryawards
___.___
.~ -
Table
of
Contents
A, AutomatedEMC measurements
1Al
E.L.Bronaugh,
P.A.Sikora, Electra-Metrics,
Amsterdam, NY: Automated EMC measurements:
An overview.
2A2D.N.Heirman, AT&T Laboratories, Holmdel, NJ:
Automated immunity measurements.
3A3 J.C.van Essen, ESA-ESTEC, Noordwijk, Netherof an automated EMC
lands: Instrumentation
test facility for spacecraft.
Issy-Les-Moulineaux,
4A4 G.Eumurian, Thomson-CSF,
France: Computer-assisted
control of EMP measurements on major systems.
B, ESD techniques
5Bl P.Richman, A.Tasker, KeyTek Instrument Corp.,
Burlington, MA: ESD testing: The interface
between simulator and equipment under test.
6B2 M.Mardiguian,
D.R.J.White,
Don White Consultants, Inc., Gainesville,
VA: Recent develop:
ments in the understanding
of coupling paths
of ESD through a metallic cabinet.
7B3 L.Inzoli, Honeywell ISI, Milano, Italy: -ESD
susceptibility
and radiated emissions of EDP
peripheral printers.
8B4 B.Daout, H.Ryser, Hasler Ltd., Berne, Switzerland: Fast discharge mode in ESD-testing.
C, TriggeredlightningEMP
WI
I@2
UC3
DC4
D, EMC measurements
UDl
J.D.Gavenda,
University of Texas; J.H.Davis,
IBM Corp., Austin, TX: Electromagnetic
wave
propagation
in a semi-anechoic
chamber.
14D2M.Kanda, NBS, Boulder, CO: A methodology for
evaluating microwave anechoic chamber measurements.
15D3 S.C.Kashyap, NRC, Ottawa, Canada: Field distortions in a TEM cell.
16D4J.H.Davis, W.C.Cockerill, IBM Corp., Austin,
TX: Chamber quality assessment.
17D5S.Linkwitz, Hewlett-Packard Co., Santa Rosa,
CA: Discriminating
between narrowband and
broadband EM1 using a spectrum analyser.
18W U.Raicu, G.U.Sorger, Eaton Corp., Sunnyvale,
CA: Broadband YIG-tuned preselector
for VHF
and UHF.
1gD7 G.K.Boronichev,
LONIIR, Leningrad, USSR:
Measurement of the immunity of broadcast receivers according to the CISPR method and
the difficulties
encountered.
F, Lightningelectromagnetic
pulse
289
C.D.Weidman,
E.P.Krider, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ: Lightning radiation fields.
2%'2F.Heidler, Hochschule der Bundeswehr Muenthen, Neubiberg, GFR: Traveling current
source model for LEMP calculation.
30-3C.Weidman, J.Hamelin, M.Le Boulch, CNET,
Lannion, France: Radiation characteristics,
emission mechanisms and phenomenology
of
lightning.
31F4M.W.Wik, Defence Material Administration,
Stockholm, Sweden: Double exponential pulse
models for comparison of lightning, nuclear
and electrostatic
discharge spectra.
32~5R.L.Gardner, L.Baker, MRC, Albuquerque; C.E.
Baum, D.J.Andersh,
Kirtland AFB, NM: ~Comparisen of lightning with public domain HEMP
waveforms on the surface of an aircraft.
33F6D.Jaeger, R.Rode, MBB GmbH, Ottobrunn, GFR:
NEMP and lightning protection requirements
for modern aircraft equipment.
34F7F.Pigler, Siemens AG, Erlangen; P.Kronauer,
BBC, Mannheim; R.Terzer, KWU, Erlangen, GFR:
Prediction of lightning-induced
interference
voltages on the basis of measurements
taken
in similar installations.
35F8H.Schiippler, D.Ristau, University of Transport, Dresden; H.Lorke, IPF, Berlin, GDR:
Impulse current and voltage propagation
in
underground telecommunication
cables.
systems
3&l
Centre,
N.Dekleva, D.Vujnovid, Clin.Hospital
Zemun; B.Beleslin, Medical Faculty; V.Majid,
Electrotechnical
Faculty, Belgrade, YUgOSlavia: Magnetostimulation
- A method for reestablishment of antibiotic bactericidal
action.
CNRS, Thiais, France: Specific
3964 A.J.Berteaud,
mechanisms of microwave power dissipation
in
living tissues.
40G5 R.G.Olsen, Naval Aerospace Medical Res.Laboratory, Pensacola, FL: Measurement of specific absorption rate in a full-size man model
near a 10.67-m monopole antenna/ground
plane
system at 2.101 MHz.
41G6G.d'Ambrosio, A.Scaglione, F.De Martino, R.
Pennarola, University of Naples, Italy: Ku_
band radiation effects on the eye.
42~7 D.W.Griffin,
N.Davias, University of Adelaide, Australia: Wideband evaluation of microwave intensity near the eyes with scattering
structures present such as safety spectacles.
3803
916
%I1
J.K.Breakall,
G.J.Burke, E.K.Miller, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore,
CA: The numerical electromagnetic
code (NEC).
5752 D.J.Bem, J.Janiszewski,
R.Zielidski,
Technical University of Wroclaw, Poland: Computer.
aided analysis of electromagnetic
compatibllity in VHF-FM broadcasting
networks.
58J.3 A.Farrar, NTIA, Annapolis, MD: Computer models for determination
of satellite powerflux-density
limits.
University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki,
5qJ4 K.Hirasawa,
-- Japan: Computer programs for calculating
bounds of interference between arbitrarily
shaped wire antennas.
aJ5
G.Azrak, Merlin-Gerin,
Grenoble; Ph.Auriol,
Ecole Centrale de Lyon, Ecully, France: Numecompati~rical simulation of electromagnetic
bility in time domain.
61~6W.Krzysztofik, Technical University of Wroclaw, Poland: Electromagnetic
wire scattering
of thin cylindrical antennas loaded by nonlinear impedances.
K, EMI in microelectronics
62~1J.J.Whalen,
L. Nuclearelectromasnetic
Pulse imoact
65~1O.Dafif,
71=7I.L.Gallon, AWRE,
74~2
75M3
76M4
77M5
&
Statisticaltheory of EMC
78Nl D.Middleton, New York, NY: Threshold signal
and parameter estimation in non-Gaussian EMC
environments.
7gN2 A.D.Spaulding, NTIA, Boulder, CO: Locally
optimum and sub-optimum detector performance in non-Gaussian "broadband" and "narrowband interference environments.
8fjN3N.N.Buga, V.Y.Kontorovich, Electrotechnical
Institute of Communications; Y.V.Polozok,
LONIIR, Leningrad, USSR: Electromagnetic environment control on the basis of system models with random structure.
Q, Power electronics
97Ql M.Di Stefano, Italian Railways, Roma; G.L.
Solbiati, SIRTI S.p.A., Milano, Italy: -Project of a railway electrification from the
EMC point of view.
98Q2 H.Kunkel, M.Lutz, O.Frey, High Voltage Test
Systems, Basel, Switzerland: Coupling and
filtering possibilities of transients during
EMC tests.
ggQ3 F.C.Zach, Technical University of Vienna,
Austria: A new pulse width modulation control
for.line commutated converters minimizing
the mains hacmonics content.
10op4 J.Sack, H.Schmeer, Hochschule der Bundeswehr
Muenchen, Neubiberg, GFR: Computer-aided analysis of the RF1 voltage generation by small
commutator motors.
101Q5 J.M.Firth, NRC, Ottawa, Canada: Control and
reduction of spurious emissions from small
DC to DC power converters.
1@Q6
-c-m-
Authors
4 Aida T.
Andersh D.J.
Audone B.
Auriol Ph.
Azrak G.
113s4
32F5
4583
6055
6OJ5
B
- Baker L.
Barale G.
Bard& C.
Baum C.E.
Beleslin B.
Bern D.J.
BeriB B.
Bersier R.
Berteaud A.J.
Bertuchoz J.
Blech Ph.
Bonham A.J.
Boronichev G.K.
Braendli B.
Breaknll J.K.
Bronaugh E.L.
Bruens H.-D.
Buechler W.
Buga N.N.
Burke G.J.
Bush D.R.
Bykhovsky M.A.
32F5
4583
65Ll
3235, 69L5
3863
57J2
8707
4684
39G4
10296
72L8
68L4
19D7
102Q6
56Jl
1Al
66L2
115S6
8ON3
5651
2333
11657
c Caron A.
cazzo1.3 R.
Chan G.K.
Charles J.P.
Chen Q.
Cichofi H.
Cockerill W.C.
Cravey D.N.
72L8
4583
8505
2737
36G1, 4886
llOS1
16D4
8101
D
- Dafif 0.
d'Ambrosio G.
Danker 8.
Daout B.
Davias N.
Davis J.H.
De Couvreur G.A.
Degauque P.
de Jong A.
Dekleva N.
Delfour M.C.
De Martin0 F.
Demoulin B.
Dijamatovic Y.
Djebari B.
Di Stefano M.
Dostert K.
Duvinage P.
5315, 65Ll
41G6
22E2
SB4
42G7
13D1, 1604
108R5
95P6
43Hl
38G3
108RS
41G6
95P6
72LB
72L8
97Ql
8202
95P6
Gruchalla M.E.
Gurianov G.G.
Gylemo M.
68L4
11657
6n3
Hadrian W.
Hamelin J.
Haubrich H.-J.
Heidler F.
Heirman D.N.
Hirasawa K.
Hopkins P.M.
Huang R.C.
91P2
30F3
4911
29F2
2A2
59J4
8101
36Gl
1 Ianovici M.
Inzoli L.
Ishida K.
J Jaeger D.
Janiszewski J.
Jecko B.
Johns P.B.
Johnson P.G.
Jones J.W.E.
I(_Kalmakov A.P.
Kanda M.
Karlsson T.
Kashyap S.C.
Kawasaki Z.-I.
Kikuchi H.
Kijnigstein D.
Krider E.P.
Kontorovich V.Y.
Kronauer P.
Krzysztofik W.
Kunkel H.
Kuronuma H.
c Landt J.A.
Le Boulch M.
Linkwitz S.
Lorke H.
Lutz M.
fl Machczydski W.
Mahapatra 6.
Majid V.
Mallik A.
Mardiguian M.
Martzloff F.D.
Maumy F.
Michielsen B.L.
Middletoh D.
Miller E.K.
Morozov V.A.
E Endo I.
Eumurian G.
lllS2
4A4
N Nakano M.
- Neessen J.T.A.
Nikiforova V.N.
Noguchi Y.
E Farrar A.
Firth J.M.
Fisher K.
Fontaine J.
Frey 0.
58~3
lOlQ5
8606
5214
9BQ2
0 Ochsner H.
_.
Oka I.
0lms K.
Olsen R.G.
Ott H.W.
5 Gaffey C.T.
Gallon I.L.
Gardner R.L.
Gavenda J.D.
German
R.F.
Gibson J.
Galas A.
Gonschorek K.H.
Griffin D.W.
37G2
71L-l
32F5
13Dl
2535
68L4
8808
96P7
42G7
Index
fl Paladian F.
Pan B.C.
Paul C.R.
Pennarola R.
Perini J.
Pigler F.
Plumey J.P.
Polozok Y.V.
Podgorski A.S.
72L8
783
11152
33F6
57J2
5315, 65Ll
7OL6
68L4
26~6
47H5
14D2
6n3
15D3
12C4
9Cl
66L2
28Fl
8ON3
34F7
6156
98Q2
112S3
llC3
30F3
17D5
3538
98Q2
5012
9OPl
3aG3
7OL6
6~2
74M2, 77M5
5315
92P3
78Nl
56Jl
93P4
12C4
11455
103Q7
112S3
8404
lllS2
104Rl
40G5
2434
5214
36Gl
21El
41G6
94P5
34F7
5214
8ON3
llC3
B R&man H.
Raicu D.
Pamasamy S.R.
Raybourn M.S.
Rhoades W.T.
Richman P.
Rijsdijk P.J.M.
Ristau D.
Rode R.
Rodionova N.V.
Roehsler H.
Roubertou D.
Ryser Ii.
94P5.
18D6
9OPl
3702
73Ml
5B1, 75M3
11455
35FS
33F6
93P4
5416
5214
a34
5 Sack J.
Sandell R.
Satyamurthy 8.
Scaylione A.
Scbmeer H.
Schiippler H.
Scuka V.
Sikora P.A.
Solbiati G.L.
Sager G.U.
Spaulding A.D.
Steck R.
St.Privat d'Allier
Research Group
Strnad A.
Sturm R.
Sutu Y.-H.
lOOQ4
107R4
8909
4166
lOOQ4
35FS
76M4
1Al
97Ql
18D6
79N2
102Q6
1 Takagi N.
Takagi T.
Takeuti T.
Taker A.
Tenforde T.S.
ter Haseborg J.L.
Terzer R.
Tetreault M.
Tomizawa I.
Trinks H.
Tront J.G.
Trzaska H.
12C4
11354
12C4
5Bl
37G2
5113
34F7
77M5
5517
5113
6332
llOS1
u Uchimura K.
Und&n G.
113s4
6n3
V Vaccani P.
van Eck W.
van Essen J.C.
Varakin L.E.
Vujnovid D.
109R6
11455
3A3
8303
38G3
w Weidman C.D.
Weiss H.J.
Whalen J.J.
White D.R.J.
Whitehouse A.C.D.
Wi?ckowski T.W.
Wik M.W.
Wojnar A.H.
v Yamazaki S.
Yoshino T.
z Zach F.C.
Zeddam A.
Zhu Y.C.
Zielihski R.
loC2
5416
5113
64K3
28F1, 3OF3
105R2
62KI, 64K3
6~2
44H.2
20D8
31F4
106R3
11253
5517
9993
72L8
48H6
57J2
Scientific
Contributions
1 Al
1 -
AN OVERVIEW
Edwin L. Bronaugh
and
Paul A. Sikora
Electra-Metrics
100 Church Street
Amsterdam, New York 12010
USA
Abstract
This paper looks at the history of automated EMC measurements and the current technology. It discusses the scope of this session.
A philosophical discussion is included to lead
to understanding the strengths and weaknesses
of current technology and needs for future
development. A present-day computer-controlled
interference emissions measuring system is
described.
Introduction
Background
The desire for automated EMC measurements
found its inception in the decade of the 1950's
with the greatest incentive arising, perhaps,
from the plethora of measurements mandated by
military EMC standards on military communications and electronics equipment. The problem
most pressing at the time could be summarized
as too many measurements to be made resulting
in too much data to analyze all in too short
a time. From this apparent need arose mechanical attachments for the manual radio noise
meters of the day to tune them automatically
over their available tuning ranges while driving the X-axis of an X-Y plotter with a voltage proportional to the position of the mechanical tuning mechanism and the Y-axis with
the envelope voltage from the indicating
instrument drive circuitry. Although these
"automatic" instruments were crude and frequently inaccurate, they provided the data
much faster, more reliably, and in a more
usable graphical form than could be provided
by a human operator tuning, reading an indicator, and writing down the data on a pointby-point basis.
For several years, EMC instrument manufacturers worked to improve upon this early swept
tuned instrument by providing electronic tuning, more responsive detector functions, large
dynamic measurement range by use of AGC or
logarithmic amplifiers, and untuned wide band
antennas and transducers. To this day such
instruments are still widely used to make
measurements in accordance with MIL-STD-461/
462 [4, 51 and other military standards, During this same time, spectrum analyzers or
panoramic receivers were being developed for
somewhat different purposes, but would eventually
come to be used for some EMC measure-
ments.
Then came the era of the computer, and EMC
engineers and instrument manufacturers saw advantages to the use of computers to control the
EMC test instruments. The computer could operate the test instruments; record data; apply
antenna, transducer, cable loss, instrument
calibration, and other correction and conversion factors to the data; and plot this reduced
data on multi-decade plots for ease in comparing the performance of equipment under test
with the limits in the technical standards.
Many such systems for measuring interference
emissions are in use today.
While much automation has been achievedwith
interference emissions tests, automation of
interference immunity (susceptibility) tests
has lagged far behind. One of the many reasons
for this has been the more complicated nature
of immunity tests.
Purposes and Objectives
This paper has two purposes. One is to
introduce this session on automated EMC measurements by giving an overview of the session,
and by discussing the philosophy of automated
EMC measurements. The other purpose is to
present some details on an automated radio
noise (EMI) measuring system incorporating
both self- and computer-controlled test capabilities. The objectives are to bring out some
of the strengths and weaknesses of automated
EMC tests, and to stimulate thinking towards
continuing improvement in EMC measurements.
The scope of this session is to address the
issues associated with the use of computercontrolled or self-controlled automatic and
semi-automatic test equipment and techniques
to make EMC measurements* Both halves of the
EMC test question will be addressed, i.e.,
both emissions (interference) and immunity
(susceptibility) measurements. Some of the
automated EMC measurement issues to be raised
and discussed are:
1. Emissions and immunity testing for regulatory compliance versus testing for engineering and development;
2. The effects of the test equipment scan
rate, the statistics of the radio noise
or disturbance being measured or simulated,
a mixture of signals and noise, and the
characteristics of sources on EMC measurements;
3. Automation of EMC measurements as a tool to
2 -
contains much noise and many narrowband signals throughout the required test frequency
range, and most of these signals are so large
that they produce indications in the EMI analyzer or radio noise meter far above the limit
specified for the ignition noise emanations
from the vehicle under test!
Current EMC Instrumentation Technology
The radio noise meter characteristics [2, 31
are the primary factor that determines if the
ignition noise in the above example can be
measured throughout the range of frequencies
from 10 kHz to 1000 MHz. The regulatory requirements [4, 5, 6, 71 are secondary factors
in the accurate and successful measurement of
EMI
in such a non-ideal real-world measurement situation.
A typical simulation of the array of input
signals and noise which the radio noise meter
must resolve in the example above may consist
of: 1) The signal from an impulse generator
set to produce a level of 52 dB(uV/MHz) which
simulates the vehicle ignition noise; 2) A
pulse generator operating at 50 kHz producing
a pulse amplitude of 0.0025 ~VS [68 dB(uV/MBz)]
which simulates low frequency industrial noise
in the vicinity of the test site; and 3) Two
cw signal generators set to produce signals at
22 kHz and 8 MHz at levels of 64 dB(pV) and
49 dB(llV), respectively, to simulate two of
the many narrowband communications and broadcast signals also in the ambient of the test
site. A thinking, well-trained and experienced
human operator using an ordinary radio noise
mater would have an exceedingly difficult time
resolving this spectrum of noise to determine
correctly the level of the impulse generator,
but this appears to be an almost impossibleto-solve problem using a computer-controlled
radio noise meter unless it and the control
computer software have capabilities that exceed those usually found in "standard" EMI
analyzers or radio noise meters and controllers. In the 10 kBz to 150 kHz frequency
range, the standard CISPR radio noise meter
[2] has a bandwidth of 200 Hz and the standard
ANSI radio noise meter [3] has bandwidths of
200 Hz, 1 kHz, and 10 kHz. In a 200 Hz bandwidth the impulse generator produces a level
of -22 dB(!.N), the pulse generator produces
a level of -6 dB(pV), and the 22 kHz cw generator produces a level of 64 dB(UV). In a
1 kHz bandwidth these levels become -8 dB(lN),
+8 dB(!Jv) , and 64 dB(pV), respectively. In a
10 kHz bandwidth, the levels become +12 dB(uV),
+28 dB()N), and 64 dB(BV), respectively. The
simulated ignition noise (the impulse generator) which must be measured is far below the
interfering signals and may be below the impulse sensitivity of the radio noise meter in
a 200 Hz bandwidth. As can be seen from the
above data, when the bandwidth of the radio
noise meter is made larger to bring the simulated ignition noise UP to a level where it
can be easily measured, the bandwidth is so
wide that the 22 kHz narrowband signal begins
to override the simulated ignition noise in
the skirts of the radio noise meter selectivity characteristic. This effectively prevents the detector in the radio noise meter
from properly responding to the simulated
ignition noise, It may be seen that theproblem of relative noise levels continues on
above 50 kHz,
3 -
1 Ad
A well trained, experienced human operator
using visual techniques with an oscilloscoPe
on the radio noise meter output may be able to
make some satisfactory measurements, given
enough time. A computer-controlled analyzer
would need to be extremely sophisticated to
do as well as the human operator. perhaps the
best that could be done by an automated system,
would be to determine that no satisfactory
broadband noise measurement could be made in
this frequency range under these conditions,
and so inform the operator. Because of problems such as this, the US Air Force has seen
fit to issue an application note [61 recommending that "official" measurements be made
in one bandwidth and compared against one limit
no matter what the nature of the EMI, broadband or narrowband. The United Kingdom is in
the process of issuing regulations to this
effect [7]. Both of these documents assume that
measurements can always be made in a low ambient noise environment, such as a shielded
enclosure, although this is often not possible.
In the current technology, CISPR and ANSI
instruments are specified in such a manner as
to imply that manual EM1 measurements are to
be made. At the same time, the military presumes 153 that some form of automated measurements will be made, and test laboratories performing EMI measurements to comply with military standards are generally making automated
measurements. Also, automation has begun to
pervade EMI measurements made to comply with
standards and regulations, such as those of
the VDE [8] and FCC [9], covering consumer
electronics equipment.
The above discussion applies only to the
measurement of EMI, but similar instrumentation problems exist in making interference
immunity (susceptibility) measurements. From
one viewpoint, the worldwide community of EMC
scientists and engineers is better off with
respect to making immunity measurements since
few regulations exist covering these measurements. This allows those who wish to make immunity measurements much freedom to develop
instrumentation and methods that are timely
and appropriate. Mr. Heirman demonstrates this
in his Paper CU. This does not mean that automated immunity measurements are intrinsically
any easier to make or more reliable than automated emissions measurements. Immunity measurements will be addressed by other papers
in this session.
An Automated Measurement and Analysis System
The problem posed above wherein several
different signals and noises are superposed
was investigated further with the objective of
finding a way to automate the measurements and
yet obtain valid results. First, the needed
attributes of the system are discussed, then
ways one might manually measure the various
signals and noises are investigated, and finally a method combining hardware and software
is realized. The discussion applies to the 10
kBz to 150 kHz frequency range, but similar
problems exist in, and similar techniques can
be applied to, other frequency ranges.
In order to insure that impulsive and cw
signals are properly measured, the automated
system must be able to make several decisions
without manual intervention by the operator.
First the system must be able to identify all
-4-
AdB = 20 log(O.O0631/1)
A~B = -44 do
Vi = 50- 44 = 6 dB().lV)
One can then change both levels to voltage,
add them algebraically, then reconvert their
sum back to a level in dH(uV), to find the
difference in meter indication that is caused
by the presence of both signals simultaneously.
These calculations are shown in equations
(2.1) and (2.2):
x
dB(PV)
= 20
(2.1)
calculated to be ~6 dB(UV) in a 6.31 kHz impulse bandwidth, Using equation (2.2) again,
y I.~V
= log-1[6 dH(uV)/20], we find this level
is =2 I-IV.
We now can algebraically add the two volttage levels for a combined signal level of
1002 uV. The next step will be to convert back
to a decibel scale to find the meter reading
of the combined signals. Using equation (2.1),
x dB(uV) = 20 log(1002), we find a level of
~60.017 dB(uV), showing that the 50 dB(uV/MHz)
impulsive signal adds a meagre 0.017 dB to the
level measured with the narrowband signalonly.
d%iV)
605040302010O-lO-2oI
FREQUENCY
IN
KHz
1 Ad
-5-
Frequency
15 kHz
15 kHz
15 kHz
FREQUENCY IN KHz
Fig.2: Measurement in Narrowband with
Detector in Carrier Position
The operator must then change the detector
function back to peak and take another reading
in dB(pV) (See Figure 3). The readings can
then be converted back to voltage levels, algebraically subtracted, and reconverted into
dB(pV) and dB(pV/MHz) levels respectively. An
example of these calculations is as follows:
Receiver: NARROWBAND, PEAK
Recorded Level: -3 aB(uv)
-2o-,
IO
I
:5
nw&i3
I
I
IN25~H~
:o
:i
-6-
valid reading, the computer calculates the impulsive signal level in the manner previously
described, stores the calculated data,proceeds
to the next previously selected frequency
point, and repeats this procedure until all
such points are completed in the frequency segment. A problem arises, however, when the computer analysis determines that a valid impulse
level cannot be arrived at by the previously
described algorithm, At this point the computer notifies the operator that it cannotproceed
with calculations at this frequency point and
that further manual investigation is necessary,
Once the message has been noted, the computer
proceeds to the next point to be analyzed.
After all data collection and analysis have
been completed, the computer adds tranducer
factors and other correction or calibration
factors, if any, and plots the data against
the desired specification limit or reference.
u
r
References
[l] Heirman, D.N., "Automated Immunity Measurements," EMC Syqosium & Exhibition,
&ich,
March 5-7, 1985, Session A
[2] CISPR Publication 16 (1977) and Amendment
1 (1980), "C.I.S.P.R. Specification for
Radio Interference Measuring Apparatus
and Measurement Methods"
[3] ANSI C63.2 (1980), "American National
Standard Specifications for Electromagnetic Noise and Field Strength Instrumentation, 10 kHz to 1 GHz"
[4] NIL-STD-461B (1980), "Military Standard,
Electromagnetic Emission and Susceptibility Requirements for the Control of Electromagnetic Interference"
[5]MIL-STD-462 (1980), "Military Standard
Electromagnetic Interference Characteristics, Measurement of"
[6] MIL-STD-462-Application Note (1980),
"Identification of Broadband and Narrowband Emissions," Aeronautical Systems
Division, Electromagnetic andInterference
Compatibility Branch, (ASD/ENAMA),
Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433
[7] united Kingdom Def. std. 59/41
[8]6DE 0871/6.78, "VDE Specification, Radio
Frequency Interference Suppression of
Radio Frequency Equipment for Industrial,
Scientific, and Medical (IsM) and Similar
Purposes"
[9] Rules & Regulations of the FederalCommunications Commission (FCC), Part 15, Subpart
J, "Computing Devices," and FCC/OST MP-4
(1983), "FCC Methods of Measurement of
Radio Noise Emissions from Computing
Devices"
[lo] van Essen, J.C., "Instrumentation of Automated Electromagnetic-Compatibility TestFacility for Space-Craft," EMC Symposium
& Exhibition, !&rich, March 5-7, 1985,
Session A
@.l]Eumurian, KG., "Computer-Aided Control
of EMP Measurement on Large Scale Sys_.
terns,"EMC Symposium & Exhibition, Ziirich,
March 5-7, 1985, Session A
.
-E-z3
.-L____-_______J:
--c_-_______
t:
still further, but the number of operator interventions can be greatly decxeased by using
this automated procedure.
The technique described above is in opposition to that suggested by the ASD application
note ES], but it provides the correct data
under non-ideal measurement conditions. The
approach suggested by the application note
cannot provide the correct data under similar
non-ideal measurement conditions. Also, we
have not addressed the proper application of
transducers, so if the mandatory measurement
method requires a theoretically unsound use
of a transducer such as an antenna, we may
still be collecting much incorrect data.
_-__-_______
----_I-_____
-30
IO
20
FREQUENCY
30
IN
30
20
IO
FREQUENCY
IN
35
KHz
35
KHz
2A2
-l-
AUTOMATED
IMMUNITY
MEASUREMENTS
Donald N. Heirman
AT&T Information Systems
Holmdel, New Jersey 07733 USA
Automation of EMC Testing should be viewed as an engineering tool and not as a replacement for the engineer who must
determine compliance with either regulatory or corporate EMC
criteria. As a tool, automation
if implemented
properly
decreases the likelihood of measurement error due to operator
inattention, test instrumentation misadjustments, and inability to recreate all the test conditions on a repeatable basis. The
cost of automation must also be weighed against the increased test time normally associated with manual operations. This
paper will address the proper use of automation in immunity
testing. The areas where automation is most useful are shown
by describing a typical immunity test using a transverse
electromagnetic
(TEM) cell.
Introduction
In recent years, the proliferation of a wide range of RF noise
sources
from
commercial
broadcast
stations
to
microprocessor-controlled
appliances have increased concern
for product susceptibility. Of course, in military systems, the
need for product immunity (the positive view of susceptibility)
is vital for strategic and tactical systems. On the other hand,
consumer product immunity is generally designed to respond
to pressures of the market place. A too sensitive product to
the RF ambient would cause customer complaints and lead
them to purchase a competitors product.
The sheer magnitude of immunity testing has created much
automation
in testing in an attempt to meet production
schedules and to ensure that the product has been made
immune to all sorts of RF environments. The advantages and
in some case the disadvantages of automation of susceptibility
tests are presented from the viewpoint of the test engineer
involved with consumer products,
Automating
Engineering
Evaluation
Stage
of the Immunity
Field
The RF environment
is a complex one in both time and
frequency domain. Electronic products generally respond
undesirably to certain frequencies and waveshapes, not the
aggregate. This response is documented primarily by studying interference cases or by testing to several representative
ambient signals.
Unless specifically designed for immunity, commercial electronic product performance can be expected to degrade at
some point during the life of the product. The seriousness of
the degradation may or may not warrant design or in-the-field
changes. Examples of degradation include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Immunity
Test
Electric Field
Magnetic Field
Electromagnetic
(Plane Wave) Field
Impulsive Noise
Conducted
1.
2.
Immunity
Immunity
Direct Coupled
Near-field coupled
3.
Susceptibility
Test
2A2
BIDIRECTIONAL
MODULATOR
CONTROLLER
APPLIED
TELEMETRY/CONTROL
IMMUNITY
SIGNAL
LEADS
LEADS
PERFORMANCE
DEGRADATION
SAMPLE
NOTE:
ElJTlPROBE
MONITORING
CABLING
VIA
TEM CELL
Figure 1.
Degradation
Monitoring
The next area where automation helps is in recording performance degradation as a function of applied field strength, frequency, modulation, degradation type, EUT response time,
etc. Much of this is simple data bookkeeping. However, there
still persists those who want to visually determine performance
degradation. If degradation monitoring were constantly done
by this means, especially by viewing a CRT, errors will soon
occur due to the long, repetitious and boring nature of immunity tests. No matter how conscientious the operator, monitoring of anticipated, slow to materialize, visual EUT degradation is prone to errors and lack of repeatability.
Typical automation of performance degradation would include
monitoring analog signals directly onto the IEEE 488 general
purpose bus or digital information on an RS 2326 interfaces
DIMENSIONS
I = 200 cm
w = 95 cm
h = 65 cm
Instrumentation
cable. These
methods:
signals
are routed
a.
b.
10 -
Conclusions
This paper described the usefulness and precautious of
automation of immunity testing. Automation if used properly
is a powerful tool that can be used to produce a test with less
operational errors. However, automation which is not
periodically checked by manually performing a test, tends
to lull users into a sense that the results of such tests are
irrefutable. Periodically it pays to manually set all instruments
and see if the results are the same as that found by automation. The paper has also shown the concern for ensuring that
the EMC engineer correctly automates the immunity test to
replicate the appropriate immunity field and to monitor the
proper perform degradation.
References
PI
121 R. A. Tell and N. N. Hankin, Measurement of Radiofrequency Field Intensity in Buildings with Close Proximity
to Broadcast Stations, U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency Report ORPIEAD-78-3, August 1978.
131 D. N. Heirman, Broadcast Electromagnetic Interference
Environment Near Telephone Equipment, IEEE National
Telecommunications Conference Record, Catalogue
No. 76 CH 1149 - CSCB.
141 G. Costache et al., Electromagnetic Field Strength
Probability Profiles for Canadian Cities, International
Electrical and Electronic Conference and Exposition,
Toronto, Canada, October 1981.
[51 FDA Medical Device Standard, Electromagnetic Compatibility Standard for Medical Devices. MDS-201-0004,
October 1, 1979.
PI
3A3
1. Abstract
The purpose of this paper iS t0 give a complete overview of an Automated EMC Test Facility in operation, for Emission-, Susceptibilityand Time domain measurements. The contents include system set-up, specifications and
drawings with a description of different test
set-ups used for spacecraft, subassembly or
unittesting. The narrowband and broadband aspects are highlighted, and a plot of the data
output from the system are included. Conclusions are drawn with respect of specifica'
tions, test time, accuracy etc..
2. History
Since the time when the basic idea of automating the EMC Test Facility was conceived and
initial funding became available, the line of
thinking had changed quit a bit. Due to improvement of the test equipment, measuring
techniques and the budgetary constraints, the
original idea of setting up a separate system
for Emission- and Susceptibility- Testing had
to be abandoned.
Instead, a new design was set up in such a
way that all instrumentation performs a multiple function and will be used for Radiated/
Conducted Emission and Radiated/Conducted
Susceptibility. The existing test equipment
is integrated in this system as well. A block
diagram,, Fig. 1, shows the basic set up.
Due to the fact that a broadband high power
requirement will increase the cost of the radiated susceptibility part of the system by
100% or more, it has been decided to keep the
requirements of 30 - 60 V/m and to accommodate projects with the necessary power at a
given frequency "narrowbanded", which complies
with the experience so far.
All specifications for this system are derived
from spacecraft requirements existing today
and in the near future. The system has been
designed to meet these requirements.
3. Introduction
The system will be used for the following
measurements:
A) Radiated Emission Measurements over a frequency range from 20 Hz - 40 GHz,
B) Conducted Emission Measurements over the
frequency range from 20 Hz - 100 MHz,
C) Radiated Susceptibility Measurements over
the frequency range from 20 Hz - 40 GHz,
FIG.1 x-
2
PRINTER
/_
HP-9876 A
P-F9 HP-B112 A
w
CURRENT-FKE?E
SOLAR. 6741 1
0:
PULSE GEN.
MOO SOURCE
$u-6.
&JNO
4.
SCKUM
AN4LmR
HP-B566A
lCQi-4OGHz
FIELD MONflOR
CONOUCi% D -SUSCEPTIBILITY
SETUP FOR
RADIATED -I CONDUCTED EMISSION
NOTE
C.5W - COAXIM
RL - REIAY
pp&LJ-:_a\,;
L.
v+
r----
--7
HP-37203 A I
:_______--,,_______I
I
15 EXTENDER
,
. ,
ESTEC
%3?2iii;,~____;
/ \,--.
FIG. 2
_
-
13
3A3
IF-DISPLAY
SECTION
RF SECTION
I Ym.l.b.___._L__=i._ .I7
I_.__._____-__.-.___._.d.q
d1.4
:m-?
521.4
MHz IF
IN
MHz IF
OUT
:...._..._.......__..____....................................:
FIQURE
SYSTEM.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
Fig. 5
The combination of the calculator, front-end
receiver, and spectrum analyzer is the most
powerful tool for EMC measurements I have
seen sofar. It is able to step from one frequency line to the next and evaluate each
data point for narrowband or broadband criteria (according to Mil-STD in our case). If
necessary at the same time coherent and incoherent broadband noise can be separated, and
narrowband and broadband data can be graphed
on separate plots and each individual frequency point can be printed out. For analyzing
the test results is this a very important
piece of information. In our set up a narrowband emission plot will take about 30 minutes
(20 Ilz - 1 GHz)
Fig. 6
This in combination with a relatively new type
of receiving antenna, type SAS-1D from Antenna
Research Associated Inc. (Fig. 6) It is an
electric field antenna over the frequency
range from 300 Hz - 1 GBz. The low-band circuitry is such that the response rolls off at
the rate of approximately 20 dB per decade of
frequency below 300 Hz.
The system consists of two electrically separate antennas, namely a top-loaded monopole
for low-band and a discone for high-band. The
yolarisation is vertical and the directivity
15
is omnidirectional.
Overload for 1 dB comperssion: Lo-hand 0.5
V/m, Hi-band, 0.1 V/m. The antenna is pOrtable and especially suited for indoor applications. For all our conductive measurements
we use the well known Solar current probe
type 6741-1, frequency range 20 Hz - 100 MHz,
which has a flat frequency response over the
frequency range 10 KHz - 100 MHz. Maximum
current: 300 Amperes ac or dc;load Impedance:
50 + j 0. ohms. Direct connection to the conductor is not necessary, since the probe may
be opened for insertion of the conductor.
4.3 Sweep Section
To cover the frequency range of 20 Hz-40 GHz
required for this system, three instruments
are used:
A- HP--8165-A Frequency Synthesizer and Function Generator. 0.1 Hz-50 MHz.
B- BP-8673-D Frequency Synthesizer.
50 MHz - 26.5 GBz.
C- WJ-1204-40 Milli!meter-Wave Frequency
Extender. 26.5 - 40 GHz.
The HP-8165-A programmable signal source is a
versatile function generator with good accuracy. Microprocessor control ensures rapid
programming amplitude output from 10 mVpp 10 VPP, amplitude- and frequencymodulation.
The HP-8673-D synthesized signalgenerator has
precise signal simulation capability. The frequencies are derived from a quartz crystal
time base, via a direct synthesis technique
providing extremely low signal sideband phase
noise. Harmonically related spurious C-60
dBc.SSB Phase noise<-80 dBc. 10 KHz offset
+6 dBm output level at 26.5 GHz.
at 10 GHz
Leveled calibrated output to -100 dBm.
Amplitude, Depth 0 - 908, pulse on/off ratio:
>HO dB and frequency modulation maximum c
peak deviation is smaller than 10 MHz or (see
data sheet). All functions are programmable,
including frequency output and RF level setting (in 0.1 dB steps).
The same synthesizer is used to feed the
Watkins-Johnson frequency extender WJ-1204-40.
The most notable feature of this system is its
excellent frequency resolution, accuracy and
stability.
Input power 0 dBm, output power +3 dBm.
As stated in the introduction, one of the
aims was to stay as long as possible co-axial,
in order to facilitate the test work. However,
one has to realize that starting from 12 or
15 GHz and going up, the attenuation is increasing tremendously and special attention
has to be payed with respect to the length of
cable, connectors etc. For this and several
other reasons we kept our equipment as mobile
as possible and derived a great benefit from
it sofar.
4.4 Modulation part
This part consists of two instruments which
are used for multiple purposes, such as radiated- and conducted susceptibility testing,
for testing as modulation sources and also
for conducted spikes and commandline testing.
From the HP-8116-A, pulse function generator
all functions are bus controlled and provide
sinewave, squarewave and pulses over the frequency range 100 mHz to 50 MHz, pulse width:
10 nS - 999 mS. Amplitude 10 mVpp to 16 Vpp.
A3
._/
BLOCK
DIAGRAM
OF THE
438A
AND
ITS
TWO SENSORS
Fig. I
control the power and reflected power on the
transmitting antennas. Measurement modes are
A, B, A-B, B-A, A/B and B/A. The power range
is sensor dependent, dynamic range 50 dB. The
use of the power meter is entirely based on
Mil-STD testing, which implies that the electric field is calibrated with the transmitting and receiving antenna one meter apart in
an empty room, the empty room being the EMC
Test Facility covered with absorbing material,
in order to reduce reflection.
Power levels are taken and stored in the calculator and called up during the test to set
the levels. Diagram on Fig. 7.
A software routine is set up to determine if
the antenna is radiating, check the level and
compare the reflected power etc.
The
been
I_- use of electric field sensors has-completely abandoned, under the assumption
that no source will increase the radiation
power in order to satisfy the form-factor
of a given object.
4.6 Monitor part
This part consists of 4 separate units. Blockdiagram Ref.nr. 11, 12, 13 and 14 (Fig. 2).
First instrument in sequence is the HP-8566-S,
spectrum analyzer with a frequency range from
100 Hz - 22 GHz, using external harmonic mixing with a frequency range up to 40 GHz. Amplitude approximately from -137 dBm to +30
dBm, resolution 0.1 dB. Dynamic range
95 dB.
Accuracy
2.2 dB over the frequency range
from 100 Hz - 22 GHz. With internal software
routines like Peakseards-Signaltrack, Signal
identification Marker aided measurements-Max
hold and saving of control setting.
The above mentioned features are a must if a
16
ESTEC
E
ELECTRIC
M C Test
facilities.
FIELD-STRENGTH
GENERRTION
Fig. 8
HP-8165
HP-8673
SYNTH /GEN
-0
20Hz.-50MHz
SOMHz.-26GHz
HP-3497-A
DATA-ACQ.UISITIOA
UNIT
_?.mnll
L Gk12
?._..I
LB GHZ
Fig. 9
The Blockdiagram indicates also frequency
range and antennas used. For more detailed information, please refer to the data sheet.
Generally speaking we can say that amplifiers,
couplers and antennas are harmonized to the
maximum extent possible as regards frequency
range and power.
5. Remarks on Measurements
5.1 Radiated Emission
I would like to highlight briefly our measurement criteria.
The narrowband signals are measured in 6 scans
from 20 Hz - 22 GHz, in standard spectrum-analyzer settings, with respect to "span" etc.
Each band is scanned with 2 different band-
HPIR
SYNTHJGEN
--
HP-438
-A
DUAL-SENSOR
POWER-METER
HP-9836..
SYSTEM
CONTROLLER
.FREQ.RANGE-IOKHz-40GHz
- 17 -
A3
10
MHz
Fig. 11
widths a factor 10 apart, and amplitudes from
the first and second measurement are compared
with a 3 dB criterion in our case. Correction
factors are added before printing the signal
output. Fig. 10 shows a narrowband plot.
Broadband noise is measured in 4 scans from
10 KHz - 22 GHz. Scans are made in the Peakhold mode with a relatively wide bandwidth.
The time set to fill each "Bit!'is equal to
the data from an impulse signal with a separation of 50 Hz. Each data point contains half
impulse bandwidth, and stored in a temperaly
file, is compared with 6 data points before
and after; if 4 3 dB (in our case) it will
be processed. Fig. 11 shows a broadband plot.
5.2 Conducted Emission
For conducted emission in the frequency domain
we opt for the same criteria of signal processing as we did for radiated emission. Measurements are carried out on power-and synchronization lines in differential- and commonmode
in voltage and current. Data- and command I
lines are tested in bundles of wires, separated like;
all digital input lines.
all digital output lines.
all serial digital data.
all analogue lines.
The signal ground is always tested separately,
due to the importance with respect to the quality of collected- or transmitted data. Further more I would like to draw your attention
to what we call a "Structure noise Test".
Fig. 12. This test supplies us with important
information, like leak resistance and capacitance, loops etc. This is important when
making the final analyses about the unit
under test.
Fig. 12
CONOUCiED
EM STRUCTURE
--
NOISE
CURRENT
ESTEC
EMC TEST
FflCILITY
CONDUCTED
SUSCEPTIBILITY
JPR DPERRTfoNRL MODE :EXP ON
DRTE 21-09-1984
TEST
;:;;
: 28 VOLT
Fig. 13
Particularely signal- and commandlines are subject to conducted susceptibility testing. Due
to their important function in a "spacecraft"
a lot of our attention is devoted to test
those lines. A special test box has been developed for this purpose. Fig. 14 shows the
test set up.
- 18 -
4A4
19 -
1. -
INTRODUCTION
Att~ts-2M6
A,%.&lad6
20
- Geometry
Figure 1 indicates the geometrical characteristics of the sensor. The spherical shape .
'was selected to optimize the effective height
of the antenna.
Figure 2 indicates the distribution of the
'electric field over the surface of the sensor.
The field, perpendicular at all points to the
surface of the sensor, depends on the incident
field to infinity (Ei) and its angle with the
sensor axis (0).
6IIrg
EO
(6)
eff = ch+ce
6Ilx (0,053)2
eff =
= 6.68 mm
(7)
1
2 II (Ch + Ce ) Re
= 69 Hz
(8)
-Dynamic range
For a given value of the incident field,
the dynamic range depends on the effective
height of the antenna as well as the noise
level (N) at the input :
S
-=
N
(9)
(3)
Q
ChtCc:
31Ir20scEi
-= Ch+Ce
(4)
heff l/2= Ei
3dso
Ch+Ce
(5)
4 A4
Since the coaxial structure is adapted at
output, the limitation at high freauencies
does not show up as long as the wavelength remains significantly longer than the diameter.
This dual sub-channel device with electrical input-output comprises a bidirectional optical modem.
4.2 -TRANSMISSION
22
23
4A4
In the same vein, simultaneous display
from a given
of the fields obtainedviewed
point and with incident fields of different
values enables clear identification of the
system's nonlinearities.
Finally, comparison of the fields obtained from neighboring sensors enables detection
of operating incidents.
1.5 - Firing Aid
This module assists the operator in setting the various parameters in the acquisition
systems :
-sensitivity (sensor)
-filtering frequency (optical processor)
-sampling rate
)
) digitizer
-off-set
-pre or post triggering )
-etc.
One to three fixings are necessary to
reach an Optimal setting.
This relatively rapid setting procedure
is possible due to the sensor's high in&antaneous dynamic range 1>50 dB).
The dynamic range, along with the switched
dynamic range (70 dB) allows measurement
Over
a dynamic range of 120 dB.
Example : Electrical field sensor (ranges :
+ 3kV/m, + lkV/m, 5 38@J/m, + lOOV/m, t 3OV/m,
T lOV/m, 5 3V/m, $- 1 V/m). For the first firing, the SenSOl
iS
Set
On
a lesssensitive range (3 kV/m). If after digitizing, signal amplitude is greater than 3kV/m
the program provides the option to the operator
to change sensors or to decrease the incident
field. If the field is included between 3kV/m
and 30 V/m, the program suggests setting the
sensor to the nearest range.
If the field is less than 30 V/m, the sensor is set at this level of sensitivity and
another firing is started.
The new value obtained is used for resetting the sensor. If the range selected is the
most sensitive and the signal amplitude is
still not adequate, the program suggests
either to increase the incident field (if the
other sensors or installation allows it)or to
improve the dynamic range by using an 80, 40,
20 OX 10 MHz filter (gain of 3 to 12 dB).
Hence, with a 20 MHz filter is it possible
to detect signals starting at 5 mV/m.
If the computer controlling data acquisition is linked to the pulse generator delivering the signal, setting the range in function
of generator voltage is easier. In the same
manner the operator can set the limits for the
ranges by restricting the measuring dynamic
range.
A second important setting is selection of
the filtering frequency and sampling rate best
suited to the measurement.
These selections are made after determining, fwom the fastest transition, the passband of the signal under analysis. Based on
this value, the filter which is best adapted
to the measurement (maximum of dynamic range)
and corresponding sampling rate is used.
This selection is particularly of interest
when examination of long events (low frequency
resonance or computer sequences) require a
large analysis window and slow sampling rates,
24
CONCLUSIONS
The simultaneous utilization of active
sensors with high sensitivity and a large
dynamic range, an optical transmission line
with a wide band and stable transfer function,
and solid state high-speed digitizers with a
large measuring time range is perfectly suited
to the measurements required by the EMP simulator.
The associated date processing system also
enables maximum automatizing of the fire control system while leaving the operator the
final decision, but after having provided him
with the elements for that decision.
1~
5!LA
Figure
13
-Figure 17, EMP data acquisition system block
diagram.
(2)
BETWEEN
25
THE INTERFACE
ESD TESTING:
SIMULATOR AND EQUIPMENT UNDER
P. Richman
KeyTek
Corporation
Massachusetts,
TEST
and A. Tasker
Instrument
Burlington,
Bd
U.S.A.
like a tool,
,-
EUT
Introduction
The peak current that flows during an
electrostatic discharge (ESD) from an
ESD simulator can be vastly different
from the value intuition might lead one
to expect.
It can be at least as low
as one-tenth, or at least as high as
ten times, the value computed by dividing stored -- or test -- voltage by the
simulator's nominal internal resistance
In addition, the discharge current
waveform in both simulator and actual
human-body discharges often bears
little relation to the simple, single
R-C equivalent circuit in widespread
use (l-5).
GROUND
Fig.
1: Conventional,
for Personnel
Discharge
PLANE
Fig. 2:
2.
3.
Circuit Inductance
Reference (l), an IEC draft ESD standard for Process Control, specifies a
one-meter long ground return of 20 mm
width. However for calibration purposes, the same draft standard calls
for a discharge circuit, including the
ground connection, that is "as short as
possible". Calculations, confirmed by
tests, give total circuit inductance
including internal simulator circuitry
as well as the ground return itself, of
about 1.7 yH for the one-meter ground
return. Similarly, a figure of 0.7 uH
results for a typical R-C network with
a calibration-length ground, with a
length on the order of 30 to 40 cm.
26
Fig. 3 shows the addition of total circuit inductance L to the simpler circuit of Fig. 1.
Table 1 shows the large effect that L
can have on network "efficiency" v\ ,
defined as the ratio of peak current Ip
during discharge, to the "intuitive"
peak of V/R; multiplied by 100, to obtain per cent. (Efficiency without L
must be lOO%.) Calculated values of
I were computer-derived from appropria! e solutions to the series R-L-C circuit of Fig. 3, and were spot-checked
via experiment. I was calculated for
a stored voltage o!? 5kV, but for different voltages the values of Ip can be
scaled proportionately; ignoring preionization and other effects.
R and C values come from representative
ESD test Standards, as listed in Table
.te;fy
v
TIP
RETURN,
1
GROUND
PLANE
Table 1
R and C Values for the R-L-C Equivalent Circuit of Fig. 3,
with Efficiency hgiven for Realistic Ground Return Inductance, 1.7 uH
Ip is peak current for a stored voltage of 5kV
tp is time of occurrence of Ip
Standard
Organiza- or Draft
tion (l-5) Standard
-
LP
Q. =lOO,lR
(p:d) (ohms)
---
(%)
150
64
Ip for
5kV
(A)
tP
ns
21
18
1.
IEC(1)
65 (Seer)
80 (Draft)
150
2.
MIL(2)
883 B
100
1,500
97
3.2
5.6
3.
NEMA(3)
Part DC33
(Draft)
100
1,500
97
3.2
5.6
4A.
EIA(4)
PN-1361
(Draft)
100
500
87
4B.
EIA(4)
1,
60
10,000
100
.5
1.4
5.
SAE(5)
51211
300
5,000
100
1.0
2.9
60
10
6.
Cart simulation
28
10
1.6
561
27 -
(1)
1
0.556 dl
(2)
For a hand of approximately 9 cm "diameter", capacitance is thus on the order of 5 pfd. Note that this capacitance is almost inductance-free. The
inductance of a finger, hand and/or
forearm may be calculated from reference (7) as:
L=O.O021 [2.303 loglO(4j/d-11 uH
(3)
in whichQ and d are length and diameter, respectively, of the finger, hand
or forearm; again in cm. Table 2 gives
results, along with approximate values
of capacitance to free space, for all
body segments involved. Use of a hand
with key has been assumed, as this is
rapidly becoming a de-facto standard
for worst-case ESD simulation. It represents an ESD event involving a handheld metal object such as a tool, ring,
bracelet, or indeed an actual key.
Table 2
Approximate Dimensions, Estimated Capacitance and Estimated Inductance for
Various Sections of the Human Body
(d = diameter,&= length)
d
cm
--
Q.c
cm pf'
---
PH
.02
Entire hand
holding key
(to wrist)
7.5
12.5
.02
Forearm (wrist
to elbow)
30
10
.l
60
20
.27
30
60
20
.13
Whole body
(torso plus
lower body)
30
120
40
.43
28
Table 3
Computed Values of Peak Current Ip and Peak Time tp
Ip computed for 5kV; simply scale for other voltages
(For virtually all parameter combinations except R=lOK,
risetime,T, lies between 25% and 65% of peak time tp.)
(Pfri)
R
(ohms)
c&
50
50
200
:1
.1
10
19
16
6
15
2.4
14
;:",
10
200
200
1
:1
18
18
16
17
60
10,000
.5
;
7.5
100
100
150
300
500
1,500
150
5,000
.7
1.7
.5
.5
;
.7
1.7
;::
.7
1.7
.7
1.7
25
21
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1:
;::
25
24
21
21
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
for bandwidth=
400
loo
60
MHz
_-
MHz
-
MHz
-
.4
.6
.7
.7
:;
1.0
1.2
1.2
1.8
1.3
2.0
1.0
1.1
1.4
1.5
2.1
2.4
2.4
1.4
;::
z-2
. ::
5.2
10.1
5.7
10.6
:::
2::
5:;
.
10
11
.7
1.7
tn_(ns)
Infinite
.6
10
18
1.3
2.9
10
18
3.5
4.0
12
7.9
9.1
2.8
10
14
11
12
12
20
13
21
11
17
11
17
Table 3 for Ip and tp, computer solutions are also included in the table
for the same waveforms viewed with
oscilloscopes of finite bandwidths:
specifically 400 MHz, 100 MHz and 60
MHz.
Data in Table 3 go a long way towards
explaining differences between measurements made by different investigators.
Simulations with 60 pfd and lOK, for
example, will be vastly different depending on the simulation capacitor's
physical size, and on whether the
simulation resistor is 12 cm long -hence not simulating a finger/hand
combination -- or short, and contained
within a metal enclosure to which it
might have, for example, .5 ofd stray
capacitance. For 6Opfd/lOK, Ip is .5A
at 5kV. But if stray capacitance -- or
capacitance of the simulating 60 pfd to
free space -- is considered and a 400
MHz scope used, then from Table 3, I
will be 6A for an arc resistance of !ZO
n; and 10A with infinite oscilloscope
bandwidth. Yet the value shown with
60 to 100 MHz instrumentation will
range from only 1.5 to 2.4A. And after
all, the 0.5 pfd stray is only 10% of
the 5 pfd representative of the human
hand -- which at 400 MHz gives 16A for
2OOn, as shown in the table.
29
5Bl
In the typical
The
New,
RB
150-1500
LB
.5-z
DISCHARGE
Fig.
--
5:
_
30 -
Fig. 6:
1211s
12
ns
References
Cl1
International Electrotechnical Commission IEC 65(Secr)80 Draft Standard: Electrostatic Discharge (for
Industrial Process Control).
i-21 MIL STD 883B, Test Methods and Proceedures for Micro Electronics.
Fig. 7: Actual Discharge Current from a
Practical ESD Simulator Embodying the Dual R-L-C Circuit of
(Steep-rise edges reFig. 5.
touched for readability)
5kV Initial Charge Level
2.5A/half cm, 2ns/half cm
Conclusions
1. Any ESD circuit model that doesn't
include inductance can't simulate reality well enough for test purposes.
c51
- 31 -
RECENT
OF COUPLING
DEVELOPMENTS
IN THE
PATHS OF ESD THROUGH
Michel
UNDERSTANDING
A METALLIC
CABINET
Mardiguian
and Donald R.J.
Don White Consultants,
Inc.
Gainesville,
Virginia, USA
Abstract
White
Grounded
Metal Plate
Electric 01 Magnelic
Field Probe
-
Ground
Plane
Spectrum
Background
_____-
Figure
to a Vertical
Structure,
B2
from
Over a Conductive
an ESD
Ground
l-Experimental
Analyzer
static,
is certainly anything but a static phenomena:
Within
few nanoseconds,
a localized electric field of several kilovolts per
cm (corresponding
to several hundred kilovolts/meter)
collapses
to zero while in the same time, a localized magnetic induction
raises up to several Gauss! With a scaling factor (a few amperes
discharge instead of ten kilo amperes, and a spectrum of few hundred MHz instead of few hundred kilohertz) the ESD is in fact
a miniature version of a lightning stroke. Few documents
have
stressed this fact [ 1 & 41 and others have reported field strength
values. These values were generally
measured
at one meter.
Although
the non-uniformity
of the field makes
closer
measurements
less accurate,
during our study E and H field
magnitudes
have been measured at 10 cm, 30 cm and 1 meter.
The vertical structure was a 50 cm by 6 cm aluminum plate, firmly
bonded to the copper ground plane. The ESD gun was set to 10
kV and an arc discharge,
with a slow repetition rate was made
on the upper tip of the plate. The ground return for the ESD gun
was a flat strap about 30 cm long to avoid the possible influence
of both inductance and location of the return conductor.
For the
same repeatability
reason, the orientation
of this strap was kept
always in the vertical plane formed by the gun and the structure
which was discharged
upon.
Figs. 2a, 2b, and 2c show the results of electric and magnetic
fields, after bandwidth
and antenna factor correction.
A few remarks
are in order:
about
done
+ 15dB with
with similar
b) Compared
to the I meter results, the 30cm and 1Ocm
results seem to show a (distance)W2 dependancy
instead
of a (distance)-2 or (distance)
as one would
least in the induction (near-field)
region.
expect,
32
at
structure,
the ESD generates a predominately
magnetic
(low impedance) field in the induction region, tending to
a 120 x ohms wave impedance in the far field zone. Since
the change over of near to far field is wavelength dependant, the transition occurs at different frequencies for the
various distances of the experiment; the change is very pronounced for the IOcm case.
In this experience,
it must be reminded
that the
radiator is the whole circuit formed by the simulator and
Frequency
1
10
I MHz
30
100
300
3MH7
1 30MH/
1 IOOMHI
1 300MH/
1 5OOMHr
~~
m men
a ion u
Table l-Average
.m
10
30
Ftequency
Figure
2a-ESD
Field at
1 meter
10
300
Frequency
3
100
in MHz
30
in MHz
100
300
120
120
sz
100
100 z.
9
%
80
5
80 g
D
s
N
:
60
60
40
40 g
20
20 m
Q
10
30
Frequency
Figure
2b-ESD
100
P
m
I
Wave Impedances
of ESD Radiated
Fleids
300
in MHz
Fields at 30 cm
Frequency
10
30
I MHz
100
300
100 N
:
80 3
Voltages
._____~
Induced
Boards
-.__ .._
m
60 D
10
Figure
30
100
Frequency ,n MHz
300
2c-ESD
Field at IO cm
the vertical discharging
structure. Seen from an antenna
located at <I meter, this structure behaves as an electrically long radiator,
and not a punctual
source or small
doublet.
c) Comparing E dBpV/m and HdBpA/m (see Table 1) shows
a wave impedance varying:
--@ I meter from about lOOI around 30MHz to >3OOB
above 300MHz
--@ 1Ocm from about 1OD around 1OMHz to 500 above
300MHz.
that
for actual
arcing
on a metallic
the PCB
This indicates
in dBpV/MHz,
T cos 0 cos o!
x
(1)
110
Frequency in MIir
10
30
100
33
300
90
80
80
70
70
60
60
like
the coupling
l/F
as evident
coefficient
on Fig. 2, while
10 MHz,
150-200 MHz,
available
voltage
By comparison,
the wir-
loss, caus-
above
to collapse
B2
100
90
decreases
ing impedance
110
100
even more
caus-
rapidly.
induced
voltage
Frequency I MHz
!
10
30
100
300
minimize
contribution.
is one order
thermore
C, Calculaird
0 Calciilated
the
only
only
of magnitude
supports
standard
Figure 3-Broadband
voltage induced rn a 100 cm:PCB run located
10 cm from the ESD path, parallel to wave front (PCB not oriented
for maxlmum H-Field interception).
Then,
wave front,
such as to intercept
magnetic
contribution
termination
contribution.
0 = angle between
the E field
trum
analyzer)
a high impedance
will double
the available
will
it.
nullify
On the other
VI
appearing
of the victim
receptor
as a low impedance
voltage,
while
1kQ
a shorted
creates a longitudinal
source
of
of
that
in
field,
near
one. This
fur-
the radiation
of
predominantly
90 to be perpendicular
the maximum
magnetic
is so pronounced
IOOOQ (curve
A)
to the
flux.
The
in exactly
the
however,
the
overrides
the
electric
(voltage
60
of
Frequency
A
B
C
end (spec-
transverse
is
in a small circuit
u = angle between
propagation.
tiiven
statement
Where
What
the previous
discharge
induced
contribution.
magnetic.
Figure 4-TradItional
model for voltages
illuminated by an EM field.
to a high impedance
the magnetic
or
in all cases,
z,,,,
end (Receptor)=50
I1
end
in MHz
Figure B-Broadband
voltage Induced In a 100 cm;PCB run located
10 cm from the ESD path perpindicular to wave front (PCB
Intercepting maximum magnetic field).
voltage
source)
with
a value:
correspond
between
approximately
of
IO
lOOOn to 5OQ
termination.
Interestingly
there the influence
voltage
vx =
of varying
impedances
is totally
different.
The
end is:
corresponds
Effect
Z,
,,,,(,,I,,,
il) -~ ~--.--------~----1, t & + z,,..,,,,,
(3)
-= 5On
Z ,,,,,,,,.=O.l
A
high
magnetically
impedance
induced
Z,
voltage.
n + .iw x 0.4~H
on
the
A shor/
far
end
on /he fur
nullify
the
Metallic
by the normal
Cabinet
shielding
on ESD Radiation
___
____~_
the cabinet
metallized)
of curve (C)
15 volts.
housing
the ESD
field
the electronic
should
in a former
pick-up
paper
by I/O
well protected.
disrupt
integrity.
the shield
cables, which
be at-
Therefore,
internal
However,
etc., which
iUli,lcJ il.
On Fig.
shorted.
(or
the spectrum
of about
will
of a Typical
is metallic
tenuated
Z,
integrating
in our experiment,
enough,
to a peak voltage
3 the curve
Therefore,
(C),
corresponds
the electrical
contribution
while
wave length.
500 MHz,
hibit
significant
leakage.
mechanism,
the witness
than
extending
up
offered
predominantly
An interesting effect was also simulated: One of the threaded holes used to attach the top cover has been painted and the
cover was mounted using a long screw, protuding
about 2.5cm
(I) inside the box. The results are also shown on Fig. 6. It seems
that the screw generates a secondary arc inside, between the fillets
and the inner box surface.
Frequency
I MHz
100
90
:
E
90
N
80
:
80 s
70
7ov
60
60
m"
u
Discussion
-_____
m"
References
I MHz
1kll
ESD on protruding
lilt0
ESD on protrudlng
strew
into a short
Figure 6-Voltage
in an aluminum
induced on the
10 cm
and Conclusions
Finally, it is important
that designers pay attention to the
integrity of the metal housings, even for equipment
which are
neither RF equipment
or highly sophisticated
gear, but simply
have to be ESD immune.
100
34
1mmgap,
2.
3.
4.
rack.
5.
6.
35
7B3
Honeywell
201000
The
E. S. D.
emission
the most
stems
We
susceptibility
(R. E.)
and
particularly
ply with
standard
ship
different
between
E.S.
the
relation-
if
described:
the
spark
of mechanical
gap
sam-
interferences
electrically
between
floating
electronic
parts,
(Printed
differences
only
apparently
xample,
the E.S.
a printer
is then
Last
item
GND
bonding
radiated
D.
and
Board).
mechani-
grounded,are
then
such
is outlined.
As
susceptibility
level
(inside
the influence
the printers)
from
EDP
TEST
Real-world,
E.S.
H- field
of
effect
pulse
Thats
and voltage
is,
drops,
respectively,
depend
disrupted
shielded
peripheral
the following
D.air
five
routes:
generated,
ge induction
H-field,
from
ground
mechanical
struc-
effect,
discharge
current
as a matter
in two
differents
on E.U.T.
as poinvia
injection.
of fact,
items:
predischar3.
E-field,
The
last
can be se5a.
E-field
gap,
I.
ESD
loop;
to only
experience
influence
ex-
discharge
plate,
internal
enhance
and
the
effects
weve
evaluation
on
nomena.
For both
lowing
effect
IEC
laboratory
l.,
and in the
bus
our
5a,
methods
64 standard)
and field
diagnostic
first
on signal
focused
oriented,
the
printers
voltage
structure,
discharge
the
out,
in transient
on mechanical
Therefore,
pointed
on peripheral
to be identified
secondary
1)A
effects:
air
generation
generation
spark
as expeto enhance
effect.
main
The
of five
direct
or on E-field
H. I, S.
drops
to the host
by each
gap for
or on H-field
has
1. predischarge,
2.
spark
methods,
, can be used
I.
gene rated
ternal
on the
ca-
discharge
in H. I.S.
last
of
equipments
radiation;
E-field;
5.
noise
date
discharge,
disrupt
different
of
METHODOLOGY
(11,
Two
rienced
As
with
emissions
E. S. D.
parated
current
or strong.
shielded
computer
ESD
weak
e-
predicted.
concerns
connecting
Circuit
to understand
phenomena
on
parts,
between
and a method
troublesome
the E.S.D.
structural
P. C. B.
voltage
analyzed,
4.
tests.
tire.
The
corona
5b.
injected
impedence
ples;
bles,
FIG.
generators
then,
between
coating
.penerator.
of E.U.T.
effect,
are,
interferences
unit of ES.!
.
test).
items
and surface
cal
Italy
prin-
and to com-
D.
structure
under
specific
Pulse
many
parts,
no malfunction
we analyse
mechanical
(equipment
with
regulations.
first
Milan
sy-
E. D. P.
environment
In this paper
The
E.D.P.
with
to exibit
and office
for
concern
be designed
Two
now perhaps
are
topics
peripheral
devices,
and electromechanical
in home
and the
Milanese
Italy
peripherals.
such
ters;
mechanical
must
Systems
and radiated
problems
important
Information
Pregnana
Inzoli
lines.
analysis
5b,
and
0 f ESD
we defined
two test
with
phc_
(folset-up,
different
purpose.
one
reference
a common
is
characterised
plane,
GND
star
under
point
by:
the E.U.T.,
for
as
the dischar-
ging
system
and E. U. T.
2) An electrical
sible
connection,
between
inside
the plane
the EUT,
in ground
data
The
power
cord
path
of ESD
The
second
1) On line
one
The
path
power
first
then,
cords
set-up
re-
without
(fig.
of EUT,
1) by:
frequency
pulse,
invol-
purposes
chanical
equipotentiality
structure
2) Voltage
drops
pressure
are,
printer
level
GND
second
star
set-up
systems
surface
(screws,
of EUT
as function
purpose
of
are
as following:
l)Noise
conversion
unbalanced
tive
signal
cable
their
transfer
Direct
gap:
return
to avoid
its
flat
ground
impedence
direct
external
spark
discharge
H-f;eldESD
and
EUT
cable
.)
effect
in the
case
(n. 5b)
and
ca-
and to
arranged
with
mo re,
S;
internal
Division
as
shown
C=150pF)
oriented
current
spark
with
injection
gap
Sl.
it can be a T. D. R.
Reflectometer,
ARC
stributed
(R= lOOn,
gap
Further
discharge,
or lumped
(Ti-
R=50R
),
to measure
electrical
The
mechanical
side
only,
has
rent
ways:
Ni-coating;ZnCr04,
of
sample,
been
coating
di-
parame-
grounded
coated
one
in two diffechromate
on electro
mechanical
and
arc
-deposited
parts
es
can
where
and current
ESD
generator
c ircuit
The
with:
delay-lines
wave
reference
floating
tact
as parallel
output
are
inj%%d
model
guide
finger
and sample,
to-end
capa city.
by
IESD
representative
sample
representative
of the sample,
excited
current
between
CP
re-
voltage
can be built-up
(DL),
plane,
side
ce coating
be verified.
is behaving
circuit,
E.M.
can be evalua-
discharge-surfa
sample
sonant
T.
Interna&ark
method,
a
flat
impedence;
discharge
oriented
inte rferenc
on
or unshielded
etc..
emission
cable,
generator
can be:
ted,
of e-
generated
connections,
can be:
shielded
1.
ESD
printer
struc-
between
radiated
has
2.
path,
characteristic
meters
The
(shielded
oriented,
in fig.
as possible,
cable,
the
sample
Zinc (yellow
and colourless
conversion).
In such a way,
the oscillation
modes
of
capaci-
busses
or fault
connections
comzison
prevalent
__I__
(i.e.
mechanical
or ground
noise
computer
bles,
to dif-
frequency
circuits).
2) Interference
host
of current
between
and power
lectronic
common
due to high
path
coupling
tures
from
mode,
shown
much
conversion
ferential
structural
ters.
point.
diagnostic
invol-
Therefore
current
as
two
mecha-
method
laboratory
as
short,
me
coatings).
se t-up
ESD
the EUT
analyzed.
of a significant
without
on bonding
3) Susceptibility
of me-
of EUT.
contacts,
be first
test
The
between
and the test
verified,
The
and cables.
diagnostic
must
in fig.
with
connections.
current
ved
control
as following:
1) High
The
of EUT,
condition
of ESD
in the
connections.
cables
structure
been
characterised
signal
2) Return
ving
is
interferences
on the
or of
pulse.
condition
cables
running
external
filter
The
nical
behavior
connector.
current
signal
point
identified
is not involved
running
external
as pos-
on line
cable
turn
3)Self-test
short
alternatively
connection
external
as
36
between
C,
of
RSURF
ESD
of
and
con-
generator
T,~return
cable
FIG.
Test
end-
2
set-up:
Mechanical
sample
surface
in g.
with
coat-
The
results
1.
can be
Surface
tor
sure
is
face
impedence
2OOgr.
No
bution
is
tact
pressure
lb,
open
are
effect
is
The
pres-
flat
has
strongly
4.
and screw
exposure
to Na Cl
discharge
nerator
As
point
4b.If
corrosion
voltage
measures
ESD
gen.
of smoothed
input
impedence
point
on a mechanical
ranging
then,
if Cp=@,
thats
sonance).
The
generator
input
equivalent
loons).
No
electrical
resonator
is pointed
return
(std.
pulse
is used,
and sheilded
the current
pulse.
the
5,contact
current
shaand-
pressure
The very
dangerous
oscillations
are
spark
ESD
due to ge-
gap S,
series
to disrupt
related
to the
cable
method)
is
is
in fig.
are
circuited
waveguides
as fig.1
injected
6;the
derivated
cy oscillations
generator
arranged
the typical
shown
shape
triangular
and
excited
set-
current
high
by CRF
clas-
frequeninfluences.
re
depends-
wn
to lo-
along
structures
if
E-field,
the
If
= 10;
ESD
or if its
E-field
compling
inthe
in the case
effect
to significative
rne-
out.
FIG.
excited
a mechanical
floating
coatings,
discharge
dependent.
one Sl.
If the
sic
fo=55MHz
to surface
from
rela-
to surface
short
resistence,
up indicated,
parasytic
(2:
Sl
in fig.
coating
TIZD
as it can be seen
is deplaced
to
is on
discharge
classic
of a second
related
This
is used,
dependent.
parameter
point
correlation
4c
is
frequency
first
coustant
resistence,
the
to
discharge
resonance;
dumping
and no dependencies
thod
from
a lumped
impedence,
the discharge
related
to 0.4KV.
(i. e.
a A/4
thats
is
specific
depends
parameters
cal
high
the peak
structures:
1. 2KV
coupling
if Cp=80pF,
out,
oscillation
at the
from
frequency,
from
ge-
neration
pointed
cable
gen.
pe is shown
(1 OKV) is used.
value
is
dependent.ESD
is an arc
is a tringular
coating
VESD,
parts.
no correlation
return
shape
test.
2.
the
and if ESD
04.
at min.,
This
is
sample,
as dis charge
method
IESD
generator
( 10KV) is used.
4a.If
holes.
colourless,
R,,,__=1;2Ofi(ty2;. 8fi&%%
points).
pically),
Rsupr=*
Ni: RSURF=
+ . 1; RSURF=.
05;. 5flafter
16h,
point
of mechanical
coating.
as
RsURF=10;400~,
edges
parts.
ESD
is ranging
discharge
it is on flat
is,
dependent,
is used.
of oscillation
ted phenomena;
con-
if coating,
value
on edge
0. 5KV
contri-
sharpness
( IOKV)
1. 2KV, fig.4,is
exactly
resi-
edge
peak
from
used.
near
7B3
3 the sur
reflections
RSURF
coloured,
circuits
lb. Zn Cr
skin
dependent,
04,
contact
a contact
wave
out.
genera-
in fig.
merely
to travelling
pointed
Zn Cr
shown
significant
been
la and
lc
As
as
3* generator
ESD
as following:
TDR
SURF
and a typical
is needed,
stence.
la.
summarized
resistence
31
part
(N.
mechanical
_-of prevalent
5-a)
of a printer
structure
groundingimpedence
(high
frequency)
of ESD
effect
is
is
rised
values, the
is the
most
FIG.
TDR
1 OOA/div
pulse
20 ns /div.
FIG.
Peak
value
ZOOV/div.
10 ns/div.
FIG.
ESD
6
current
1 OOA/div
50 ns /div.
38
This
is a common
coating
with
internal
or
grounding
screws
To test
tion,
are
printed
wire
ference
1) with
(as
one
mechanical
capacitive
than
1 pF.
The
results
representative
faced
to printed
is very
surface
input
sharp
mV).
1 limitations,
Th:
logitudinal
the total
A VG zvIN
is neglibible,
more
than
ESD
input
be very
&V will
The
to ESD
is
a real
complex
analysis
matrix
mechanical
methodology
has
printer,
with
structure,
been
set-up
segment
The
H.I.S.I.
significant
parts,
the following
be measured
2a.
electrical
different
with
Characteristics
tion
times,
delling
such
/REF.
resonancies,
must
electrical
a T. D. R.
impedences
of the equivalent
bet-
be pointed
parameters
As
must
lines
trum
mo-
how
resonators.
GND.
accurately
pointed
ILRNiZ
repreand
as noise
can be easely
is solved,
on all
by E.S.
D.
in Ref.[Z,
value
is given
e-
integration
the
spectrum.
of the
spec_
. The
31
by asymin dB,
for
each
of time
peak
on
line
derived.
value
by the integration,
in above
in the
pulse,
program
final
of the
referenced
real
will
of phase
one.
the
range
information
Many
excess
value
redu-
algorithm,
in the
significant
error
of
tranbe a ve-
papers,we
or of the integration
representation.
mated
system,
current
as approximated
then
and propaga-
pulse
is shown
approximation
shown
in the
spectral
a simple
its
set-up:
delay
is
obtained
ry good
out.
the
predicted
sient,
ween
2. All
g scale
in
drops
involved
modulus
log-lo
an
be deribed.
domain
for
segments;
transform
the broad-band
integration,
ptotic
set-
6. Its spec-
in fig.
circuits,
ranges
spectrum
method
be
test
approxima-
Fourier
of voltage
P.C.B.
A flow-chart,
be
or
the preof 2a
impedences.
provided
frequency
will
shown
from
connecting
value
ones,
must
domain
voltage
in the frequency
Y vESD
time
of the injected
for
of
2 if
are
current,
as
can then
peak
choice
by fig.
if laboratory
is
be calculated
source
by mea-
The
by comparison
pulse
pulse
significant
approximated
t zo)
suscptibility
susceptibility
T.
investigation
1. All
representation,
trum
E. S. D.
relatively
of the
tral
sharp.
poor!
If the E.U.
tion
stimated,
zo/(50
ESD
a good
of the
inductance
2.
results.
up is used,
sentation
suggested
step
the prevalent
indicated
parts,
connected.
parameters
Typically,
can
band-
value.
= 2vESD.
are
inje cted
devices
suggested
measured.
4. All
or
current
no significative
will
20,
resonator
The
voltage
large.
with
(L
is
as
ones,is
the fi-
noise
is floating,
can be very
IESD,
model,
valent
resona-
high
are
of the
7 if distributed
3. The
if different
mechanical
range
values
results
diffe-
devices.
step
by different
parameter
modulus,
impedence
part
important
by fig.
Zn is
cting
or electromechanical
and 2c measurement
Only
the
can be very
(AVClOO
(Zo=
and capaci-
tonne
electromechanical
lurrped parameters
of the
R of Ni or
Though
impedence
discharged
guide
and resi-
inductances
lines,
low-frequency
surement
less
characte-
(BW<lHz).
condition.
bonding
than
bandwith
resistence
of longitudinal
pulse
The
board,
layout
wave
resonance
nal value
with
only
as following:
is less
of TEM
the
the limiting
2.If
wire
to signal
impedence
impedence
or
is a very
electronic
of a floating
inductances
parasitic
P. C. B.
This
to a reset-up
in the
points
connections.
of the signal
are supported
can be summarized
structure
tor
in test
Lumped
rent
parasitic
of ground
tances
B.
coupling
100;lOOO~)
the low
2d.
in fig.7.
of a metallic
connected
Lumped
stences
due to the
capacitances,
of specific
parts.
equivalent
1. If bonding
ristic
2c.
1 m) to support
tightly
is
part
with
D=O.
parasitic
proximity
mechanical
configura-
is shown
suggested
bonding
second
used
Lumped
mutual
or
connected
mechanical
6 m,
board,
plane
is wire
representative
(l=O.
2b.
if surface
is used
or isolated.
set-up
is
base-plane
The
system
loose
the bench
to solve
conversion
The first-one
fig.
problem
chromate
spec-
examples
can be esti-
0 to 6 dB,
has
been
out.
(2)
I
I
FIG.
Resonance
wave -guides
between
mechanical
structures
Example:
max
value
tactresistencz,
In fig.8
forxund
a typical
matrix
printer
tor
with
is
M,
connected,
R:
is
C,
a
via
conductive
squares,with
contact
F and F are wire connected
C
The ma& E.S.D.
pulse volB.
and R+c
c
bonding
to lOKV,
generates
tage, charged
namedAVES
ry pulse voltage,
with
is approximately
Av
A s%s%dary
injected
pulse
from
ground
between
voltage
difference,A
on
hanical
if the electrical
betwe
susceptibility
difference
GND
points
return
paths.
se of R. E.
of the system
such
avoid
oriented.
In
between
signal
can be generated
Therefore
an increa-
can be expected.
disappointing
situation
e.
voltage
drops
on GND contact
and RX
, must be estimated.
R
nois:
source
on ground
of P.C.B.
The
logic
thats
steps,
to be calculated,
are
thats
~I?%%D
the parameter
spectral
current
values
as following:
as
transform
shown
modulus
6.
in fig.
2. Z =w. 20OnH,
thats
spectral
transform
modulus
of base -plane
impedence.
= 2.1
3. AVqsIl
sen
4. Z
SD, thats
spectral
of t E e secondary
atlon
=1/u,.
C,
thats
pulse
impedence
= W. L,
d&s
thats
spectral
of impedence;
L=l.
5. I
/(ZI+Z
ESD= %SD
transform
modulus
current.
The
integration
se
FIG.
voltage.
spectral
mo-
pulse
pedence
c%%tnt,
source,
and R
C
unbalance
R=O.Ol
value,
obtained
of time
injected
is equally
connection
Therefore,
must
i 0.1 n.,
PCB,
generated
rence
bVL.
mo-
by the
domain
, is estimated
transform
2,&H.
spectral
1, thats
f?
o the secondary
pulse
algorithm,
current
This
peak
as
from
high
shared
their
to avoid
max.
pul-
10A.
R
impe%ence
to the
range
a ground
noise
by the pulse
im-
between
resistences
be reduced
..
PLl.Mf.
repre-
can obtain,
by current
emissions
indeed,
di sconnection
a voltage
cas e,
without
of radiated
Thats,
ESD
printers
be achieved
course,
we
or
is only
To
VL,
appro_
and GND
of peripheral
must
units.
result
connection
parts
been
pulse
is a trangient
mesh
IE
FSD
e then,
D will
n,
same
gerous
has
printers
susceptibility
and met
to dV+i-
the
this
M to t% e P.C.B.
motor
The
resistences
This
current
the
mesh.
equa
a seconda-
for
(R. E.)
in EDP
ce nte rs,
degredatio
GND
=O. 5V,
Emission
ESD
in EDP
and internal
by FI,and
The
ofbVL
assumed.
connection
--
mo-
F;
value
ely
Radiated
of a
capacitance
circuits
supported
max,
ximat
step
structure
electronic
mesh,
The
parasitic
by a metallic
with
ground
structure
represented.
internal
The
con_
connections_
mechanical
is
supported
P.C.B.,
of the surface
7B3
39
voltage
on
diffe-
the numbe
between
An
r and
e xperienc
d by
The
electronic
are
the
the
P.C.B..
cated
noise
between
SW,
chanical
such
(on the
for
noise
GND
cable,
structure
antenna,
GND
reference
remote
The
is behaving
excited
9.
board)
system
on
is then
F.
lo-
I and
floating,
F. 2.
P. C.
bus
side,
a paper
is af-
in fig.
plane
connected
electrically
R. E.
shown
voltage
on the other
a s ituation,
smitting
of how
circuits
is connecting
ment
be fixed.
is
sources
connections
must
bonding,
The
signal
of GND
parts
ed situation
GND
the P. C. B.;
ble
location
mechanical
fecte
the
FIG.
ca-
sensing
ele-
fixed
signal
on mecable,
as a local
by V;
an induced
mechanical
structure
coating
of a printer:
resistence
estimation
in
tran-
Typical
of
the signal
current
nical
is then
str?cture
current,
forced
F. 2.
to noise
wed
by GND
The
physical
and its
source
bonding
S,
for
gnal
cable
and power
of GND
bonding
A second
typical
from
jumper
is
signal
been
Again
cables
moduling
rasytic
antenna
L =,k..r
with:
(In 7
8.r
r (a):Mean
: Wire
ble
antenna
The
as
The
L.
common
of loop
bles,
the
source
are
V.
As
dyv/m
at 4OMHz
cy, square-wave,
element
loop
relation
work
of
gards
met
item
vel
s ,
and
pointed
(wire)
radius
shielded
peripheral
hanical
design
along
with
is generated
ca-
or VDE
mu st be pursuived
co herent
design
ment
metnodologies.
Richman,
Intl
Aug.
2 3-25,
GND
1983,
of D.C.
power
diction
an aly zis
main
standard
VA.
Transient
susceptibility
distribution
in time
networks:
5th S ymposium
E.
M.
C.,
L.
INZOLI,
and
Zurich,
EM1
4th S ympo
Technical
March
Exibition
8-10,
problems
switching
siu m and
in the design
Technical
Zurich,
March
N5 8K2
11
circuit
antenna
on
1983.N23F2
systems.
(f=2OKHz,
by internal
do-
I.
an-
freque_n
pre-
or fre quency
ca-
by a low
IEEE
Arlington,
a noise
10
loop
time,
measure-
simulation,
with
of&30
E affected
regu-
same
and
15
on EMC,
EM1
L. INZ OLI,
emitting
FIG.
standard
at the
rules,
ESD
P.,
Symposium
FIG.
emission
this
le-
part
REFERENCES --
Equivalent
Radiated
rules,
basic
susceptibility
F.C.C.
be-
emission
current
to some
C and
power
t:calculate
a radiated
(i.e.
lati ons
with
archias re-
and packaging
the ESD
limits
C.
printers,
reduced
assure
R.E.
the E.M.
antenna
plane
between
out,
EDP
to
drivers.
sion
can be s ignificantly
of new
measurements,
point
loop
The
standard
can be seen
relationship,
pa-
;H]
reference
current
start
tenna
11.
by the
of the
wit
*a
mode
a clamp,
our
on E.M.C.,
GND
connecting
podate
of the x/2
in fig.
can be extimated
haves
of shielded
of loop
capacity
relationship.
to connect
plane.
- 2) tp1/8n
values
lenght
1
The
shown
boards,
is a frequency
L can be extimated
As
tecture
electronic
two internal
circuit
Conclu
_--.
motor
distribution,
used
GND
R.E.
GND
A signal-ground
jumper,
for
is
how
PCB
been
between
PCB
equivalent
inductance
num-
along
can be seen
out.
S has
element
The
cable.
si-
significantly
to a two
area
and
spaced
and GND
to reference
the loop
wer
loop
bonding
ground
F. 2.
An increased
carried
connecting
and a GND
1 and
moduling
the R.E.,
power
due to printer
is a ti o-
current
to show,
IL=20mA),
of output
R.E.
affect
supply
has
for
range.
A star
a power
system,
F.
equally
situation
can
10.
cord!
shift
frequency
connections
PCB,
of the IL
S,
will
to higher
in fig.
on the
emissions
ber
F. 1 and F. 2,
path
is the frequency
radiated
mecha-
return
between
dimension
inductance
element
on the near
The
40
of the
Exibition
lo-12,1981.
41
8~4
Abbreviations:
ESD : Electrostatic Discharge
EUT : Equipment Under Test
1. INTRODUCTION
We were led to undertake these measurements on the fast rise time behaviour of ESD for the following reason:
When carrying out ESD Tests with some
of the test objects according to the
most advanced test recommendations
of
IEC SG65 WG4 Cl], we observed some
strange results:
Fig.
1.: Shielded
storage
oscilloscope
5 ns
Although these problems are only observed to their full extent with a mino-
_. . .
5 ns
Shield door open
(1)
(2)
- The discharge
of the 150 pF capacitor on a discharge path including the 150 ohm resistor and
the earth connection. This part
of the pulse shape is reasonably well defined and reproducible.
- The discharge
42
Test voltage
Polarity
Speed of the approach of the test
finger
Direction of the approach of the
test finger
Shape of the EUT at the point of
the test
Humidity
Ion concentration
of air at the
Barometric pressure 1discharge point
Layout of the earth cable
Other unknown parameters?
It was the aim of our measurements to
find out the influence of at least the
most important of these parameters.
Fig. 3 shows some typical examples of
discharge current waveforms at different charging voltages. It can be seen,
that in general it is possible to differentiate the two discharge modes.
At 8 kV the pulse shape varies greatly
from discharge to discharge. Tow rather extreme examples are shown.
The recommendation
of IEC SG65 WG4 on
ESD testing is aware of this fast discharge mode. In the Appendix, they
state:
uo=15 kV
"Prior to this discharge there is a
small "pre-discharge" of a stray capacitance formed between the discharge
electrode of the test generator and
the standard load. This stray capacitance is estimated to be 5 pF. Rise
time and current of the "pre-discharge" are not measured and not evaluated by the testing procedure" Cl].
60 A
(Fast example)
WAVEFORMS
u =8 kV
0
1
60 A
\I/
(Slow example)
uo=8 kV
OF TEST DISCHARGES
10 ns
I9
of the Current
35 A
Tm
u0=4 kV
Fig.
3: Typical
current
10 ns
examples of discharge
waveforms
- 43 -
8~4
: Maximum
height
th : Pulse width
the current
S
Rising
finger
to the
of the current
at half height
of
4 kV
8 kV
12 kV
15 kV
15.9
27.8
41.7
46.2
0.7
0.8
2.2
0.7
th m
53.0
52.3
55.3
53.3
ns
"
4.1
4.2
0.7
2.0
ns
11.2
see
2.6
1.8
A/M
text
2.6
0.4
A/IX
(r
fl
3.9
,
m
0
: Average
: Standard
Table
deviation
1: Statistical results of
"average" approaches
44 -
2.3 Influence
out
0-1
24 A
and
high in-
1
IEC earth cable
Sharp cone as
discharge finger
(2 III)
attached over
most of its length
close to the ground
plane, resulting in
the smallest possible
inductivity.
--T-
(2 m) attached to
the ground plane
near to the discharge point.
21 A
1
Fig.
04
T
18 A
(2 m) attached to
the ground plane
far from the discharge point.
-L-
(2 m) attached to
the ground plane
near to the discharge Point, but
leaving part of it
rolled up, resulting
in an increased inductivity.
06
Inductivity of
10 ns
45
~4
Discharge to a
screw head (uo= 5kV)
Discharge to a
flat surface (uo= SkV)
unchanged.
Fig.
We
of the Dis-
8.: Influence
discharge
sp
0.6 A
10 ns
1 ns
Air Pressu-
3. COMPARISON
WITH
9 shows
two
ns
9: Real
human
ESDs
FOR
IMPROVING
THE
TEST
- 46
Use of an auxiliary spark gap adjusted to trigger at the proper voltage and mounted at the test finger.
Use of spark gaps with fixed distances under controlled gas atmosphere,
exchangeable
for several voltages.
Use of a relay in the test finger
to trigger the spark (air or gas
atmosphere).
Use of a Burst Generator-Type
of
Generator with spark gaps of appropriate voltages as signal generator. (These spark gaps must be
close to the point of test on the
EUT).
Use of other
works.
types of discharge
net-
and easy
CONCLUSIONS
The rising part should be characterized by rising slope instead of
rise time.
The pulse shape of discharges in
real tests differs from the pulse
shape obtained in the calibration
set-up with a very short earth connection.
In real tests as well as in human
ESDs, the fast discharge mode is an
important part of the pulse shape
and should be considered.
The reproducibility
of the fast
discharge mode with the actual test
methods is not satisfactory and
should be improved.
References:
Cl1 IEC 65 (Secretariat)80
Draft-Publication
654-5: Operating
Conditions - Part five: Electromagnetic Compatibility,
Section
II: Electrostatic Discharge Requirements.
CZI W.M. King:
Dynamic Waveform Characteristics
of Personnel Electrostatic Discharge EOS/ESD Symposium, Denver,
1979, p. 78-87
c31 R. Simonic:
Byrne:
The Meaning of Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) in Relation to Human
Body Characteristics
and Electronic
Equipment.
IEEE/EMC Symposium Arlington 1983,
p. 36'3 - 380.
47
9Cl
H. Kikuchi
Nihon University, College of Science and Technology
Tokyo 101, Japan
Based upon observations of lightning triggered by a rocket with a trailing wire grounded, a new but tentative model of triggered
lightning is presented in relation to natural
lightning in the following terms: (1) downward- or upward-moving leaders; (2) electrostatic field discontinuities; (3) space charge
distributions and effects; (4) a new concept
of electric cusp and electric merging or
localization, electric field reconnection or
interchange; (5) effects of the RF component
on discharge threshold; (6) circuit model of
lightning discharge; (7) electromagnetic pulse
(EMP) emitted by lightning discharge. In
particular, a new concept (4) is introduced as
a mechanism of multi-clouds-to-ground lightning
triggered by a rocket-trailing wire in relation
to other items (l), (2), (3), (5) and (6).
1. Uoward-moving leaders
Natural cloud-to-ground lightning is usually
initiated by a step-leader moving downward the
ground. In contrast, in many strikes to towers
and rockets, the leader is observed to travel
upward into the cloud from the top of the tower
or rocket 111. These upward-going leaders are
characterized by upward branching of the channel into the cloud. Since the leader is initiated from the structure or spacecraft, the
lightning is termed to be triggered by them.
That is, no lightning would occur in the
absence of the structure or spacecraft. This
indicates that the presence of a sharp object
such as a tower or rocket-trailing wire is
definitely the most important factor for triggered lightning.
2. Electrostatic field discontinuities
The question arises why and how the leader
is initiated from the top of a tower or rocket,
in other words, what the real function of a
sharp object is. This is simply a function of
electrostatic field discontinuities at the top
of the structure
or rocket,
where a large electric field is expected particularly for metallic
structure. The field intensity around its tip
can be estimated theoretically if one neglects
the space charge effect. According to 'electrostatics: the electric field at the edge or tip
of a perfectly conducting plane or line structure exhibits a singularity of the order of
48
1
r -2or r-1 respectively, where r is the distance alon; the boundary from the tip [2, 31.
This indicates that the elctrostatic field
becomes very large near the tip of a sharp object, causing the electric field merging and
electrostatic energy localization between the
cloud and the tip of the object, further leading to discharge triggering.
3. Space charge effects
In the preceding section, the space charge
effects at the surface of a sharp object have
been neglected. Under the actual circumstances,
a large electric field at the tip of the object gives rise to the corona streamer current
from its tip, pulling out some induced positive
or negative charges from the object. Consequently, space charge layers are formed over
the surface of the object and tend to shield
it from the field of the cloud. The shielding
distance may be of the order of the Debye
length that is defined as
EOKT
hD =
7.434 x lo3 F(m)
(I)
$=z=
JJ--where KT (eV) is the plasma temperature, N(m -3 )
the plasma density, VT the thermal velocity,
wp the plasma angular frequency, e the electronic charge and ~0 is the dielectric constant
of vacuum. For a rough estimate, let N =
lo6 m-3, KT = 0.02353 (OC = 273K). Then, we
have A = 1.14 m, f = 8.98 kHz. Thus, the electri!? field near ' the tip of a still structure is reduced to some extent by space charges
surrounding it. If the relative velocity be-
ELECTRIC
-----
LINE OF FORCE
EQUIPOTENTIAL
,/
SURFACE
,/---I,
/I
ROCkET-TRAILING-WIRE
object
49
9Cl
RIZ
Fig. 2.
kA
lot
:
i IOO-
10.
l-
,"mA
%lOO3
v) 10.
ii
l-
ALTITUDE
(a)
150
m
Predischarge current
-kVfm
5 lo?
E
z_ 5cl
$0
c
0
(b)
Fig. 3.
50
100
ALTITUDE
150
m
200
7
- 50 -
FLARE
Fig. 4.
(1978)
2. Goto, M. and Kikuchi, H., Bull. ETL, 2, 169
(1951)
3. Felsen, L.B. and Marcuvitz, N., Radiation and
Scattering of Waves (Prentice Hall, 1973)p.89
4. Brook, M. et al., Naval Res. Review, Apr.
(1970)
5. Horii, K., Mem. Faculty Eng., Nagoya Univ.
34, 77 (1982)
6. chang, J.-S., Proc. 6th Wroclaw EMC Symp.
(1982), p.467
7. Hamelin, J. et al., 1984 Wroclaw EMC Symp.
8. Piddington, J.H., Cosmic Electrodynamics
(Wiley, 1969)
51
lOc2
ABSTRACT
Lightning was artificially triggered for the first ti?e above the ground in July 1973. The experiment was carried out
in the centre of France, at St PRIVAT D'ALLIER (Haute
Loire).
For the triggering of these first flashes we used a rocket
wire technique similar to that previously used by NEWMAN and
tested by him above the sea off the coast of Florida.
The advantages of triggering lightning lie in the possibility of knowing in advance the place and the time of
occurrence to within a few seconds accuracy for the latter.
The mastering of the technique of lightning triggering has
enabled us to make a significant contribution to knowledge
of thunderstorm discharges. Simultaneously the ressemblances
and the differences between natural and triggered lightning
have been estimated. The choosing of the lightning impact
point has the advantage of making field tests of electric or
electronic systems possible, either by striking them directly or by analyzing distant effects.
These experiments enable us to establish a connection
between the lightning currents measured directly (direct imfield
(distant
pacts) or the radiated electromagnetic
effects) and the consequences on the equipment order test.
Not with standing its great interest this technique is however limited by its dependance on the existence of suitable
atmospheric conditions and by the difficulty of conciliating
the triggering criteria with the erratic variations in the
electric field during active storms.
This paper describes the lightning triggering technique, the
criteria necessary for positive results, and tests which have already been carried out on various systems.
1. INTRODUCTION
In July 1973, lightning was triggered artificially for the
first time above ground at St PRIVAT D'ALLIER in France
/1,2/.
Artificial triggering using a rocket-wire technique was previously suggested and tested successfully by MN NEWMAN off
the coast of Florida /3,4/.
The triggered
advantages :
lightning
technique
offers
some
specific
- the location of the foot of the arc is generally well defined ; precise measurements of channel properties or electromagnetic radiation analysis can therefore be achieved
conveniently ; in particular the interaction between the
lightning flashes and any instrumented object can be studied
with the proper diagnostics.
In France, the site at St Privat d'Allier has become a station for the study of lightning bringing together many laboratory or university teams, called the St Privat d'Allier
research group /5/ (see list at the bottom of the page).
Since 1981 certain teams (CEA and ONERA) have participated
in experiments to characterize storm discharges in the Unlthere,was
responsability,
Their
principal
ted
States.
artificially triggering lightning discharges and appropriate
measurements 161.
In nearly
have been
study the
ning such
!LIEMBER LABORATIES
OF ST PRIVAT D'ALLIER RESEARCH
GROUP
: Electricitide France (EdF), Clamart, France. Commissariat i IEnergie Atomique
(C E A), CENS/DPhG,
Saclay, France ; CENG/ASP,
Grenoble, France ; B3/LDG,
Bruyke
Le Chatel
France.
Centre National
d'Etudes des TtXcommunications (CNET) Lannion, France. Office National
dEtudes et de Recherche:
A&ospatiales (ONERA), Chatillon,France. Institutet Observatoire de Physique du Globe (IOPC), Clermont Fd, France. Laboratoire
de Physique de IAtmosphkre
(LPA), Toulouse, France. Ecole Polytechnique
FCdCrale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
MAILING
ADRESS OF THE GROUP : CNET - LAB/MER
- B.P. 40 - 22301 LANNION
CEDEX - FRANCE
ANNUAL
DISTRIBUTION
AT
NUMBER
FLASHES
OF
FIRINGS
STORMS,
DALLIER
( F)
AND
, LANGMUIR
LIGHTNING
LAB
i N M ) ,
FLASHES
TRIGGERED
MELBOURNE
FIRINGS
OF TRltCjERED
ACCORDING
L
-SPRIVAT
D : PERSISTANT
C : LIGHTNING
A : ANORMAL
( FL)
OF FIRING5
OF CORRECT
NUMBER
StPRIVAT
52
CURRENT
FLASHES
LIGHTING
DALL1ER.F.
(r630chys)
-NM.FL(73days)
DISCHARGES
CONTAINED
FLASHES
Figure:l.TRIGGERED
ONE
AND
SEVERAL
PULSES
TIPSY
LIGHTNING
FLASHES
BETWEEN
1973
AND1983
53
lOc2
ROCKET
wz!25oog
v N 220 m/sI--+
Covered
cotton
steel wire
0
0,2mm
R,8n/m
covered kevlar
copper wire
covered kevlor
:opperwire
P(-;0,12mm
0=0,2mm
R,l,Sfl/m
R=O,SSfi/m
Figure2: EVOLUTION
OF THE
TRIGGEREDLIGHTNINGMETHODS
J
,d
a) CLASSIC TRIGGERING
DEVICE
b)
TRIGGERING
IN ALTITUDE
DEVICE
( TIPSY)
c) NEW
TRIGGERING DEVICE
Iw
20 f
EVENT
54
8129
0.6
EVENT
8140
I,,,-
Figure
3 :EXAMPLES
OFFELECTRIC
DURING
A TRIGGERED
EVENT:
(d)ANOMALOUS.THE
INDICATE
MAIN
THE
VERTICAL
POSITION
AND
CURRENT
VARIATION
(a)CLASSICAL,(c)SLOW.
THE
BARS
ABOVE
PEAK
A.SPRIVAT
8
LANGMUIR
LABORATORY
C _ SAN SALVATORE
DOWNWARD
LIGHTNING
Cl-IS
RELATED
TO FIRJT
STROKE
AND
C2_TO
SUBSEQUENT.
STROKES
D _ SAN SALVATORE
UPWARD
LIGHTNING
THECURVES
INTENSITY
OF THE
PULSES
Figure 4 : MAXIMUM
INTENSITY,TOTAL
CHARGE,
AND OVERALL
DURATION VALUES
EXCEEDED
WITH 90,50,AND
10 PER CENT PROBABILITY
RESPECTIVELY
I
BERGER
Figuw5:
IO
3
10
2
1.6
6.6
COMPARISON
OF THE
PARAMETERS
MEASURED
0.6
0.95
0.35
14
0.5
4.5
0.95
4.5
1.5
MEDIAN
BY
VALUE
OF
DIFFERENT
35
35
0.6
75
32
50
30
LIGHTNING
AUTHORS
S' PRIVAT
D'ALL'ER
(FRANCE)
I<ERAUNIC LEVEL
THE SUMMER
DAILY DURING
MONTHS
0,172
LL2,G_l$jI$
I
MELBOURN E
(FL1
Nb
EXPERIMENT
YEARS
Nb
EXPERIMENT
DAYS
630
73
N b
DAY5
WITH
ESTIMATED
KERAUNIC
ACTUAL
N b
OF
STATIONS
ACTUAL
STORMS
STORMS
5. APPLICATIONS EXAMPLES
5.1.
Study of the
Discharges
TRlGqpRED
LIGHTNING
TRIGGERED
LIGHTNING BY DAY
TRIGGERED
LIGHTNING
BY ACTUAL
STORMS
Figure
DAY
: WILY
LIGHTNING
PROBABILITIES
IN FRANCE
AND
48
27
0,08
0,37
74
90
I11
0,16
III
57
FOR TRIGGERED
IN THE USA
Characteristics
of
Storm
Before listing the various technological applications of artificial triggering, we nest emphasize the essential contribution of this procedure to research into the physical properties of lightning.
The considerable increase in probability of impact of a discharge in a chosen place (for a surface of 100 m x 1OU m.at
St privat d'Allier, the probability of impact is rmltlplled
by a factor of about 500) and knowledge of impact time,
have. as we have shown enabled us to use analysis materials
with'fast time resolution.
Similarly, knowledge of numerous electrical or Optical
parameters recorded during the same lightning stroke enables us
to systematically investigate correlations between the.parameters measured. This is the first stage in the creation of
physically realistic models. Models of electromagnetic radiation have thus been developed /21/ and dCCurate
m%wJwJJents of leader or return stroke propagation speeds have been
obtained /8/.
BY
Physical
108
LEVEL
AT THE
STORMS
FROM
lOc2
55
The effects
structure
of
lightning
currents
on
56
In all cases,
there was an idealized wire, i.e. rectilinear
and terminated in their characteristic impedances. In addition to statistics of recorded values of perturbations, knowledge of both the parameters of the lightning current and
the electromagnetic fields, has enabled us to verify theoretical couplage models /5, 13, 23, 24/.
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Gary, P. Hubert, ArtificiallyTriggered
Lightning above Land Nature, 257, 212, 1975
/l/ R. Fieux,
lightning
in
at very close
range,
151
Saint-Privat
d'Allier
Research Group, "Eight years of lightning
experiments at Saint-Privat d'Allier, RGE N"9, 561-582,1982
I61
P. Hubert,
I71
/a/
191
P. Laroche,
A. Eybert-Eerard,
L. Barret, Triggered
vol. 89 D-2, 2511-2521,
de foudre I la station
5, 344-349, 1981
measurements in
5253-5261,
1981
in
/13/J.
Hamelin, B. Djebari, J. Fontaine, R. Barreau, Electromagnetic field resulting from a lightning discharge, surges
induced on over-head lines, mathematical model,
EMC ROTTERDAM, Mai 1979.
/14/ C. Leteinturier, J. Hamelin, Analyse experimentale des caracteristiques Clectromagnetiques
de d&charges orageuses dans la
bande 200 Hz - 20 MHz, Annales des Telecommunications,
mai/juin 1984.
/15/ C. Leteinturier, C. Weidman, J. Hamelin, M. Le Boulch,
The phenomenology
of natural and triggered thunderstorm
discharges, VIIth International Conference on Atmospheric
Electricity - Albany, Juin 1984.
/16/
I171
/IS/
I191
/20/
Garbagnati,
Elektrotech.
/21/
I221
Fieux, R., et al., "Measurements of impulse response of groundings to lightning currents", 15th European conference on
lightning protection Uppsala K4-40-55, 1979.
1231
6. CONCLUSION
In this paper we have tried to describe the possibilities
offered by a mastery of the triggered lightning technique
and the information we could expect to gain from it, taking
the results of I2 years of experiments into consideration.
triggered
1978
and H. KrDninger,
41, 23-37, 1975.
E.,
and G. B. Lo Piparo,
Z., 103, 61-65, 1982.
Parameter
declen1979.
Parameters
of
von Blitzstrbmen,
de
technique, however is far from being complete, despite triggering developments. The artificial triggering of lightning depends still on uncontrollable meteorooperator
considerable
requires
and
conditions
logical
skill.
I241
I251
l26l
P. Hubert,
1979.
/27/
C.
1201
&o;le,
Mastery
on
of
the
system
that
(as
the
we
information
should
not
effects
produced.
ficance,
development
therefore
have
be
Although,
are
and
being
verification
general
to
gained
restricted
efforts
more
tried
indicate),
from
to
tests
direct
this
type
applications.
and
must
emphasis
of
more
result
above
global
Rediation characteristics,
of lightning, EMC, F.3,
measurements
observation
concentrated,
of
we
of
is
of
all,
the
signion
models
the
and
Paratonnerre
0. Moore, J. Franklin
autostimule,
inst., Vol.
Vol.
Note DPH-EP
- 79-114,
315, 61-85,
1983.
2, 556, Academic,
New York,
57
I-k3
c--
HEIGHT 553111
c--
CURRENT MEASURING
COIL 473m
__
SHUNT
385m
Jeremy A. Landt
Alamos National Laboratory
LOS ALAMOS, New Mexico 87545
U.S.A.
LOS
MODEL
REALSTRUCTURE
:
THE C.N. TOWER, TORONTO, CANADA
Fig. 1:
- 58 -
The most advanced and user-oriented frequency domain code was developed at Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory for modelling
This code, called
antennas and scatterers.
the Numerical Electromagnetic Code (NEC), has
During the
been implemented in this work.
implementation of this code for the modelling
of
HV systems, it was shown [6] that the
code's segment length rule defined as
10_3h < R ( .lh
(1)
(2)
TIME (/JLS)
!i5
30.0 325
Fig. 2:
59
Ilcs
2\
\
,
2,
IO
20
40
60
60
100
120
TIME(/.as)
k
9
O27.5
30.0 32.5
35.0
b
IO'
I02
LENQTH
Fig. 4:
37.6 40.0
425
45.0
'
TIME (/L s 1
Lightning impulse generated in a 3-D
model
for
dry
soil
(E
= 5,
6 = .OOl). The current is cafeulated
at the Tower position corresponding
to the current measuring coil at
473 m.
The calculated current is
normalized to the maximum current
value of the triangular lightning
impulse at the top of the Tower a) the whole impulse, b) the expanded
front of the impulse.
IOJ
OF TRAVEL
I04
(ml
60
*lo
3.0
-ii
$
c
2.0
B
5
I.0
100
200
300
400
500
600
HEIGHT (m)
Fig. 7:
FREQUENCY
Fig. 5:
( ktiz)
* r
Conclusions
The study which implemented a 3-D frequency domain model for analyzing lightningstructure interaction resulted in a realistic
model of the electrical properties of lightning and can be used to define the methods of
needed to confirm theoretical
measurement
predlctlons. A further expansion of the model
into the time domain has been initiated. This
new model Will
incorporate the nonlinear
behaviour of the lightning transition, and
should create a basis for further understanding the properties of lightning.
References
Cl1 T.R.
40
\
t
/WET
SOIL
121
FREOUENCY
Fig. 6:
(kHz)
correct,
and
representation
is
impedance
results in the prediction of a ground end
reflection coefficient for the high frequency
components of the transients.
For dry soil
conditions, the real components of this apparent footing impedance are approximately three
times larger than the corresponding "current"
footing resistance. For wet soil conditions,
the difference is more pronounced.
Fig. 7 shows the velocity of propagation
of the EM wave travelling near the surface of
the Tower.
The average velocity of propagation is in the order of 2.8 x lo* m/s. Two
regions of wave slowdown are visible; one at
approximately 350 m corresponding to the
the
increase of the Tower diameter, with
second occuring at a height of 200 m.
At
is not understood why the wave
present, it
slows down at the second position.
bl
@I
II51
b1
-if&x
- 61 -
ELECTRCMAGWETIC
FIELDS
ON THE GROUND
WITH
T.Takeuti,
Research
ROCKETS
DUE TO LIGHTNING
of Atmospherics,
Toyokawa,
We measured electromagnetic
fields
on the yround due to lightning flashes
triggered with a tall chimney, the
height of which is 200 m, and those
triggered with wired rockets. Some
characteristics
on the field due to the
triygered lightning flashes are similar
to those due to the natural flashes but
some other characteristics
are very
different to the natural flashes. The
characteristics
of fields are generally
not same between the flash trigqered
with the chimney and that triggered
with the wired rocket.
and N.Takagi
Nagoya
University
Japan
Introduction
Triggered
TRIGGERED
EI.Nakano, Z.-I.Kawasaki,
Institute
STROKES
the
No.
Date
1
Dec.23,1981
2
Jan.09,1982
3
Jan.O9,1Y82
Peak current by
+7 kA
-3 kA
-5 kA
[II
- 62 -
positive
return
stroke.
Trrqgered
I
0
I
1uo
ms
Table
I
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
1u
the
No.
Date
Dec.U2,1982
Dec.12,1382
Dec.12,1982
Dec.12,1982
Dec.12,1382
Dec.15,1982
Dec.15,1982
Dec.18,1982
Dec.18,1982
Dec.18,1982
Peak current by
?
+15.8 kA
-30.0
+16.0
?
?
-12.0
?
-1.0
+1.0
[33
63
12~4
L-1
100
200
ILI
300
400
500 ms.
20
fields
40
60
100
80
ms.
1---r---l---11-~
Fig. 3: An example of both electric
field (EJ and magnetic one (B)
due to a lightning flash
triqqered a wired socket. The
electric field was recorded
with the fast antenna.
L__I___L_L___I__L
'100
300
200
500 ms.
Conclusion
Let us compare the observational
results on the triggered lightning
with those on the natural lightnig
to find any special characteristics
of the triggered lightning.
Polarity
Most of the natural qround flashes
occuring in summer are of negative
- 64 -
1301
- 65 -
ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVE
PROPAGATION
IN A SEMI-ANECHOIC
J. D. Gavenda
University
of Texas at
and
J. H. Davis
International
Business
Machines
The
Austin,
A theoretical
model for electromagnetic
wave
propagation
in
a
semianechoic
chamber
successfully
reproduces
many of the features
of the reused
sponse of an actual chamber
for
EMC
testing
in the 30 - 200 MHz freNear-field
effects
quency
range.
are
included,
since they make significant
contributions
to the response
of
the
chamber
at
the lower end of the frequency
range.
CHAMBER
Austin
Corporation
Texas
chamber
modifications
and
measurements.
It only takes about
15 seconds
to generate
a chamber
response
curve
for
fixed-height
antennas
when
the
model described
below
is
implemented
in
APL
on
an
IBM
370 using a 3330
processor
that
is
VM-contended.
A
response
curve for a receiving
antenna which is scanned
from one
to
four
meters
requires
about five minutes.
Theoretical
Development ._
Introduction
-----a
technology
The
EMC
highly-shielded
bers is well-developed.
the chamber
surfaces
reflections
absorbing,
levels
to be
signal
from
less than those
site.
constructing
of
measurement
chamHowever,
if
are not perfectly
measured
cause
either
greater
or
an
ideal
open
considerably
require
than do actual
money
The effect
of an infinite,
perfectly-conducting
plane
on
the
signal
transmitted
from
a
linear
antenna
located
at a height
h above it can
be
calculated
by
assuming
that an image
dipole of the appropriate
polarity
is
located
h below the plane and summing
the two signals
[l].
If the dipole is
parallel
to
the
surface,
the image
signal is 180 out of phase; if it
is
perpendicular
to
the
surface,
the
image signal is in phase.
If the surface is not perfectly
conducting,
only
reflected
and
part of the signal
is
its
phase depends
on the conductivity
constant
of
the
and
dielectric
surface,
as
material
composing
the
well as the angle of incidence.
In the treatment
which
follows
we
will assume
that the source antenna
is
In the initial
devela point dipole.
opment we calculate
the electric
field
at distances
r >> A from the source
so
far-field
approximation
is
the
that
the
generalize
Later we will
valid.
to include
the near fields as
results
usually
are
well, since measurements
at a range of 3 m, which is only
made
0.3X at 30 MHz.
Our model semi-anechoic
chamber
is
with a perfectly-conductrectangular
partially-reflecting
floor
and
ing
The chamber
has
and
ceiling.
walls
The
length L, width W, and height
H,
antennas
transmitting
and
receiving
respecand
h
are at
heights
h,
The
Fioor.
above the chamber
tively,
transmitting
antenna
is located
on the
axis of the chamber
at a discentral
The rewall.
tance
D from the back
ceiving
antenna
is located
at
distanwall
and R from the
ces
D from a side
transgitting
antenna.
plane
conduc ti ng
single
While
a
only
one image,
a source
beproduces
tween
a pair
of conducting
planes
will
have an infinite
set
of images
in each
reflecmu1 tiple
plane,
representing
of planes
one
pair
let
tions.
We
with
represent
the floor
and ceili.ng,
transmitting
antenna
h, above
the
the
A second
pair
of planes
reprefloor.
the front
and back walls
of the
sents
with
the source
a distance
D
chamber,
of the chamber.
wall
the
back
from
represents
planes
The third
pair
of
the source
at
with
side
walls,
the
w/2.
66
Here
equations.
suppressed
in these
efthe
= FR(Oi)FT(O
)Ri(Oi)
is
Ki
surf vity
fective
reflect
of the
ith
account
also
the
into
taking
faces,
transml. tthe
angular
dependences
of
receiving
antenna
patterns,
and
ti ng
phase
net
The
and
FR(Oi)*
R (Oi)
an image
is computed
by
s X ift
@L for
each
of
summing
the phase
shifts
for
that
produce
which
reflections
the
includes
that
Eq. (3)
image.
Note
only
the far-field
radiation
term.
The
E = E
the
floor,
The reflectivities
of
front
wall,
and
walls,
side
ceiling,
back wall
are assumed
to .be fR
f y. Z:
TRY,
-RF,
and -RR,
respective
verttcally-polarupper
signs
are for
while
the lower
signs
signals,
ized
are for
horizontal
polari. zati on.
Its
by
(2rL
f
r,s,t
where
corresponding
are
rst
+ D>i
(2tH
(2sW
f2,
(1)
. . .
for
+The
rst
=: (-RF)f(r)(R,,RF)IrI(~Rw)f(S)
x Rw21sI(*Rf)
f(t)RCitl,
when
the upper
Eq. (I),
and
lower
signs.
(2)
signs
f(i)
We
can
now calculate
the electric
field
E at any point
in the chamber
by
generalizing
method
of Reference
the
1. We sum the contributions
from
the
source
and the various
ima es,
noting
that
the signal
from the i!!_ P; image
is
given
by
KiEO
= ()exe[j(Bd
di
i + $i >I,
(3)
where
di
is
the
distance
from the
image,
g = 2x/h,
and
i
represents
a
particular
combination
of .r, s, and t.
E. is the electric
field
a
unit
distance
from
the transmitting
antenna.
The
time
dependence
exp(-jwt)
is
squared
= R02J$$
N -CO6
Ki Kk
c
i>k=ldidk
Comparison
+ W/2)?
+ h&,
= 0,
fl,
reflecttvities
where
f(i)
= 0
are
chosen
in
= sgn(i)
for
the
Ei
+2
9
= f
from
exe[j(Pdi
magnitude
[El2
for
imA general
position
vector
ages
representing
all
possible
combfnfrom
the
reflections
Of
ati ons
different
surfaces
is given
by
zrst
si.gnal
combined
N images
iS
(R*g)
Ki
(4)
@,)I.
is
given
g(di-dk)+$i-$kl
with
(5)
Measurements
receiving
antenna
at
a
We locate
x = x
The
distance
z = hr.
Y = y,,
the (r,s,t>
image
to the refE:rn
di
ceiving
antenna
is
found
from
di
b$st
x,2
y,;
h,x(* 2 9
(6)
If we take
the antennas
to
be
point
FT(O )FR(Oi)
= Sin2(OI).
dipoles,
near-field
Note that
ef I ect
the
of
terms
be
$nc$uycl,
b:)
addi;:
can
(3 cos20i
- 1)(1/g
di
when computing
the Ki for
use In
this
Kq. (4)
[21.
The calculated
chamber
response
is
sensitive
to
the phase
$i as well
as
the magnitude
Ri
of
the
reflectivities
of
the
various
surfaces.
If
there
is a frequency-dependent
absorpti on
in the wall
surfaces,
there
must
also
be
a
frequency-dependent
phase
shift
to
satisfy
the Kramers-Kronig
dispersion
relations.
Al though
some
measurements
of R are available,
there
are none of
4.
Consequently,
it
has
been
necessary
to model
an absorbercoated
wall
as a
partially-conducting
surface
with
some assumed
conductivity
and dielectric
constant.
For these
preliminary
calculations
we have chosen
a very
simple
model
the wall
surfaces,
and we
ignore
effects
of non-normal
incidence
of
for
the
the
1301
- 67 -
A
proper model should also
signals.
the
from
scattering
include
diffuse
uneven surfaces
resulting
from the use
The
cones.
absorbing
pyramidal
of
reflectivity
of
a
normal-incidence
with
a
surface
partially-conducting
constant
E = 1 is given by
dielectric
t31:
A - 1 1/2
R=(-)
where
A
-+{[I
+ ($2]12
+ 1}12,
(8)
2
reflecand f is the frequency
of the
The phase shift of a signal
ted wave.
reflected
from such a surface
is
4 = tan_1(1/S),
(9)
where
l3 =
2&
{[l +
($)2P2
- 1}1'2.
(10)
We can choose
the conductivity
a as
for fitting
measured
reparameter
a
flectivity
to that calculated
from Eq.
simplest
way to do that is
The
(7).
to replace
2a/f by fl/f, where
f1
is
However,
this
fitting
parameter.
the
falls
which
reflectivity
loads to a
as l/f at high frequencies,
while
off
reflecthe reported
measurements
of
tivity fall off approximately
as l/f 2 .
replacWe can model this Qehavior
by
ing 2a/f by (f2/f)
, and using f2 as a
fitting
parameter.
signal
Figures
1 and 2 compare
the
amplitude
calculated
for 258 different
measurechamber
with
actual
paths
chamber
Is 18.3 m long,
The
ments.
Wall and
12.2 m wide, and 6.1 m high.
ceili.ng surfaces
are covered
with pyrCone
lengths
amidal absorbing
cones.
1.22 m, and 0.66m, with
are
1.83
m,
the
the longer cones in regions
where
occur.
Transreflections
principal
antennas
were
receiving
mitting
and
94455-l
biconicals.
Model
Ailtech
deterwas
Measured
signal amplitude
subtracting
antenna
factors
mined
by
from measured
data, so it is sensitive
to errors in the antenna
factors.
to emphasize
the effects
In
order
fixed
chosen
of reflections,
we have
which
highlight
the
antenna
heights
actual
resonances
in the chamber.
In
the
attenuation
measurements,
site
antenna
is
the
receiving
height
of
4 meters and the
from
1
to
scanned
maximum
signal at a given frequency
is
This reduces
the effects
of
recorded.
measureresonances
on
the
chamber
Some of the discrepancies
bements.
signal
measured
tween calculated
and
amplitudes
may be caused
by failure
to
size
of
take into account
the finite
biconical
diFinite
antennas.
the
response
angular
poles not only have
differ
from that of a
which
patterns
driving
their
point dipole,
but also
will
be affected
by nearby
impedances
conducting
surfaces.
that
It has been found empirically
some of the effects
of reflections
can
be reduced
by choosing
a direction
of
is not parallel
to
which
propagation
verticallySince
the chamber
walls.
polarized
antennas
remain either
parachamber
all
lel or perpendicular
to
the equations
derived
above
surfaces,
are valid for this case.
horizontally-polarized
anHowever,
neither
parallel
nor perare
tennas
arbitrary
pendicular
to the walls for
The equaof propagation.
directions
separately
to
applied
tions must be
different
sets of images:
one for
two
current
antenna
the component
of the
parallel
to the walls,
and one for the
walls.
component
perpendicular
to the
net signal is obtained
by summing
The
the two results
before
squaring
to get
the amplitude.
Summary
and
Conclusions
for
signal
model
A
theoretical
chamtransmission
in a semi-anechoic
developed
which incorber
been
has
porates multiple-reflection
paths in a
Current
limitations
systematic
way.
of the model include:
Lack of measured
data on the phase
1.
amplitude
of the reflectivity
and
of absorber-coated
walls.
Assumption
of
point-dipole,
in2.
stead of finite-length,
antennas.
the crudeness
of the
In
spite
of
used
in
the
simplifying
assumptions
calculations
reported
here, the generdata
are
al features
of the measured
The next step will be to
reproduced.
adjust
the various
parameters
in order
to improve
the ability
of the model to
reproduce
actual measurements.
it
has already
been possiHowever,
draw some general
conclusions
ble
to
regarding
the effects
of the different
Here we
chambers.
surfaces
of
the
situation
where
the
consider
the
and the receiving
antennas
are
source
(the
nearer to one end of the chamber
other (the
than
to
the
back
wall)
front wall).
dominate
Floor-ceiling
reflections
for horizontal
polarization,
producing
the large oscillations
at the low freend of the curves in Figure
1.
quency
and
The relatively
small side, front,
wall
reflections
can be reduced
back
propagating
at
an
even
further
by
angle to the walls,
rather
than paralThe resulting
image
anlel to them.
further
away from
then
point
tennas
the receiver.
200
30
30
FREQUENCY (MHz)
Fig.
1:
200
FREQUENCY (MHz)
Measured
(left) and
calculated
(right)
sIgna
transmission
between
horizontally-polarized
antennas
located
one meter above the floor of a
semi-anechoic
chamber.
The distance
between
the
antennas
-Ls three
comparison,
the signal calculated
for an ideal open site
meters.
For
(perfectly-conducting
ground plane,
far field terms on1 > is
shown
by
1 /E02).
the dashed
Line.
Signal amplitude
S = 10 log10(49.2)E(
__.___-.
____
_____.P\
._.__,_....-- _.._..__.--
~~~~~~~
200
30
30
FREQUENCY (MHZ)
Fig.
2:
FREQUENCY [MHZ)
Measured
(left)
and
calculated
(right)
signal
transmission
between
floor
of
a
vertically-polarized
antennas
located
one meter above the
the same as for Fig. 1,
chamber.
The
conditions
are
semi-anechoic
signal
is
except
for the polarization.
ideal
open
site
Again,
the
shown by a dashed line.
back
For vertical
polarization
the
causes
a long-period
oscillation
wall
function
of
in signal amplitude
as a
distant
more
while
the
frequency,
but
front wall causes a short-period,
When the receivoscillation.
weaker,
ing antenna
is on the central
axis
of
reflections
from the side
the chamber,
signals
other
walls combine
with the
relatively
sharp dip
the
produce
to
When the
shown in Fig. 2 near 35 MHz.
off the
moved
antenna
Fs
receiving
from the
centraL
axis, the reflections
walls travel different
dissLde
two
other.
tances and tend to cancel each
This greatly
diminishes
the dip.
have not yet had time
Although
we
to find the optimum
parameters
for
an
is already clear
chamber,
it
actual
only
that model calculations
will not
existing
lead
to
improvements
of
provide
also
chambers,
but they will
future
guidance
for
designers
of
chambers.
REFERENCES
[II
Burrows,
12,
J.
The
121 Ring, R.W.P.:
Harvard
Antennas,
700 (1956)
t31 Good, R.H., Jr.,
Classical
Theory
Magnetic
Fields,
383-388
(1971)
Theory
Univ.
Tech.
of Linear
Press,
Nelson:
and T.J.
Electric
and
of
Academic
Press,
69
1402
CHAMBER MEASUREMENTS
Motohisa Kanda
Electromagnetic Fields Division
National Bureau of Standards
Boulder, Colorado 80303 U.S.A.
Introduction
anechoic
chambers
are
Microwave
currently in use for a variety of indoor
electromagnetic
measurements,
antenna
and
electromagnetic
interference
(EMI)
The prime
compatibility (EMC) measurements.
requirement is that an appropriate transmitting antenna at one location within the
plane-wave
field
generates
a
chamber
throughout another volume of the chamber of
dimensions sufficient to perform EM1 and EMC
measurements.
This volume is frequently
referred
to
as
a quiet
zone
and
its
'quietness", or reflectivity
level, will
determine the performance of an anechoic
chamber.
The National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
anechoic chamber is shown in a side view in
figure 1.
Pyramidal horns or open-end
waveguide (OEG) antennas are used as sources
of chamber illumination, positioning them in
the
access doorway with their apertures
inside the plane of the absorber points on
the chamber wall. A cart on precision tracks
located under the measurement axis can be
moved horizontally through a distance of 5 m
by a stepping-motor drive system. There are
gaps in the absorber on the floor to
accommodate each rail.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss
how to establish a standard electromagnetic
___
DIRECT
PATH
L____
DE0
OR
HORN
_-_
LABORATORY..
----$/A?3
PROBE
REFLECTBN
FRO,
REAR WALL
c---.-a-___
t
40 ml
1
rcrx&~,
FWY CA,
6.63 m
(2)
(3)
(4)
transmitting antenna.
the power
standard
70
rl = 0,
it
g(S,r) = h(S,r)
can
be
shown
Cl]
that
The terms,
= 1.
g(S,r) and
h(S,r) involve the products of complex values
of the system S-parameters and the reflection
coefficients.
For this reason, unless the
phases
of
the
system
magnitude
and
S-parameters and the reflection coefficients
are well determined, g(S,r) and h(S,r) are
not calculable. The extent of deviation from
unity is, therefore, taken to be an error
contribution in the determination of the net
power delivered to the standard antenna.
Although the degree of deviation from unity
is a function of the system S parameters and
the reflection coefficients r, it is found to
be in general, less than 1% Cl].
To determine the net power delivered to
a transmitting antenna, the terms S34/S13 and
Although the
l/S24 need to be determined.
magnitudes of S13, S24, and S34 could be
measured with a network analyzer, the system
establishing
implemented
here
for
being
standard electromagnetic fields is a selfcalibrating system which utilizes a standard
flat-plate short and a matched termination.
When a short (r4 = 1) is placed at port 4,
the ratio of power measurements P2 and P1
gives
!L
I I
'24 '34
s13
p1
(2)
P
inc - 'refl
net = Pa
2
p1
II
s34
= (1 - (rJ2)
p2
s13
lg(S,r)12
lh(S,r)12 (1)
(1 - lr212) lS2412
p1=
s13
p4
s34
21
- lr1j2
2 (1 + b2121.
1 -
Ir,l
(3)
- 71 -
and
A2
involve the
products
The terms,
of
complex
the
system S parameters and
values of
Since
the
coefficients
r.
reflection
of these
complex
phases
and
magnitudes
quantities cannot be easily determined, the
extent of deviation from zero is, therefore,
taken to be an error contribution in the
determination
of
14~2
, with k
I
I
I
I
-Y
r:
III.
EE(o) = AE
X
Fig 3:
(case t
EH(e) = AH[
f) + r(cose
(Jj)*- (%
- f)
sine)*
+ Co1
+ r(l -
0 cos(%
f-11
sine) .
(5)
sin(J$ sine)
!$ sine
(4)
AE = AH{(i)* ((1 + f) +
(6)
- 72 -
IV.
C(w) - jS(w) =
jw exp(- jft2) dt
(9)
;' = f
(*ha;+/2
+&)
l/2
f-1
H
AH=-------.
r + RH
(10)
G _ 32 ab
- --2-- RE RH ,
7lh
RE =
1 + cos@o
exp(- jkREcos@,)
4w2
(7)
where
w=
RH = %
(11)
12
(2hR~)I'2cos~o/2
(u - VI
Xi=-.
rRE
r + RH
1402
- 73 -
= - exp(kx 2COSa) {1
v(a,a)
4ka
[C ((-$
I/2
4kRo I/2
-jS((--$
(1
j)
cos :,
(12)
cosF)l} .
Jl
s2 =
V.
71 -
$,,
T - i@,)
(13)
where
(d,
oo) =
0,
(15)
Pr/Pt = gsgp(h/4nd)2 ,
(14)
di = 2~ sin(ig,) is the ray-path length
between single and double diffraction, and m
is the largest integer less than ~/2@~.
The near-zone gain of a pyramidal horn
is used to calculate the radiated field
intensity
in the
near zone of a gain
antenna.
The typical gain reduction factors
HE and RH expressed in decibels are shown in
figure 5. The evaluation of the uncertainty
of the gain reduction factors for pyramidal
horns will be performed by comparing the
theoretical gain reduction factors with the
experimental results using the plane wave
scattering theorem C2] and will be reported
later C61.
-l.O-
I
r.o-
2.0
I
3.0
4.0
6.0
Range (meters)
(
8.0
where
power received
antenna
near-zone
antenna
near-zone
probe
wavelength, m.
pt
pr
gs
gP
by
gain
gain
the
of
of
by
the
probe
source
receiving
standard
antennas
will
measurement uncertainties.
monitor
the
References
Cl1
La
Kerns, David M. Plane-wave scatteringmatrix theory of antennas and antennaantenna interactions. Nat, Bur. Stand.
(U.S.) Monograph 162; 1981 June.
162
P*
c31
c41
Yaghjian,
Arthur
D.
Approximate
formulas for the far fields and gain
of open-ended rectangular waveguide.
Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) NBSIR 83-1689;
1983 May. 34 p.
CSI
Arthur
D.
Efficient
Yaghjian,
computation of antenna coupling and
fields within the near-field region;
IEEE Trans. Antennas and Propag., Vol.
AP-30, 133-138; 1982 Jan.
II61
Motohisa,
Near-zone
gain
Kanda,
calculations of open-ended waveguides
and rectangular pyramidal horns for
anechoic chamber measurements. To be
published.
c71
Schelkunoff,
S. A.
York:
New
waves.
Reinhold; 1943. 530 p.
C81
Errors
in
the
Edward
V.
Jull,
predicted gain of pyramidal horns.
IEEE Trans. Antennas and Propag. Vol.
AP-21, 25-31; 1973 Jan.
c91
SEPARATION, i
Concluding Remarks
A
methodology
is
presented
for
evaluating an anechoic chamber measurement in
terms of the net power delivered to a
transmitting antenna, the near-zone gains of
rectangular
open-ended
waveguides
and
rectangular pyramidal horns, and reflections
from chambers. The measurements of net power
delivered to a transmitting antenna are
determined by using a short and a matched
termination in a self-calibrating system.
gains
of
an
open-ended
The
near-zone
waveguide
and
rectangular
rectangular
pyramidal horns are calculated from forward
which
-e
patterns,
power
near-field
determined from theoretically predicted fi;field patterns by use of the plane wave
scattering theorem Lll.
rectangular
performance
of
a
The
anechoic chamber is evaluated by measuring
the relative insertion loss versus separation
chamber
the
source
of
between
distance
illumination and a receiving antenna. A lack
of fit between the measured insertion loss
and calculated transmission loss is a measure
The
of reflections from the chamber walls.
resulting data can be used for estimating the
overall uncertainty in the anechoic chamber
measurements. The statistical control of the
process
by use
of transfer
measurement
Motohisa,
anechoic
To
be
Elc tromagnetic
Nostrand
Van
75
15D3
S. KASHYAP
DIVISION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
OTTAWA, ONTARIO
CANADA
KlA OR8
ABSTRACT
The distortion effects due to an equipment
under test in a TEM cell are calculated assuming static conditions. It is shown that the
size as well as grounding conditions determine
the field in the TEM cell and must be taken into account for electromagnetic compatability
measurements.
INTRODUCTION
This paper concerns the calculation and
measurement of fields in a TEM cell in the
presence of an equipment under test. Figure 1
shows a typical TEM cell.
It consists of a
rectangular or a square coaxial transmission
line.
The ends of the line are tapered to
allow coupling to an ordinary coaxial line.
The TEM cell provides a shielded test environment with an essentially uniform and linearly
polarized TEM field.
Various uses of the TEM
electromagnetic
cell
include
compatibility
measurements [1,2], study of biological effects
[31, and calibration of electromagnetic field
probes [4,5]. It has also been shown [6] that
the TEM cell can be used for accurate antenna
factor measurements even if the dimensions of
the antennas are larger than the recommended
one-third of the distance between the center
conductor and the cell wall.
CONNECTORS
CENTRE
ACCESS
TEM
DISTORTION EFFECTS
In this paper, the distortion effects due
to an equipment under test in a TEM cell are
calculated.
Both grounded and ungrounded
equipment are treated and results of some
measurements are also reported. Static approximation is used which implies that the dimensions of the equipment under test are much
smaller than the wavelength of the incident
wave. Electric fields are first computed for a
cross-section of the TEM cell using an iterative procedure [7]. The effect of the tapered
ends is excluded in this calculation. Figure 2
indicates
how the iterative
technique
is
applied in finding fields in the TEM cell. It
shows a cross-section of a square TEM cell.
Only one quarter of the TEM cell is considered
because of the symmetry.
In the method of
iteration, the voltage at each point marked *
(2.74
CONDUCTOR
DOOR
X 2.74
CELL
X 5.48m)
Figure 1
76
ELECTRIC
FIELDS
FOR
FIELD
ENHANCEMENT
A METAL
CYLINDER
IN A TEM
CELL
,
LA-UL
CELL
NBS
MEASUREMENTS
-*-
G. MEYER
PRESENT
WORK
WALLS
Figure 2
0.6
0.4
0.8
1.0
h/b
Figure 4
ELECTRIC
FIELD
VARIATION
IN A TEM CELL
x TIPPET
& CHANG
ITERATION
METHOD
2
?
2
5:
5
5:
wm
i.oiiD
"2
z"
I- !A!0.9 0
Li:
0.8 9
F
I:
&
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
x/b
Figure 3
I
1.0
15D3
ELECTRIC
ELECTRIC
FIELD
METAL
ENHANCEMENT
CYLINDER
FOR A
IN A TEM
FIELD
GROUNDED
ENHANCEMENT
IN
A TEM
BY
A DIPOLE
CELL
CELL
4.0
r
20
&_-
b/a
------t
= 0.6
MEASUREMENTS
NBS
h/b
Figure
x/b
-se
UNGROUNDED
Figure 5
GROUNDED
15
20
25
JO
FREQUENCY
ELECTRIC
FIELD
h/b-0.210
w/a=0.175
0 I
02
0.3
0.4
0.5
40
45
Wiz)
ENHANCEMENT
IN A TEM
35
EQUIP.
EQUIP.
BY AN EQUIPMENT
CELL
Figure 8
0.6
x/b
ELECTRIC
FIELD
ENHANCEMENT
EQUIPMENT
IN A TEM
Figure 6
BY AN UNGROUNDED
CELL
78
CONCLUSIONS
Field enhancement due to an equipment
under test in a TEM cell has been calculated
assuming static conditions. Both grounded and
It has
ungrounded cases have been treated.
been shwn that both the size of the equipment
and the grounding conditions determine the
field in the TEM celt and must be taken into
account
for electromagnetic
compatability
measurements.
(41
[51
[61
S.C. Kashyap,
"Measurement of Antenna
Factors with a TEM Cell," Proceedings of
IEER 1984 National Symposium on Electromagnetic
Compatibility,
San Antonio,
Texas, April 24-26, 1984, pp. 9-11.
[71
[al
[91
t101
REFERENCES
[II
r21
[31
79
16~4
CHAMBER DESCRIPTION
This test facility is a semi-anechoic
chamber with all surfaces covered with
pyramidal absorber materials except for the
floor which is steel with a covering of
vinyl tile. The steel enclosure is 60 feet
long, 40 feet wide, and 30 feet high. The
primary anechoic cone material is 6 feet in
length. For some secondary reflection paths
smaller cone material is used. The free
area in the chamber is 48 feet long, 28 feet
wide, and 14 feet high.
Max
MHzED
Where:
= frequency in MHz
FMHz
AFR = antenna factor of receiving
antenna
AFT = antenna factor of transmitting
antenna
EMax
- maximum electric field in
D
receiving antenna scan range
(See Reference [l] for equation)
OST 55 Model
To show consistency with other data
taken for open field registration, we used a
tuned dipole to measure the horizontal
attenuation of our chamber against the
OST-55 site attenuation model [3]. We made
the measurements with a set of Roberts
dipole antennas.
i,,f;
logloD+20
kk'lOFM
-Gs -G -27.6-R+B
R
81
D = 3 meters
FM = frequency in MHz
G = antenna gain = 2.15 db
R = 4.2 for 3 meters reflection factor
B = 2x.5 db balum loss
V rtical--Theoretical
Fig. 1:
Method of Measurements
The technique we employed to make all
site attenuation measurements is described
in the proposed revision to ANSI C63.4,
Reference [2], where site attenuation equals
the two antenna factors plus space loss. We
made all open field measurements at
Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio,
Texas. This 30 meter site is a registered
class B site. All measurements (unless
noted) are with a source height of 1 meter
and the receive antenna scanned 1-4 meters.
Site Attenuation Model Verification
To verify the ANSI model and check
antenna factors, we made measurements in the
open field at 10 meters and 3 meters.
10 Meters: The site attenuation for
horizontal polarization at 10 meters dis
tance was compared to the theoretical site
attenuation showing the delta between the
theoretical and actual. The difference is
within t2.5 db. The maximum difference for
vertical antenna polarization on the open
field at 10 meters and the model was +2,
-3 db.
3 Meters: Because our class B chamber
measurements are at 3 meters, we also made a
set of measurements on the open field at
3 meters to compare to the model. The
results (Figure 2) show that the model
describes an open field at 3 meters to
within +2 db, -3 db. Because both vertical
and horizontal polarizations are within +2,
-3 db, we can say the model is an excellent
80
Antenna Factors
To make all site attenuation measurements, we used a biconical antenna (AIL
TECH 94455-l) from 30 MHz to 200 MHz and
a log periodic antenna (AEL-APN 113C) from
200 MHz to 1 Ghz. Using the standard
antenna method, we measured the biconical
dipole antenna factors from a set of dipole
antennae calibrated by the National Bureau
of Standards. The log periodic antennas
were calibrated using the standard site
method with the source antenna at 4 meters
high, distance of 10 meters, and the receive
antenna scanned 1-4 meters on the open
field. Since the horizontal and vertical
antenna factors are almost identical, we
used the average antenna factor.
_
111
boritortal-A?tennz
Facto
-_
-33
.--i
--3:
i_.
_
_.--.-_-
a
--
11,11,1IN 15
___._.__-.__---
Y---t-t----t----t-f--l
* --1
Vetical:
Measured-Theor
tical
---.----
g 18
---
-L
r:
.___.
.i
I-,
Fig. 2:
Fig. 3:
._.-i.._
,.._._,_____
...i_.._
..-.._.
.,~..
.._
_. .f
...i.-._
-c
_.__..
-.__
__-_--__I_
~._. .j_..._
__.. .-^__i__..._
t ..-..
-...._
_
__.__.
._.
____.._._.._
. .___..
_.._.._
_._..__
- 81 -
FREQUENCY
(IN MHz)
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
FIG. 4:
ATTENUATION
(MEASURED)
13
13
12
13
13
15
16
17
17.5
18
18
19
21
22.5
23
23.5
24.5
27
26
27
29
29.5
30
30.5
31.5
33
34
33.5
34
33
DIFFERENCE
(MEAS-CALC)
2
2
1
2
1.8
2.6
2.6
2.7
1.6
.1
-1.2
-1.4
-.4
.2
-.
z
::7
.6
-1.4
-1.3
1
::4
-.6
-.7
-.3
.6
1.1
.l
.l
-1.3
16~4
Chamber Quality Data
The IBM Austin chamber's site attenuation measured to within 2.7 db of the
OST 55 theoreticalmodel of an open field
site and compared to the proposed ANSI
model, the Austin chamber shows a maximum
positive deviation of 3.5 db.
Chamber Quality Vs. OST 55 Model
Figure 4 shows the chamber results
when compared against this FCC model of an
open field.
Chamber Quality Vs. ANSI Model
To give a more complete picture of the
chamber quality, we compared chamber meas
urements to the proposed ANSI model [2].
The maximum positive differencebetween
the chamber data with the source at the
center of the turntable and the theoret
ical model is +2.5 db and the maximum
negative error is -4 db. Above 80 MHz,
the error is within +2 db, -3 db for both
polarizations.
Horizontal: Figure 5a shows the meas
ured attenuationdata for the chamber with
the antenna in the horizontalpolarizations.
Figure 5b shows the differencebetween
actual data and the theoreticalopen field
model for horizontal polarizations. The
horizontal results are within +2.5 db. The
positive errors will result in the apparent
EM1 from a product to be lower than it
should be on an ideal open field.
L-_._I.____L__/&_-._I
lDDDHl
Fig. 5a:
.,l
*I
+B
.l
.I
- 82
Fig. 6a:
a?----
---
----
--.-----.-~.
--
.--.-
-....
-.-
.._.
__
._ ._._
.._..
_.__...
--r-.
..-.
..
-...
----.---..-____
.-.
_.__
J-
__._.__.___.____
High Band
Fig. 6b:
Fig. 6c:
__..__
,...
I_
a3
RECEIVE
SCANNED l-4M
1M
\1
Fig. 7:
Variations
MOST POSITIVE/NEGATIVE
Fig. a:
DEVIATIONS
Fig. 9:
FOR SOURCE
POSITIONS
SHOWN
- 84 -
SOURCE
Conclusion
111
.a
*.
.z
I
-2
-4
Acknowledgements
d
AA
-II
Fig 2:
II
to
.8
References
111 A. A. Smith, Jr., R. F. German,
J. B. Pate:
IEEE Transactions on EMC Vol. 24,
No. 3, August, 1983, 260-265
II
a*a
Fig. 12:
85
1705
Abstract
The discrimination between narrowband (NB) and
broadband (BB) interference is important for
commercial and military EM1 tests because
different interference limits apply. The
measurement of NB signals which are mixed in
with BB signals can be difficult using
commercial test methods. In MIL-STD tests the
selection of bandwidth and their corresponding
correction factors can lead.to errors. These
issues are investigated and alternate test
methods presented.
Introduction
Electra-magnetic interference is classified as
NB if its spectrum is contained within the
bandwidth of the measuring EM1 receiver and BB
if the spectrum is wider than the receiver
bandwidth. In CISPR type, commercial tests,
the bandwidth of the EM1 measuring receiver is
specified. In addition, quasi-peak detection
is specified in order to properly evaluate the
annoyance level of BB interference.
It has been found recently, that a low level
NB signal which is mixed in with a larger
amplitude BB signal can be more annoying to TV
viewing than the BB interference by itself.
The quasi-peak level, though, might give
little indication of the presence of the NB
interference.
MKRD.B HZ
fP RE
IB dW
Fig.2:
tENTER18.9822
HHZ
RESBW 18 kH7.
Fig.1:
VW 108kHZ
SPAN588.8kHZ
SW 38 al*00
Fig.3:
- 86 -
METHODS
TUNINGTEST
"TUNE"
A BWi
PRFTEST
A
SWEEPTIME
NB
A AMPL
) 3dB
NO A SPACING
(LINE
PEAKVS.AVG.DET
CRTRESPONSE
BB
MODE)
A AMPL
< 3dB
SPACING
(PULSE MODE)
NO A AMPL
A AMPL
NO A AMPL
A AMPL
AVIDEOBW
BANDWIDTHTEST
A RESOLUTIONBW
Fig.4:
Detector Parameters
1.
100
90
Fig.5:
BAND
B 10.1540
vpz= l/Z
MHz,
x 0.316p*
31
20 -
RESOLUTION BANDWlDTkl10
KWD BANDWIDTH
lOOkHl ,PEAKI
3 Hz IAVG & SMOOTHED,
17D5
Impulse Bandwidth
The absolute measurement of BB signals
requires knowledge of the effective analyzer
bandwidth in order to normalize the measured
amplitude to that of a reference bandwidth as
is necessary for MIL-STD tests. For coherent
BB signals the impulse bandwith is determining, for random BB signals the noise
bandwidth has to be known.
The impulse bandwidth relates the peak output
pulse voltage from a filter to the spectral
intensity of the pulse at its input. A short
duration, large amplitude pulse at the input
to a bandpass filter results in a reduced
amplitude but longer duration pulse at its
output. Consecutive filtering stages in a
receiver decrease the pulse amplitude, each
contributing to the impulse bandwith.
kHI
NONE
Fig.6:
2. DISPLAY SMOOTHING
IN LINEAR AMPLITUDE
IN LOG AMPLITUDE
Fig.8:
MODE
MODE
Fig.9:
Fig.7:
120 c
BW 100 Hz
-2,
lMPLSE
BANDWDTH
M
100 80 -
BW3ds=100Hz
60 -
lOO&lSEC
10 PSEC
1000 @SEC
10.000 @EC
COMMERCIAL
LOW LEVEL
NB AND
BE SIGNAL
. SA DISPLAY
USING PEAK DET
. VIDEO
FILTERING
FOR AVERAGE
. LOG AMPLITUDE
FOR INCREASED
DET
DYNAMIC
RANGE
OBWi = NB LIMIT-BBLIMITdB
-20
NB/BB
. WIDE
. FOUR
401
10 ldiz
Fig.12:
0
100 ktlz
1 MHZ
10 MHZ
100 MHZ
1 GHZ
UJll
10 GHZ
FREOUENCY
Fig.11:
SIGNAL
RANGE
NBIBB
DISCRIMINATION
OF BWSAVAILABLE
DISCRIMINATION
METHODS
(1)
(2)
(3)
BROADBAND
YIG-TUNED
89
18
PRESELECTOR
D. Raicu,
R&D Center
California
The dynamic range of a spectrum analyzer extends between its noise level
and the highest signal level for which
the nonlinearity remains tolerable.
The measurement range is, however,
broader, since the use of input RF
attenuators makes it possible to handle input levels up to the available
power of the signal source.
A low noise preamplifier
improves the
overall noise figure, extending the
measurement range of the spectrum anaMeanwhile, the dynamic range
lyzer.
decreases, since the input nonlinearity
threshold is affected stronger than
the noise level.
Broadband preamplifiers bring about an
additional problem.
When different
signals with widely varying levels are
present at the input, they may overload the first stages and distort the
spectrum analyzer indication.
It is
recommended therefore to use at the
input a very linear tracking filter,
which eliminates the undesired frequencies and their overloading effect.
U.S.A.
magnetic
Hi is
field
= H - Nz 41rMs
Hi
Y
"-0
G. U. Sorger
Eaton Corporation,
Sunnyvale,
~6
y,
of the YIG
Hi+NT
4nMs
(2)
= yoNT 4nMs
(3)
min
2
=--y
0 Ha
min
3
ferrimagnetic
in an
anisotropicaterial
Tf,
RAO
(7)
vu u*
(8)
From
Hij=H
2K1
K1
3
.+-- oi- 21\11 U.
oJ MO
J
0
Normalizing
and denoting
spherical
h
ix
ferrimagnetics
2
(11)
HM
field h=L
21K11
we obtain, in
the magnetic
K1
s =-,
/K1/
coordinates
= cos+sinO[ho+s(l-cos2$sin20)]
11. = sin$sin8[ho+s(l-sin2$sin28)]
lY
= cos?[ho+s
sin201
(12)
For negative
obtain
sin2$sin$cos8
anisotropy
(13)
s = -1 and we
(14)
We normalize
the relation
Q=
the frequencies
(9)
by using
lL
IKll
STY
and we introduce
the variable
ho + s
x=------3
Then, the normalized
cy is given by
(10)
0
ho& sin2 0
HA= -
(6)
In a saturated crystal, the magnetization vector is produced by an equivalent d.c. field parallel to it, whose
expression is
=
hiz
(5)
HO
resonance
90
resonance
frequen-
n2 = x2-2sx(sin28sin2$cos2+cos28)
+ 3 sin40 cos28sin2$cos9
(15)
91
the conditions
tively.
For negative anisotropy, the calculations show that this is possible only
for fJ = n/3?. Extending this condition
from the elementary domain considered
to the complete range of spherical
coordinates, it defines the orientations of the magnetization
lying in
crystallographic
planes (100).
For positive anisotropy, one of the
roots of Equation (15) is acceptable
for $ = r/4.
Again, extending this
condition over the complete unit sphere
it defines orientations of the magnetization lying in (110) planes
but only
within the angles between pairs of adjacent 11111 axes separated by one
LllOl axis.
18~6
Fig. 1:
Magnetization
orientations
compatible with a zero frequency ferrimagnetic resonance
92
Fig. 2:
Fig. 3:
Tolerable misalignment
(dashed
line) of the magnetization
from the optimum orientation
(full line) for negative anisotropy.
Considerations
Fig. 4:
Tolerable misalignment
(dashed line) of the magnetization from the optimum orientation (full line) for
positive anisotropy.
95
19D7
2,Rffect of an interference
on the RF and IF stages
of an AM receiver
2.1. Theoretical considerations.
In accordance with 117 . the immunity of IF and LF stab& is controlled
in AM receivers. The immunity of RF
.*+#%nnr.
.8nIL""
n** rllralaur=iu..
mn~-..rn~a
o"oe~'u
.bL9
A test interfering-signal (a test
stimulus) is introduced into the radio receiver by means of a TEM cell
which simulates an interference
field, or by means of special devices which inject interference currents and voltages into different
points of the receptor. AM oscillations are accepted as a test interfering-signal, and during the. tests,
at the input of the radio re&iver,
94
single crystal.
This problem does not
a.r:lse,obviously, for spheric resonators which have no preferred axis, but
is essential for achieving the ferrimagnetic resonance at relatively low
frequencies.
Once the resonator as described is
available, a whole series of measures
(related to the coupling circuits, to
the magnetic circuits, to the details
of the resonator shape etc.) become
effective in improving the filter performance up to levels which make possible its application as a preselector
in spectrum analyzers.
Together with
a low noise amplifier, it brings a
very significant improvement in the
instrument performance, in a frequency
range where the advantages of preselection with YIG filters seemed to be out
of reach.
References
Ill Sodha, M.S. and Srivastava, N.C.:
Microwave Propagation in Ferrimagnetics.
Plenum Press, New
York, 1981
Magnetostatic
ISI Walker, L.R.:
in Ferromagnetic
Resonance.
Rev. 105, p. 390, (1957)
Modes
Phys.
Magnetostatic
I31 Dillon, Jr., J.F.:
Modes in Discs and Rods.
J. Appl.
Phys., 31, po 1605, (1960)
97
19D7
receivers requires additional confirmation because it could happen that
the test data were affected by the
measurement errors which were left
out of account. At the same time, a
comparison of data of Tables 1 and 2
shows that the immunity parameters
of receivers at the frequencies of
the second channel of reception are
lower than at the intermediate freu
quency.
3. Effect of an interference
on the Kr' and JP staQes
of an FM receiver
3.1. Theoretical considerations.
It is indicated in tll that when an
electromagnetic field affects the IF
stages of USW FM broadcast receivers,
the control of immunity of such receivers is not of great importance.
This is accounted for by the presence of an amplitude limiter before a
frequency-sensitive detector. It can
be shown that this assertion is not
quite true. Let us suppose that an
interference affects an RF or IF
stage of a receiver. As a result, at
the input of a frequency-sensitive
detector, there will be an interfeaddition to a wanted
;;;;;lUflFI in
Let us assume for simplicity tha?*an interference has a form
of unmodulated harmonic oscillations.
Suppose we have that f is a wantedsignal carrier-frequency, f PI is
an interference frequency 4 4dif 111
=/fs-f&
K>1
Table 1
Type of a receiver and the
frequency of its tuning, ft
357
w3
!Cype1, ft - 1 MHz
221
10'3
1.8
Into the
supply
mains, V
0.5
lO-3
10-3
45
10'3
29
10'~
29
10-3
0.4
50 103
1 + mosd
Af=Afdif I+k2+2kCOSd
'
(4)
96
US
USm
+xCOS
Ad +
COS(Sl+AO)t
+
E
+~KhCOS(J2-A@t
.a, ]
(I)
(2)
2.2. Experimental investigations. Two types of broadcast receivers (three receivers of each tvne4
were taken for measurements. Typ& 1
was an all-wave receiver, type 2
was an all-wave receiver with a builtin tape recorder. Measurements were
made by means of an open TEM cell
(Fig.1 in CIS'PRdocument ['1]) as
well as according to a circuit of
Fig.16 of the same document (by injecting the interference currents into
the antenna input of the radio receiver and injecting the interference voltage into the mains input).
Each radio receiver was tested at
its tuning frequencies of 0.25 and
1 MHz. Because (as it was indicated
in Clause 1.1). there were reasons
to suppose that an interference can
affect both an RF stage and an IF
stage of the radio receiver, as a
test interfering-signal such A&Ioscillations were used, whose carrier
frequency corresponded to a secondchannel frequency or to an intermediate frequency of the radio receiver. All the requirements of document [I] were fulfilled in the measurements.
The experimental investigations
showed that their results are considerably affected by frequency instability of generators which simulate
wanted signal and interfesence, A
variation of a modulation factor of
an interference practically does not
influence a measured value of a receiver response. Thus, the conclusions drawn in Clause 2.1 were fully
confirmed, Moreover, it was found
out that it is also difficult to make measurements of a receiver response which in accordance with IN
should be by 30 dl3lower than a standard output-signal, because this response is at the same level as the
internal receiver-noise.
In order to overcome the abovementioned difficulties it was decided
to change a measurement technique
99
19D7
References
1
2
;;;II/E(Secretariat)27,August
.
M.Borsero, E.Nano Some considerations about interference vol.tag@ measurements and relevant
Limits, EMC, 1983, Zurich
CbSCr~P/E/Pr%(6oySoH~r.reB,l~aCMAbeB,
$~pMUHOl3/ccb,;P)
J. ,HO.W$ b !-9:x)
0 CkUl3M N!ieXJ.Jy
p%3JIWJH1_rMI4
IiO3@$l/lqMe~~aMMI'lOMexO3a~~eHHOCTM
TeneBM3MomHx l7pMeMHBKOkl.
L3:d .H.liono~
~~:ELTeMaTMYeCKMifj
aHtUIM3
GuemM. SocaIie)rovra~aT,ElocEtsa~lewmrpa~~, I95 E,T.
98
Table
Type 1,
ft
= 0.25
!Pype1,
Tt
I 1 MHz
MHz
IO
35 70-3
IO
28 1O-3
150 10'3
2.1
0.4
7 10-3
'V/n1
na
where d
23dA fdif t.
It can'found
from (4) that
the frequency-deviationamplitude
will be equal to
(5)
Let us consider the simplest cxample. Suppose we have that the upper
frequency of an LF amplifier of a
receiver is equal to 15 kHz, and when
testing a radio receiver its output
is not terminated by a low-pass
filter. If during the setting a standard output power of a radio receiver an FM signal with a deviation of
22.5 kHz was used and
II15kHz,
'fd&d the
then an interference level
radio receiver output wi_llbe by
30 dB lower than a reference level
in that case when gf = 750 kHz, to
which KI 40 corresponds. It the modulation of interference oscillations had been taken into account,
the calculated value of K would have
been even higher. This, an USW FM
receiver proves to be sensitive to
an AM interference which affects its
RF or IF stage.
At the same time it should be noted that the abovementioned effect
will also take place when a lowpass filter with a cutoff frequency f >I000 Hz is connected to the
radi.8receivex. But this will happen
io:yK;; the case of Afdif<lOOO Hz
.
3.2. Experimental investigations. The experimental investigations described below were maimedat
a qualitative confirmation of considerations given in Clause 3.l.The
allwave receivers indicated in Clause 2.2 served as a test object. These remeivers were exposed to an A&l
electromagnetic interference-field
by using a converted three-metre method. The carriers of interference
101
20D8
ON ThjjMkASUBEI%l3NT
OF EM YOWER DE%SITY USING A D'JUBIS
L0ADE.DIQOP ANTENNA
-_
,.I_.
T.W. Wieckowski.
Technical University of Wroclaw
WrocYaw, Poland
I'ntroduction
H(p) =$H:(Phikrq
where:
,thecomplex amplitude of
magnetic component :2X4
field at the centre of ,the
antenna produced by q elementary electric dipole,
3 the distance from Taint
P = 0 to point which is
orthogonal projection
of point p on q direction.
102
U(0)=-jwynb2~H~~(O)W4(0)[YL+ZYol~
Cpl
13)
-2nb~~E~~(OlX~(O)[v,+2Y,
*
I-
Ulnl=-j~~n~2~,H:$O)Wq1011Y,t2Yol-1+
(4)
+27&
E&(O)Xq(o)[Y~+2Y,
q=l
I"
=-jupnb$
H~g(O)Wq(@)-
-2*b$$
E&(0
,=l
where:
(21
where:
H,i,(O)=complex amplitude of the
even magnetic field oomponent at the centre of the
antenna,
y.
y1
[4,5,6,7]
- 103
2008
(5)
II
I " ,J
L_-___-_-_______-___-__-_I
[VI -
E=l
7-
[VImI
H=l[A/ml
b -0,l
104
Relation
Indicate
[ml
a=5*10-4[m]
trol
tics
magnetic field,
LZSthis signal is a
linear
function
of
frequency,
and
its phase is shifted
by an angle of
r/Z,
compared to the phase of the incident magnetic field.
The input
nals of the multiplicator
should
IF,t_
;;
[degl
R=5+10[521
c=l
*IO-[Fl
- +90
sigexhi-
bit a study-state
attenuation
diagram
in ,the measuring band, and their phases
should be consistent
with the phase of
the incident
magnetic and electric
fieIds. Admissible
is a simultaneous
shift
of the phases of both signals
by a constant value A$0 . The output signal
of
the multiplicator
is directly
proportional
to the cross product of the vectors of both magnetic-J.i.eld
and electric-field
intensities.
This means that
the output signal is also directly
proportional
to the EN field
power density
indicateci
by the Foyating
vector.
(7)
!J!heprobe
-90
3.2-
I I
10
,
F[MHzl
of Fig.
2 enables
measurement
the maximum EN field
power density
of
W&s shortcoming,
value alone.
may be successfully
eliminated
ing an array
Fig.
7:
Fxequency characteristics
broad-band probe
with
of a
double
loaded
EM.po-
loop
antenna
wer density:
the output
u.z -
for
signal
of
the
of the
of the
upL: - the output signal
filter
for control
of amplitude-phase
characteristies,
the
output signal of the
s(t)multiplicator.
three
by apply-
douole-loadad
an-
tennae perpendicular
to each other, and
by introducing
an apprOph.ate
unit fox
the control
of the voltages
Occurring in
the loads
unit
adder unit,
ULI - the output signal
subtractor
unit,
of
however,
is
of the antennae.
ahown in Pig.
The probe
of Fig.
4 not only
determination
of
power density
value,
measurements
The control.
4.
enanles
permits
Summary:
The paper
circular
includes
loop
as a broad-band
antenna
probe
the analysis
of a
- 105
20~8
cI
1
Bern
[I
- 107
21El
PRIlllTED
CIRCUIT BOARD EMC
Clayton ii.Paul
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506
USA
I.
Introduction
have
Printed
circuit
boards
(PCBs)
virtually
all
become an integral
part
of
There are,
of
course,
electronic
systems.
many advantages of PCBs over discrete
wiring
Perhaps
the
for component interconnection.
important advantages are in compactness
most
A very large
section
and manufacturability.
system can be placed on a
of
an electronic
board and occupy a relatively
small
portion
In addition
to the
the available
space.
of
advantage of size reduction,
the manufacture
and testing
of these boards can be automated
thus reducing cost and increasing
testability
and quality
assurance of products.
The controlled
layout of components
and
relieves
a considerable
interconnect
traces
inherent
in older,
variability
amount of
interconnection
techniques.
discrete
wiring
Thus predictability
of a boards
performance
This has led to an increased
increased.
is
computer-aided
design
interest
and use of
computer-aided
manufacturing
(CAD)/
(CAM)
techniques
and software.
Unfortunately,
very
few of those CAD/CAMprograms have the capability
of modeling the effects
of trace
layThus the controlled
nature of the PCB
out.
layout is not fully
utilized.
Even though this controlled
layout
has
the advantages
of
repeatability,
automated
testability,
reliability,
etc.,
there
are
a
number of EMCproblems which may (and usually
do) arise.
Simply having a controlled
architecture
does not do away with these problems,
although proper choice of layout can mitigate
many of these problems.
This session will be
devoted to examining the EMC implications
of
PCBs.
Perhaps of paramount importance
in
PCB
EMC is limiting
the interference
which may be
generated by them.
In the U.S.
the
Federal
Communications
Commission (FCC) has mandated
under FCC Rules
and Regulations,
Part
15,
Subpart J, that all commercial products which
use digital
techniques
and generate
or
use
timing
signals
or pulses at a rate in excess
of 10,000 pulses per
second
(virtually
all
electronic
equipment today) must not radiate
interference
or conduct interference
into the
in excess of a certain
power mains
amount.
The radiated
emission
limit is measured at a
distance
of 3 meters and the conducted emission is measured with a line
impedance
stabilization
network (LISN) [l-4].
These limcompanies
in
its have caused
manufacturing
to
devote
a significant
share of
the U.S.
their efforts
to not only testing
their
Products
for
compliance
but more importantly
fixing
those products so that they
pass
the
Today functional
performance of a
FCC tests.
product is often not the primary
problem
in
passing the
meeting
development
schedules;
FCC test is.
This trend is, of course,
not
peculiar
The various countries
in Europe
to
the U.S.
have no less stringent
requirements.
These
are
related
to the recommendations
of the
International
Special
Committee
on
Radio
Interference
(CISPR) which
is
part of the
International
Electrotechnical
Commission
(IEC).
The West German EMC interpretation
of
the CISPR recommendations
are embodied in the
VDE
(Verband
Deutscher
Elektrotechniker)
regulations.
Products produced in the
U.S.
for
export
to
Europe must be tested for
interference
generation
according
to
the
relevant
regulations.
Quite
often this is
the VDE regulation.
Nevertheless,
the signal
levels
which
a
device
radiates
or
conducts into the power
mains are
now of
considerable
concern
to
manufacturing
companies.
Until
1979 (the
year of the release
of the FCC requirements)
the concern of manufacturing
companies in the
U.S. with regard to electromagnetic
compatibility
(EMC) was primarily
motivated by military specifications.
These are
outlined
in
MIL-STD-461[5].
In addition
to the unintentional
generation
of interference,
the
susceptibility
of equipment to unintentional
as
well as intentional
signals
is also important
to
the military.
Thus,
MIL-STD-461
also
places limits
on the susceptibility
of
systems.
In the commercial arena, FCC and VDE
requirements
only limit emissions.
That may
change in the future.
Therefore,
until
1979 EMCwas of concern
to manufacturing
companies in the U.S. only
if (1) the signals
emitted by a device caused
functional
problems within that device or (2)
the device was procun
the
military
or
(3) the device was intended for sale abroad.
Subpart
With the imposition
of FCC, Part 15,
J, it can be truthfully
said that EMChas now
become the concern of virtually
all
manufacturing companies in the U.S.
interest
Thus there has been a renewed
in the ability
to model and predict
the unininto
tended emissions
(radiated
or conducted
electronic
devices.
the
power mains)
of
There are
a
Where does one turn for help?
- 108
consulting
organizations
private
number of
courses,
on site
which offer
(for
a fee)
computer software,
etc. to aid in
assistance,
designing
electronic
products
SO
that
they
The Instipass the rigid
FCC and VDE tests.
Engineers
tute of Electrical
and Electronics
sponsors numerous sympo(IEEE)
in the U.S.
in the
sia relating
to EMC. A major change
paper topics
at these symposia is in the subpapers
on
ject of commercial EMC. Tutorial
design various aspects of Systems so
how to
that they comply with the FCC and VDE specifA great
often are in the majority.
icat ions
deal of useful
information
can be obtained
from the
proceedings
of
these symposia as
The
well as the IEEE Transactions
on EMC .
increased
interest
in EMCrelated
symposia in
the U.S. is by no means isolated
nor pioneerby this
symposium and a
ing
as evidenced
similar
one sponsored by the IERE in England.
There are also several
handbooks
availuseful
design information
which
give
able
with regard to emission reduction
and predicThese books (as well as tutorial
tion [l-41.
prediction
papers in symposia) give
simple,
models for estimating
the expected emissions.
One of the primary sources
of
unintentional
radiation
from devices are llloopst formed by
traces on PCBs as well
as
in
interconnect
cables.
It
is
generally
inferred
that one
can calculate,
using these simple models, the
levels
of
radiated
interference
one will
measure when the device is tested.
Although
the models
are discussed
primarily
from the
point of view of design,
i.e.,
what variables
to
control
in the design to limit the emissions,
there is the inherent implication
that
the models can be used to provide accurate
or
reasonable
predictions.
Several
papers
in
this session
will address the radiation
problem.
,.
radiation
from interconnect
cables
in a system is often the primary contributor
to
the
overall
system
emission.
One paper in this
session
will address this problem.
Interconnect
cables
whether within boxes or between
boxes often form very
efficient
radiators.
Common mode currents
on these cables
(which
are very difficult
to predict)
often
provide
the
dominant
emission.
In Mr. H.W. Otts
paper in this session
it will be pointed
out
that
common mode currents
on interconnect
cables on the order of only IOuA could
provide
enough radiation
in the 30 MHz to 100
MHz range to violate
the FCC radiated
emission
levels!
It seems clear from this that
radiation
from interconnect
cables
could
be
the
dominant source in the 30 MHz to 100 MHz
range and the
author Is experience
supports
this.
This
author
has found that current
probes placed around interconnect
cables
can
(and should)
be an important first
step in
assessing
the source of radiated
as well
as
conducted
emissions.
For current
probes
which have a constant
transfer
impedance over
the
frequency
range
of
interest
one can
correlate,
not absolute
levels,
but
spectral
shape of cable common mode currents
and their
associated
radiation.
The author
recommends
this initial
approach quite enthusiastically.
Until one locates
the source,
one can do little (sensible)
to reduce the emission.
Printed
-___-
Circuit
Board Crosstalk
Metallic
etchings
(lands)
on PCBs quite
of ten are
routed in close proximity
to each
board
other to make maximum use of available
Signals
on a pair
of
lands
space.
(or
between a land and an interplane)
electromagnetically
couple
to adjacent
lands inducing
elecThis
signals
onto
those
circuits.
tromagnet ic
coup1 ing
between
lands
is
This type of
coureferred
to as crosstalk.
The critical
pling
always occurs on boards.
question
is whether
the
levels
of
induced
signals
(along with shape properties
such as
cause
rise
time)
will
be sufficient
to
improper
functioning
of
the circuits
which
are attached
to or
interconnected
by the
lands.
Methods for determining
these induced
signals
CAD/CAM
should
be
included
in
software since the crosstalk
can affect
functionality
of the board.
There are, of course,
a large number of
land
configurations
possible.
For example,
lands
only
on
single-sided
boards have the
one side
of
a substrate
which is usually
glass-epoxy
having a dielectric
constant
of
approximately
er t 5.
Double-sided
boards
typically
have lands on opposite
sides of the
substrate.
A similar
type of board which we
sometimes
will investigate
experimentally
is
referred
to
as microstrip
and is shown in
Fig. 1.
This board has a ground
plane
on
one side.
The signal-carrying
lands are on
with
the other side and each forms a circuit
the ground
plane.
One land with the ground
109
21El
avC(x,t)
ai,(x,t)
---px--
-cc, + Cm)-at--
avR(x,t)
c
3iR(x,t)
---.-
ax
av,(x,t)
= c at_.-m
(ICI
at
avR(x,t)
cc R + Cm)---- at
(Id)
Direct solution
of these equations
and incorporation
of the terminal
constraints
is quite
difficult
these
direct
Furthermore,
c71.
solution
techniques
are not well suited to
implementation
in CAD/CAMsoftware.
Fig.
1. PCB configuration.
2.1 -~
A Simple,
Time-Domain Crosstalk
~-
It would be desirable
to have a direct,
time-domain solution
of (I).
Such a solution
is not
generally
posssible
unless
certain
simplifications
are made.
First consider
the
case of sinusoidal,
steady-state
excitation
of the line.
Let us suppose that (1) the two
circuits
are weakly coupled and (2) the lines
are
sufficiently
short,
electrically,
at the
frequency of interest.
For these
restrictions
it
was shown in C91, from an exact,
literal
solution
of (l),
that
the receptor
circuit
may be modeled as shown in Fig. 3(a).
Since the line is assumed to be electrically
short,
the generator
line voltage and current
are approximately
independent of position
on
the
line
and can be computed from D-C considerations
as
D
VG(f)
= &&VS(f
s
L
I($f)
= +&f)
+
V,(ll
J-l
RN, V,,(l)
ax
ai,(x,t)
=
-1G
at
aiR(x,t)
- - lm
at
(la)
(2b)
(,$
i
R
I Z : = I
V,(X,,)l c,Ar
I
I
I
:I
::c,AX
Ground
Plane
ax
ai,(x,t)
=
-rn
at
Fig.
aiR(x,t)
- $3
at
(lb)
I
,
I
I
'-Ax-.---j
I
x=0
avR(x,t)
(2a)
I
I
. _ I
avC(x,t)
Model
2. The equivalent
RL
+
V,,(1)- RFE
I
I
I
x=Jt
circuit.
110
clock
the typical
For example, consider
If the rise and
shown in Fig. 4(a).
pulse
fall
times, T and -if, are assumed equal,
an
asymptotic
en?elope
of the pulse spectrum can
The exact
be obtained
as shown in Fig. 4(b).
spectral
amplitudes
are
V(f)
sin(y)
-___
= F
(Y)
nnT
sin(-+)
_._--._
_
n7rxr
(,---)
(4)
to a
Note that the enyelope is constant Out
and decreases
at a ratelof
frequency
of
E
-20 dB/decade
up to
a frequency
of
71~.
(b)
Fig.
3. Low-frequency
crosstalk
circuit.
RNE
1 2 __.- RL
+
+ RFE m RS + RL
= j%----NE
RNERFE
R
NE + *FE
VFE(f 1
~
=
VS(f)
jw[-
R+--
RFE
NE
FE
orff
roll
amplitudes
spectral
Above this,
From
quite fast at a rate of -40 dB/decade.
that
the high frequency
this
it
is
clear
limited)
(or
spectral
content is determined
If we mulby the pulse rise (fall)
time rrl
tiply
the input pulse spectrum given in
Fig.
4(b)
and the transfer
spectrum given in Fig.
3(b) we obtain the spectrum of the resultant
Suppose that we
shown in Fig. 5
crosstalk
choose fU to be well past --$,
say,
r
f+X-Jr
freso that erroneous predictions
of higher
For example,
quencies
are
of
no concern.
choice of a=10 will
mean that
the output
will
have decayed by 20 dB from the
spectra
maximum value.
(3a)
lmZr- RL
+
s + RL
-___RNERFE ct -_- 1
1
+ RFE m RS + RL
RNE
(3b)
Fig.
4. Bound on trapezoidal
pulse
spectra.
111
21El
VFE(W)
-=
V,(w)
ju
MFE
Consider a periodic
vS(t).
Fourier series
of this signal
is
m
v,(t)
The
jnwot
(IO)
1 Vs(w)e
n=-m
= 2rf0 = g
is
the
wO
the pulse
radian
frequency
09
that the time derivative
of v,(t)
fundamental
where
n=-m
The near-end,
is
train.
is
Note
j nwOt
dvS(t)
__I=
dt
p-Fr:
complex
jnwO VS(w)e
time-domain
crosstalk
(11)
voltage
j nwOt
vNE(t)
=iF
Fig.
fu
5. The net
pulse.
spectrum
of
the
log,o(f)
Subst ituting
crosstalk
(12)
? V (w)e
n--m NE
(9)
into
(12)
yields
j nwOt
VNE(t
The transfer
can be related
to
the line.
Suppose
of a wavelength at
function
upper
limit,
fu,
the one-way transit
time of
the line is some fraction
fu,
= kh
1 =
(13)
where we substitute
w=nw . Comparing (13) to
(I 1) we observe
that if
one models
the
crosstalk
transfer
funcYZ0n-G
increas=
linearly
with frequency
(for
allfrequencies)
-as jwM, --then the time-domain
crosstalk
voltage
is
simply
M mmierbxe
time
-der ivacve=(
t-)_:
dv_(t)
where v is
for
2
=v
yields
T r r -sk
one-way
line
vFE(t)
dvs(t)
= MFE~ dt
(14b)
(7)
0.
T
d
(8)
VNEhJ)
v,(w)
= MNE ~ :t
thy velocity
of propagation
on the
Substituting
(6) into (5)
delay,
d
vNE(t)
= jw MNg
(9a)
- 112
qT,()~
I
I
I
r----
Map +
A 1 MHz trapezoidal
pulse
train
was
the
generator
line
and the
applied
to
rise/fall
time of the pulses was adjusted
to
two values,
50 ns and 100 ns.
The values of
are
resistances
termination
to
The input voltage
R = RNE = RFE = IkS2.
the line was set to transition
from -1.25V to
Thus
swing
of
2.5V.
+I .25V for
a total
The near end crosstalk
for
100 ns
RS = 0.
8(a).
This
rise/fall
time is shown in Fig.
( The
signal .
input
is superimposed on the
signal
per-division
amplitude
of
50
mV
input
The correct
value is 500 mV.)
is incorrect.
for
a 50 ns
result
corresponding
The
8(b).
rise/fall
time signal
is shown in Fig.
end crosstalk
was also measured and
The far
the results
are virtually
identical
to
the
near end crosstalk.
I
I
w
I
1
Fig.
6. Crosstalk
domain.
I
1
I
I
L---J
-M+
____A
prediction
in
the
time
pulses.
Nevertheless,
the
resu1.t
in
(14)
and
illustrated
in Fig.
6 provides
a simple
(almost trivial)
way of estimating
crosstalk
levels
on PCBs.
Of course
one must be
assured that
this
approximation
is
valid,
This
means that
one must ensure that the
pulse rise time and line
delay
satisfy
(8)
for a suitable
choice of c1 and k.
The term k
can be determined
from a frequency-domain
plot
(experimental
or
calculated
[9]).
In
addition
to its simplicity
this method offers
other
advantages.
The primary advantage is
that one can measure
the
frequency-domain
crosstalk
once
and for all and use that to
predict
the time-domain crosstalk
for a multitude
of
time-domain input signals.
Moreover,
the method serves
to
relate
the
frequency-domain
and time-domain crosstalk
so
that one can easily
determine how to
affect
the time-domain crosstalk.
2.2
Experimental
Results
As an example, we constructed
a board
similar
to
the one in Fig. 1.
A photograph
is shown in Fig. 7.
The board consists
of
a
glass-epoxy
substrate
62 mils in thickness
with a ground
plane
on one side
and two
parallel
lands on the other.
The metal is 1
oz. copper
( .035 mm thickness).
The lands
are
100 mils
in width
(2.54
mm) and are
separated
by 100 mils.
The line length is 20
cm (;t= 20 cm).
The line is driven and terminated as shown in Fig. I.
The source is
a
Hewlett-Packard
8015A pulse generator
and the
terminations
are resistors
inserted
into
BNC
connectors
for easy attachment.
The voltages
were measured with a Tektronix
7834 oscilloscope using P6201 FET probes.
Fig.
The frequency-domain
crosstalk
was measured
from
10 kHz to 500 MHz. This is shown
in Fig. 9 for near end crosstalk.
Below 1
MHz we used HP 3400A rms voltmeters
whereas
above 1 MHz we used an HP 84054 Vector Voltmeter.
From these frequency-domain
results
we
obtain values for M as
MNE
= 6.29
x ICI-~
for
the
- 113
Maximum Crosstalk
21El
Levels
_______.-._.___-__
____.__------The
correlation
betwoen
V
NE
15.7
mV
14 mV
FL;
15.9
mV
14 mV
31.5
mV
31.9
mV
NE
= 5Ons
7 =.I
f
r
---_._-
Experimental
Predicted
(14)
= IOOns
T
r = Tf
____
VW
.---.---.--.--
experimental
25 mV
25 mV
____._______.____
Table I
_____
____I--
and
is quite good.
Note that
predicted
results
the experimental
resul.ts vary almost directly
SlCW
rate;
reducing the rise time by a
with
factor
of two al-most doubles the crosstalk.
more extensive
Additional,
contained
in [IO].
2. :i _._-Implementation
results
are
Programs
-in _CAD/CAM
----
Summary
----
Fig.
8. Crosstalk
train
T
r=
pulses
for
a 1 MHz pulse
= IkQ.
(a)
= :FE
I, = of = 50ns.
3Cond
Near
End
ZL=l
114
Fig.
10.A first-order
CAD/CAMuse.
equivalent
circuit
for
-40
Fig.
domain
9. Frequency
RL = RNE = RFE = IkQ
crosstalk
for
Practical
[4]
R. F. Ficchi,
--_____tromagnetic
Compatibility,
1971.
on
systems
[5] Electromagnetic
Emission I_
and SusceptibilRequirements
for
the
Control of Elec-.ity
tromagnetic
Interfe~ce~IL_STD_461B,
Naval
--Electronics
Systems Command Defense Standardization
Program Branch, Dept.
of
the Navy,
Washington,
D. C., 20360,
U.S.A.
suitable
for
inclusion
into CAD/CAM
model
Experimental results
were given to
software.
so long as the interfering
illustrate
that,
pulse risetimes
are much longer
than
the
delay time of the circuits
involved,
one-way
with
good accuracy
and a
one can predict
computational
effort
the maximum
minimum of
time-domain crosstalk.
One additional
topic not
considered
in
of
this
session
is
that of
other
papers
suppression
interference
characteristics
of
The author
strongly
advocates
components.
added
that
before
a component
is
for
suppression,
the relevant
funcinterference
tion of that component should be measured
-at
the desired suppression
frequency.
---systems
so
Designing
electronic
that
do not
they
cause
interference
problems
within that system or with other systems is a
difficult
task.
One can only expect that use
of sound, EMC design
practices
through
an
understanding
of interference
generation
and
propagation
will result
in a product
which,
when tested
for
interference,
will
allow
rational
suppression
methods to be effective.
References
Cl1
Noise
Systems,
H. W. Ott,
Electronic
Sons, 1976.
Reduction
New York:
[21
R. K. Keenan,
Digital
Interference
Specifications,
ginia:
The Keenan Corporation,
Techniques in
John Wiley&
Design
Vienna,
1983.
for
Vir-
D.
R.
J.
White,
Electromagnetic
Interference
and Compatibility,
1-7,
-Vol.
Germantown, Maryland: Don White
ConsultaFt;,
Inc.,
1973.
[31
Applications
of MulticonducLine Theoryto
the Predicling, ~
vol._I,
--MultiGGductar-
Transmission
Line
Theory,
Technical
-___
Report., RADC-TR-76-101, Rome Air
Development
Center, Griffiss
AFB, NY, April 1976.
C61
tor
R. Paul,
Transmission
C.
F.
Y.
Chang,
Transient
Analysis
of
Lossless,
Coupled Transmission
Lines In Inhomogeneous Dielectric
Medium, IEEE Trans.
on
Microwave Theory and Technique-o-T-2c
No. 7, pp.m57,July
1973.
[7]
II81
W. W. Everett,
III,
Lumped
Model
Approximation
of
Transmission
Lines: Effect
of Load Impedances
On Accuracy,
Technical
Report, Rome Air Development Center, Criffiss
AFB, NY, to appear.
c91 C. R. Paul, Solution
of
the
Transmission
Line
Equations
for
ThreeConductor
Lines in Homogeneous Media, --IEEE Trans.
on
Electromagnetic
Compatibility,
Vol. EMC-2;
No. 1, pp. 216-222,
February 1978.
Cl01 C. R. Paul and W. W. Everett,
III,
Prediction
of
Time-Domain
Crosstalk
in Printed
Circuit
ZardsTechnical
Report, --KOYG--XF
-.A
Development
Center,
Griffiss
AFB, NY, to
appear.
115
22E2
B. Danker
Philips Advanced Audio Projects Laboratory
Eindhoven, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT
Theoretical background is presented on excita-
- 60 dBuV/m at a
distance of 3 meter.
1. INTRODUCI'ION
_-
50 dEuV/m level.
of integratedcircuits.
tude 11of the interferinqfields is approximately proportionalto ' d bainq the dis7
tance to the interferencesource, when r<&
(nearfield)
.
If
116
1%. 3.
HZ
MRRKER
XF
away.
-11
IO
-,Yj-g;--;,
I
_!-
C,=lOOnF
3 =lOOnF
I 2
I
I
- _---_---I
+!II
Fiq. 1
RBU
HZ
UBU
HZ
ST
SEC
Fig. 3
creases due to series inductanceof the prinIn practical circuits many capacitorsmay Je
quency
f, = 2n\li-F;
impedance
- 2ti,L
is zero.
ClC2
F-5
z=
x(2&
,2'
22
- 2flf*L)
21rfpL
m-=5-%
on a p.c.b.
1.592 2.244
Fig. 2
Althouqh in practice the quality factor of
- 117
This
guarantees
22E2
Pip.
broadcast frequencies
4b
field at 25 cm from
small).
a- before
b-
Note
The 1~
IC
Let
'rbusbar"
maunted between DIL-package and prin-
f = frequency in Hertz.
(Note : Af = c = 3 x IO8 m/s, the velocity of
light)
by equations :
&$=-
1Ap4
4nwe,
-1
__I
(Or)
1
j(b)
sin 0
can be obtained usinq a quadruple constuc(If the diameter of the loop is small in corn-
sin 9
H,
cos
The max.m
= 3
is thus
Hr = 3
Quadruple construction
loops
smaller than
H * 2nr*
A<,
m2
119
22E2
c:onnection
lxtween the decoupling capacitor
nnd the ground reference pin (Vss) ; see
silicon
metal
brackej
current
ChiD
,soye
bonding
11
Fig. 10.
The results of measurementsof He at
r = 15 cm made on test samples of the above
mentioned constructionsconfirm the suitability of these constructions to reduce magnetic
L
MLC
i
3
nm to III
mz
Microproceeeor
mounted on 1.6
.15
AmIt
ST 1% 9EO
.Y
1;2
1.5
1.65
I ii
.o)sz
lm
3 Km
i i If i i i i
.6
.Y
10 III
1;s
1.5
11
1
.Y
11
1
I
1;2
1.5
1.6:
8T 1% SEC
wa to II6
3 ml2
I iHi
.15ar
mn 1 Ia6
8T 156 SEC
Microprocessor
8420 in SOT 117 D package
mounted on 1.6mm phenolic paper p.c.b.
Cuadrupole grounding construction
see fig.
I!
Microproceaeor
8420 in SO-28 package mounted
on printed circuit
with metal base.
mm
.6
.6
.lCm*
rn
1 :
.6
, .Y:
1
I
vm 10 111
I
,
i.l
I
,
1 1.5I
,
If
1.60
156 IBC
Microprocessor
8420 in SOT 117 D package
mounted on 1.6 mm phenolic paper p.c.b.
Vq e (ground) bonded to pin 27 1.8.0.
to pin 14
1.6;
91 (56 SEC
Microproceaaor
13420 with built-in
1 UP MLC
mounted on 1.6 mm phenolic paper p.c.b.
em
3 ml2
Naked-chip
10 RX
If
1%
BE0
qubstra
Parameter
I. Chip
in S0T 117 D package
-ted
on 1.6 mn phenolic
-+ 220
66.5
+ 550
74
-1.5
+ 2 x 220
51.5
24
15
43
23.5
+2x15
34
32.5
36
30.5
47
19.5
2 2 x 27
33.5
33
2.5
21
39.5
0.25
paper printed-circuit
board
Dil
paper p.c.b.
see Fig.
10
on 1.6 mn
to pin 27.
f
6. Chip in SOT 117 D package mxlnted on 1.6 IWI
phenolic pawr p.c.b.
1 uF mltilayer
decoupling
cap. -ted
inside package
7. Chip in SC-28 package -ted
circuit with metal base
on printed
4.
on thick
on 1.6 mn
assenbly
+ 220
circu<ts
with
7
(estim.
60
(estim.)
31.5
Mnenetic
field
strength
II produced
by microprocessor
84?0
886.5 kBz. Distance
1 betddeen center
of radiating
loop and
obcervation
point
1 F, cm, For measuring
diagram
see Fig.
6.
Note: 0 dBuV/m is equivalent
Lo -51 dWA/m.
Conclusion
When digi.tal
ewipnent
1:
27
on
7.5
35
at
References
are
appliti
in
audio
2.
1982.
3.
121
23
E3
RADIATED EMISSIONS
OF
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD CLOCK CIRCUITS
D. R. Bush
International Business Machines Corporation
Lexington, Kentucky
SUMMARY
U.S.A.
MODELS
E=
(1)
INTRODUCTION
Where:
Ott [l] and Keenan [2] have given
formulae for the prediction of the
radiated levels of these circuits at
distances of three meters, which is an
antenna distance used for Federal
Communications Commission (FCC)
computing device measurements.
Radiated levels for other distances
are typically extrapolated using the
inverse distance relationship.
Costa [31 gives measurement data that
agrees well with his prediction, but
the method of measurement is not well
described. Cooperstein [41 essentially
states that "designing" rather than
"fixing" is difficult, if not
impossible. This paper will not
dispute that point. However, data
have been collected which will show some
correlation with prediction.
Palmgren [51 had problems with radiated
EM1 prediction agreeing with
measurements. In this particular
case, the problem was apparently
due to common mode radiation that
exceeded by orders of magnitude
the loop, or differential mode
radiation. As mentioned before,
this paper will not dispute this
difficulty, nor will it offer a panacea
for reliable EM1 prediction, but it will
R=
I=
A=
h=
wavelength of frequency of
interest (in meters)
Equation
(1) may be rearranged to Ott's
.
equation, which is the following for
R=3 meters and F is the
frequencey in Hertz:
E =
=
Kf2 AI
4.38 x 10-15f2AI
(2)
122
(4)
Cn
2vi(ing)(3)
(5)
Where:
V = amplitude in volts of
square wave
tr = transition time (rise or fall)
Note:
period
2nKf3ACnC
4.5v
5ns
67ns
7.5Mhz
E=
3.3v
Ins
65ns
7.68MHz
t = pulse width
T=
Amplitude
Rise time
Pulse width
Frequency 1
T
(6)
23
1
?rt r
1
77
123
Pulse
Spectrum
Fig.
Log
I (fl
I-
-c
V(f)
Capacitor
Fig.
Lo<
Current
_.
:ItT
I
l-
It--_-
Loop
Radi
Fig.
Pulse
Fig.
Radiation
4
at i on
Log
meters
__j(
E3
124
OSC. = Clock
A = Loop Area
B = Driver,
Module
Figure
OSCILLATOR
OSCILLATOR
FIGURE
- 125
23
--
Frequency,
Radiated
Levels
MHz
0
30
40
50
60
60
70
_L
r't,
Radiated
Frequency,
Levels
Experimental
MHz
FIGURE
300
200
90 100
and Predicted
Results
400
E3
- 126
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank
C. R. Paul of the University of Kentucky
for his technical and editorial
assistance in the preparation of this
paper. Special thanks go to C. G. Newton
for the preparation of the figures and
to B. J. Wasson for the preparation of
the manuscript.
REFERENCES
Ott, H. W., "Digital Grounding and
Interconnection", 1981 IEEE
Symposium on EMC, P. 292.
Keenan, R. K., "Digital Design for
Interference Specifications", The
Keenan Corporation, 1983, P. 3.6-l.
Costa, M. et. al., "On Radiation
from Printed Circuit Boards", 1981
IEEE Symposium on EMC, P. 246.
Cooperstein, B., "Radiation from
Printed Wiring Boards", 1982 IEEE
Symposium on EMC, P. 103.
Palmgren, C. M., "Shielded Flat
Cables for EM1 and ESD Reduction",
1981 IEEE Symposium on EMC, P. 281.
Klaus, J. D., Antennas, New York,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
1950, P. 161.
- 127
CONTROLLING
EM1 BY PROPER
24~4
PRINTED
WIRING
BOARD LAYOUT
Henry W. Ott
AT&T Bell Laboratories
Whippany,
New Jersey
07981
USA
Fig. 1:
Differential-mode
radiation
Emission
Differential-mode
emission can be
modeled as a small loop antenna.
For a
small loop of area A carrying current I
the magnitude of the electric field
measured at a distance r, in the far
field, is equal to [ll.
E = 131.6~10 -16[f2AIl [l/rlsin 0, (1)
where E is in volts/meter.
A small loop is one on which the
current is in phase everywhere on the
loop.
This will be true if the perimeter is less than one-quarter wavelength.
For larger loops, the current
is not all in phase and therefore may
subtract from, instead of adding
directly to, the overall emission.
Eq. (1) therefore, predicts a maximum
field strength.
It is accurate for
small loops and approximate for large
loops.
I/O
CABLE
128
I th
Fourier
//////////////////
EQUIVALENT
Fig.
2:
Common-mode
CIRCUIT
radiation
(2)
Transform
hi
Fig. 3:
--_
20dB/DECADE
Envelope
9 II
1315
HORMONIC
of Fourier
NUh4BER
spectrum
/;
-2OdBIDECADE
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I ,
I
F4
Fig. 4:
FI = FUNDAMENTAL
FREO
t, = RISE TIME
Imt,
LOG FREQUENCY
Differential-mode
radiated
emission versus frequency
to Minimize
Emission
129
24~4
RADIATED
EMISSION
SPECTRUM
RADIATED
EMISSION
SPECTRUM
CLOCK
(A)
Fig. 5:
all
130
(B)
(A)
Fiq. 6:
Transient power supply current (AI) for logic gate, (A) without a
decoupling capacitor and, (B) with a decoupling capacitor
Assuming an orientation that maximizes the emission and a measuring distance of three meters, Eq. (4) can be
rewritten as
E = 4.2x10-7[fLI].
( 5 ),
Eq. (5) shows that the radiation is
proportional to the frequency, length
of the antenna, and the magnitude of
the common-mode current on the antenna.
The primary method of minimizing this
radiation is to limit the common-mode
current on the cable.
The frequency term in Eq. (5) represents an increase with frequency of
20 dB per decade. The net result of
combining this with Eq. (3) is that the
common-mode emission is flat versus
frequency up to a frequency of l/nt,
and decreases with frequency at 20 dB
per decade above the frequency l/lrt,.
Fig. 7 shows the envelope of the
common-mode emission versus frequency.
Because of this frequency dependence,
common-mode emission is usually only a
problem at frequencies below l/ntr.
Therefore, for rise times in the 4 to
10 nanosecond range, common-mode emission problems normally occur between
30 and 80 MHz.
(4)
I
FI
Fig. 7:
Inn,
LOG FREQUENCY
24~4
I/O
7
Fig.
DECOUPLING
CAPACITORS
CONNECTION
8:
132
References
111
(21
Ibid., Equation
[31
141
[51
[61
r71
[81
39b, p. 310.
G. A.,
USE OF A GROUND
CIRCUIT
133
25
GRID TO REDUCE
E5
PRINTED
BOARD RADIATION
Robert
F. German
IBM Corporation
P.O. Box 1900, 592/025-l
Boulder,
Colorado
80302
U.S.A.
Abstract
EMC problems with a 5.25-inch diskette drive, whose circuit board was
designed with a single-point ground
system, are examined.
Excessive grourdnoise and radiated EM1 are identified
by comparing measurements
from circuit
boards employing a single-point ground
and a ground grid.
The effect of a
ground grid on power-supply decoupling
is also described.
Introduction
Due to its inherent sensitivity to
ground loops, analog circuitry is
usually equipped with a single-point
ground system.
As a result of this
common design practice, single-point
ground systems are also being used with
digital circuitry.
A recent paper by
Ott [l] discloses that a ground grid is
better suited to digital circuitry,
because these circuits are immune to
ground loops, but are sensitive to
ground inductance.
A ground grid,
commonly called a "qridded ground,"
offers lower inductance than a singlepoint ground.
A 5.25-inch diskette drive, equipped
with a circuit board employing a sinqlepoint ground, was tested early in its
development cycle for radiated Electromagnetic Interference
(EMI). The EM1
radiated by the drive appeared to be
below the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) radiated EM1 limit for
Class B products [2]. Although this
sub assembly is not subject to the FCC
EM1 limit, compliance with this limit
is highly desirable.
Otherwise, the
drive may require shielding when it is
installed in the end product.
When measured late in the development cycle, the EM1 radiated by the
diskette drive was above the FCC Class
The increase in the emisB limit.
sions was caused by modules procured
from different manufacturers
than the
modules used on the earlier circuit
Because the EM1 problem was
board.
of the Diskette
Drive
134
25
- 135 -
Voltage
Table
1.
-
Ground-Noise
Measurement
Locations
ES
Ground-Noise Voltages
-_
Peak Differential
Voltage (mV)
Single-pint
Ground
Gridded
Ground
Ml - M2
150
100
Ml - M3
425
150
Ml - M4
425
150
Ml - M5
450
150
Ml - M6
450
150
Ml - M7
450
150
225
Ml - M8
425
Ml - M9
400
175
Ml - Ml0
400
150
Ml - Ml1
625
200
Ml - Ml2
400
150
Ml - Ml3
425
250
Ml4 - Ml1
900
200
Ml5 - M7
850
125
Ml5 - Ml0
900
125
Ml5 -Ml6
1000
100
M2 - Power
300
100
lower-Interface
300
75
nterface-Head
900
100
Head - M2
625
100
12-Interface
500
125
.ead - Power
800
75
136
Voltage
Radiated
2.
V -Noise
Meag&ement
Location
v,_p-Noise
275
150
M2
100
100
M3
300
200
M4
200
125
M5
300
200
M6
250
200
M7
725
300
M8
200
175
M9
175
150
Ml0
175
150
Ml1
600
150
Ml.2
175
175
300
250
300
225
175
150
M14:
5V
M14: 12 V
M15:
5V
M15:12
Ml6
RECEIVE
ANTENNA
DISKETTE
DRIVE
STEEI
PIPE
Single-point Gridded
Ground
Ground
Ml
Ml3
Voltages
Peak Differential
Voltage (mV)
EM1
75
75
200
150
200
150
- 137
25
E5
43
42
41
FCC CLASS B LIMIT
._____-------_
40
SINGLE
POINT
T GROUND
39
38
37
GRIODEO
T GROUND
36
35
34
34
35
36
45
46
47
40
49
50
I I I I I I
51
52
53
54
55
56
FREQUENCY [MHz1
FIG,4.RADIATED EMISSIONSFROM DISKETTEDRIVE.
level that was 4.2 dB below the FCC
This 7.1 dB reduction in the
limit.
maximum EM1 radiated by the drive
corresponds to the reduced noise voltages in Tables 1 and 2. The reductions are not identical, because EM1 is
measured at a single frequency using a
quasi-peak detector, whereas noise voltages are measured in the time domain
The diskette
using a peak detector.
drive with gridded-ground
circuit board
met the FCC EM1 limit because there are
no inter-module clock circuits on the
Radiation from these clock cirboard.
cuits can exceed the FCC limit [5].
A simple radiated-EM1 source can
behave as either a loop antenna
(differential mode) or a monopole
antenna (common mode) [61, [73. One
might expect the radiation from the
diskette drive with the single-point
ground circuit board to be primarily
differential mode because some signal
currents flow though large loops, such
as the loop between modules Ml5 and
If the
Ml6 discussed previously.
emissions are differential mode, maximum levels will be measured with the
receive antenna in the same plane as
the circuit board, and no emissions
will be measured when the recieve
antenna is orthogonal to this plane [81.
However, the measured emissions from
the diskette drive with the singlepoint ground circuit board were insensitive to the relative position of the
circuit board and the receive antenna.
can be drawn
2.
4.
5.
7.
References
in
3.
6.
138
t11
[Xl
[31
[41
[51
"Radiation from
B. Cooperstein,
Printed Wiring Boards," -IEEE
International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibiltiy,
Santa
Clara, California, September 8-10,
1982, pp. 103-106.
[61
171
[81
can
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Dan
Culberson, Charlotte R. Tyson, Otto R.
Buhler and Bobby J. Foster of IBM
Boulder; Henry W. Ott of AT&T Bell
Laboratories,
and Dr. Clayton R. Paul
of the University of Kentucky for their
editorial and technical assistance.
He
would also like to thank Barry C. Oberg
and John T. Fessler of IBM Boulder
for their useful discussions and help
performing the measurements,
and
Marie Kindgren for typing the manuscript.
139
26
~6
140
- 141
Curve 2:
Curve 3:
Curve 4:
Curve 5:
26
~6
-m-- -.--.-.-
---
-..
-...
______.----.-
142
shielding
,___,_._,_
26
- 143
---l--r---*
~6
(b)
(cl
On the other hand, if, with the singleended transmitter, the receiver terminations
are grounded, so that the driven cable is
matched, the CMR is limited to 6 dB (if the
dummy cable is short-circuited at the
transmitter) or to the balance of the four
Z, resistors, as discussed earlier (if the
2, resistor is fitted in the dummy cable).
Thus an interface using a single-ended
transmitter, though it appears from the
results here to offer only a small
degradation in performance, actually
introduces a number of problems, and cannot
be recommended.
Levels of Susceptibility Obtainable
It was noted above that the voltages
induced in the circuits within a braid do not
seem very large, yet this effect is
universally feared. To see whether this fear
is rational, and whether the use of balanced
circuits can offer a solution, it is
instructive to consider some specific cases.
The values of current likely to flow on
the braids are difficult to assess. At low
frequencies, they will depend on the system
design, and, in particular, on whether groundreturn of power supplies is permitted. At
higher frequencies, induced currents from RF
TFREQUENCY
INDUCED VOLTAGE
Circumf.
Bond
mV
y.
50 nml
Pigtail
V
1.0
15 mm
Pigtail
Hz
1000
1.0
2 MHZ
200
0.4
0.7
5MHz
450
0.5
1.7
15 MHZ
450
1.6
5.0
50 MHZ
300
3.5
11.5
400
144 -
r1.1 JONES,
l-21 VANCE,
[31
/41
r71
Conclusions
It is suggested that, even with the
severe braid currents postulated above, the
combination of a cable braid with a reasonable
transfer impedance and a balanced transmitter
and receiver in the units should offer
immunity from low frequencies up to 50 MHz,
with the possible exception of very low level
audio circuits (e.g. microphone circuits).
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by a Research
.
Agreement with the U.K. Ministry of Defence
(Procurement Executive).
145
27~7
JP. . WARLG
Centre !$ationald'Ltudes des T6l&urtimunicationS
(CNEI)
Centre Paris B - Division ETR
92131 Issy Les Moulineaux - France
ABSTRACT
High speed logic signals are the source of
broadband radiofrequencyinterferencesfor telecunnunication equi,mnts. Fourier analysis of
square pulses gives tileamplitude distribution
of the harmonic oontent. The haarmoniclevel is
relatively constant wer an extensive frequency
range teEore the amplitude begin to decay. So,
any circuit or wire conducting pulsed signals
can be consider& as d potential. source of
interference.The aim in 1orJiccircuit design is
to reluce both conr3uctetl
interferencesignals on
per
leads atrrl
radiatd emissions (speciallyin
the range 1 MHz - 200 MI&Z).A test circuit which
was conposed of three NAND gates was chosen to
experiment different technics of wiring :
decoupling capacitanceson power leads to rerluce
ard
plane
ShX-t
conducted E,lI, CJTOUnd
connections to minimize radio-interferences.
E+.or
each PC board, a measurement of radiated and
corductel interferences was performed in order
to characterize the weight of different
parameters in the conception of locjiccircuits.
The ppose
of this paper is to fin.l cceteffective solutions to reduce WI in high rate
clock circuits without using shielding or high
order filters.
146
OUT
cc
IV - ANALYSIS OF MEXXJWS
b)
GND
0cc
bGND
d
distribution
- 147 -
xti>/l
For small p/l
the asymptotic result.
27~7
quation
(3) yields
(4)
where
r ----
!p!
-I------
Fig.
3 : Schematic diagram of a ceramic capacitor
~-II_
-
(2)
148
? Ground planes
1V.J.
1,65
390
mztxd
1,45
132
1,65
39
2,15
2,6
10,O
3
Lath my
(fig. cj.
iable
c (a?)
LP (nM
LT (nti)
a)
fr (me)
O,l
0,7
9,4
164
0,5
9,2
52
10
0,7
9,4
16
100
181
11,c
4,6
*1 000
1,9
11,4
1,413
--
Table
2
: Calculation of the total self
inductanceversus the capacitancevalue
(I = 10 mn)
* not used
in our tests
a
b
1
10
100
1 000
The
gecmetric dimensions of these guidirly
structures give us characteristic impedances of
the associated transmissionline [2], L3]. kcrostrip lines radiate less energy than simple
structures without ground planes (see fig. 9 ati
10 with a [a] structure) kecause tileelectrmaynetic field is cc&in&i in the hiyhest prmettivity dielectric.
- 149
27~7
I
---
Fig. 11 : Cross-sectionaldimensions :
nomenclature
The maxim..xn
coupling factor is given by :
with :
(8)
zo
Fig. 10 : E field radiation with a groundplane
characteristicimpedance
Zoo odd mzde characteristicimpedance
Zoe even rrodecharacteristicimpedance
where :
WeCC
zo
V - CONCLUSION
The designer of logic circuits must be aware
that if the fondamentalfrequencyof its clock is
lc~, the harmonic content is particularly wide
and is the source of broadband radiofreguency
interferences.The control of RF1 begins at the
design of the PC boards : drawing of traces to
avoid problems of crcestalk, ground plane or
stripline structure, ceramic capacitors on per
leads. It is only the sum of this different elements that will give a lc~ EM1 level PC board. All
these cares in PC boards design are cunplementary
ard lead to a ICW level of md1 (fig. 12 and 13) :
sane PC board witl-outany care, and with a ground
150
VI - REFEXEXES
Cl1
l?All?ALl A.J.
: "Ccmputing inductive noise
of Chip p&ages"
ATT Hell Laboratories Technical Journal
Vol. 63, January 1984
c23
WU
C.P. : "Coplanar Wave guide :
surface strip transmissionline"
IEEE:Trans., vol. W-17, 1969
' c31
c41
c51
C61
BYERS Ty
EKLLJix&c circuits"
Radio. Electronics,September and
Nwenbx
1983
c71
-- 151
28
Fl
by various lightning processes, with submicrosecond time resolution. A description of the recording instrumentation and
some initial results have been given by /6/.
In this report, we would like to summarize
our most recent results.
2. EXPERIMENT
Lightning E and dE/dt signals were measured using a circular, flat plate antenna
/2,7/ mounted on the roof of a grounded
metal bus, which housed the recording apparatus. The antenna was placed symmetrically
over the center of the bus so that any
vertical fields which might be produced by
currents oscillating along the length of the
bus at resonant frequencies (15 MHz for a 10m
length) would be at a minimum. The lowest
resonant frequencies for currents oscillating
along the other dimensions, 50 and 75 MHz for
the 3m height and 2m width respectively, are
well above the 35 MHz, upper 3dB point of the
system.
To measure dE/dt, the antenna was connected either directly, or through approximately
45m of RG-8 coaxial cable (to introduce about
150 ns of delay) to the input of a 400 MHz
storage oscilloscope and terminated in the
characteristic impedance, Z, (501R), of the
cable. The dE/dt signal is proportional
to the voltage measured at the oscilloscope V,
according to:
dE/dt = V/(eo A Fe Z,)
(I)
(2)
152
All measurements were made under conditions where the lightning location was known
and where the field propagation from the
source to the recording site was entirely
over salt water. Therefore, field variations
below about 20 MHz were not distorted by the
propagation, Separate electric and magnetic
field signals were recorded on slower time
scales so that the type of lightning process
could be identified from the field shape and
so that the precise location of a fast field
component within a discharge could be determined.
TheAE/At
data have been range normalized
to 100 km assuming an inverse distance
dependence. These data are plotted for
different
range intervals,
and from these
results we infer that the range normalized
values do not have a significant
dependence
on
distance.
The maximum
fast transition
field
derivative
obtained
using recordings
of return
stroke dE/dt fields averaged
37
+ 10 V/m/Fs
(18 measurements
normalized
to 100 km.)
3. RESULTS
3.1 Return Strokes
N=l25
Mean=SOns
cr=40ns
1.
-3
100
200
300
Nanoseconds
Fig.
in
:L.
R=20km
'
:]I
N= 99
Mean=360
,
Fig.
: : : : : : : ; (
8
16 24 32 40
MICROSECONDS
ns
a=l40ns
200
400
600
800
Nanoseconds
Fig.
A histogram
of the full width at half
maximum of the fast peak in return
stroke E fields.
153
28
Fl
cloud waveform
have fast risetimes
and the
dE/dt signatures
radiated during these transitions are very similar to the shapes of signals
produced
by leader steps and return strokes.
Values of the maximum dE/dt produced
by fl cloud
impulses have a mean and standard
devlatlon
of
16 t 8 V/m/Is when they are range normalized
to ioo km.
20
Peak
1
%@
100 km
r-l
50
0:
E
(",mJ2;
!I
D(lOOkm
D(
80km
D < 30km
12 km
(1a
<K
--+Tz+-
2.0
Microseconds
25
50
75
V/m
Fig.
3.2
100
/ps
A histogram
of the maximum rate of
rise of the fast transition
in return
stroke E fields.
Values have been
range normalized
to 100 km.
Stepped
NANOSECONDS
0 100 200 300 400 500
Leaders
(b)
Fig.
(v/d
0
A-
-~b----
Pulses
The overall
shapes of the large amplitude
radiation
fields produced
by intracloud
discharge processes
have been discussed
by /8,9/.
In general, the shapes of the larger pulses
tend to be bipolar with several fast, unipolar, impulses
superimposed
on the initial
An example of a bipolar intracloud
half cycle.
E field signal is compared
with a first return
stroke waveform
in Figure 6.
Note that the
amplitude
of the intracloud
record is comparable
to that of the return stroke.
The unipolar
impulses on the initial half cycle of the intra-
II
11
40
11
80
11
120
11
160
1
200
MICROSECONDS
Fig.
Characteristic
E field signals produced by a first return stroke in a
cloud-to-ground
discharge
(upper trace)
and during an intracloud
discharge
(lower trace).
154
4. DISCUSSION
4.1
g(t)
'-
(3)
PRESENT
STUOY
60
50
40
z
20
15
10
5
I IIIII
670
IO
20
30
Current
Fig. 7
I111111
40
5060
Deriva.tive
80
100
200
300
II
500
(kA/,us)
155
To compute a spectrum,
dEldt waveforms
were
first digitized
manually,
then evenly spaced
points (required
by the FFT algorithm)
were
calculated
by linearly
interpolating
between
The data were then integrathe sample points.
ted, and, if the absolute
value of the amplitude
of E at the end of the record was less than 15%
of peak, the discrete
Fourier transform
was
computed
using a fast Fourier transform
(FFT)
algorithm.
In many cases, the final E amplitude was greater than 15% of the peak.
This
sharp edge at the end of the record introduces
truncation
errors into the frequency
spectrum
which are positive
(increased
spectral amplitude) and which increase with frequency.
To
reduce these errors we multiplied
the final 10%
of the integrated
waveform
by the following
function:
28
Fl
(4)
-75
Preto
G
-c1 -95
et
al.
Cl9831
W
9
-I
15
zi!
z
-135
2
2
tJ -155
2
t/9
-175
10?3
f 0?4
10?5
10?6
10?7
FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 8
Lightning
first
return
stroke
spectral
amplitudes
at 50 km.
10r8
156
1141
1151
1161
Preta, J. Jr.,
M.A. Uman, and D.G.
Childers, "The Electric Field Spectrum
of Lightning Return Strokes: Correction
to Serhan et al. (1980)," submitted to
Radio Science, October, 1983.
I171
REFERENCES
lman, M.A., and E.P. Krider, "A Review of
latural Lightning: Experimental Data and
lodeling," IEEE Trans. Electromag. COmP.,
tMC-24, 79-112, 1982.
IhI
171
lw
191
Eriksson, "Lightning Parameters for Engineering Application," Electra, No. 69, 65-105, 1980.
.- 157
29
F2
Heidler
In this paper a complete new lightning discharge model is presented basing on gas disit
iS
necharge physics. For LEMP CalcdatiOn
cessary to know the temporal and local current
distribution along the lightning channel.
The Traveling Current source (TCS) model
manages-to calculate the current distribution
during the final jump period as well as during
the return stroke period. The current is caused by the electric field during the final
jump period and by collecting the corona charge carriers during the return stroke period.
Therefore a current source is to be assumed
traveling along lightning channel with a velotit-y smaller than light velocity.
The TCS model is discussed in detail and
compared with the transmission line model of
UMAN today most used lightning discharge modeL
It is to be shown that LEMP measurements can
be described in an improved way by using the
TCS model.
1.
Introduction
t-(YS)
a)
H(t) +idt
t ---+(wJ)
-loA t-------(MS)
li (t)
-40o.gc------;iT;-20
t------+(~s)
E(t)
+dt
(t)
Physical
2.
158
plasma
conducting
b)
Qyb,*$
(1)
Qi :
bi:
111
In the equivalent circuit the current generation at the top of the connecting leader can
be represented by a current source i(h) at an
altitude h traveling from earth to the cloud
with the velocity v (Fig, 2b).
leader
I-
circuit
After the collision of the connecting leader and the downward leader the downward leader is discharged along the lightning channel
to earth. The charge carriers in the volume V
are collected into the top of the lightning
channel where a temporal space-charge density
variation dQ"Ydt is caused in the volume element dV (Fig. 3a). Because the process of
'collecting' these charge carriers remains
limited to a relative small region in the
equivalent circuit one can assume a charge
change dQ/dt occuring in one point. So a current appears which is'caused by the current
source
(2)
idealized
charge
of the downward
leader
equivalent
Electric
I- -
tube
4z
_h(t+dt)
---f
1
Y .dt
NdV,dQ
___A
h(t)
I
t
thermal
ionized
channel
i(z,t
time
electric
top
of
(region
connecting
of
high
field
leader
el. field)
a)
charge
(impact
carrier
(t
t
Physical
seperation
model
G$V
ionisation , photo
Y
i
connecting
leader
lightning
channel
(thermal
ionisation)
b) Electric
a ) Physical
equivalent
Circuit
model
Fig. 3:
+dt)
+dt)
159
29
F2
The
2.3
infinitesimal
vertical
Summary
The discharge processes during the Connecting leader and the return stroke period can
be represented by the same equivalent circuit
of a current source traveling from earth to
cloud. Because there is no difference evident
between these periods in the equivalent circuit the TCS model could also be used if there
wouldn't be a connecting leader period as it
may be in the case of subsequent strokes.
Since the gas discharge processes are similar for positive lightnings the TCS model can
be expanded to all kinds of cloud earth flashes.
3.
time
= t - r/co+ z/co.
(7)
(4a)
with
%
dz 2-3sin20
dEQ(r,B,t)=- -2Trreo r3
&
(3b)
(3c)
dz
dEdi(r,@,t)- -2aso
ai(z,tx)
at
(3d)
(4b)
and
dz sine
dBi(r,6,tJ=--i;;
2
i(z,txl
r
ai(z,tx)
dz sin0
dBdi(r,e,t)=- 2a car
at
(4c)
tx = t - r/co.
3.1
Z-Z-h,
The current and the current derivative (in
point X) is
di (z,tx)
dt
(ga)
dio(tm)
(gb)
The current which flowed during the time internal t-m- tm/z at the altitude z yields the dissipated charge
t
t
X
m
i;i(t,-r)d~ =
(SC)
By integration the field components from equations (3,4) yield
EQ(t)= -
hi
S
3sin2e-2
2TE0
r3
(It,,zio(T)dr)dz,
hX
Ei(t)= 271EO
EX
Edi(
With respect to the time delay of the current in the lightning channel, z/c,,a visitor
in point X sees the current flowing at the
altitude z:
=-Z----.
(5)
(8)
0
i(z,tx) = io(tm)
i!z,T)dt,
dz 2-3sin28
dEi(r,O,t)=- 2aso c r2
i(z,tx)
sin28
c2r
and
%.
3sin20-2
io(tm)dz,
2
cOr
1 sin 6
-co2r
aio(tm)
at
dz
(10)
160
(11)
o
3.2
11
$$lz =
vx
$3.~
x
Total electric and magnetic field
i k"
io(t)= 5 -e,
kn+l
-t/r
(17)
with
(16)
vxdi
.vx*io(tm,h).
3.3
1
' Spew
ai (t
- li;;co (,2+h2) x o m/h)'
x
h
Xsine
io(tm)dz.
Hi(t)=-&;T
r
4.
xsin2e aio(tm)
dz +
Edict)= -!- / 2a~~ o c2r
at
0
(15)
3sin20-2
io(tm)dz,
Ei(t)=
2
cr
t
h,
O2
3sin 8-2 tJm .
1
r3
tm,zloWdr)da;
EQ(t)= 21~~~ ;
and
H(t) = Hdi(t) + Hi(t)
with
1.
n
Hdi(t)=-&
lXSineO
0
OO+
a)
ai (tm)
cOr
at
dz -
8
'----c(rs)
l+(LIs)di,/dt
d2i 0 /dt2
- 161
29
F2
__c_.__---_(
t-*(us)
b)
H (1)
ci(t)
cl
E (t)
(t)
full line
TCS model:
Transmission Line model:
Fig. 6:
dashed line
0
t ----*
c)
(ps)a
i
(1)
rt!
dashed line
(kAJ3'TI\
15
t.
4.2.2 LEMP during the front of the subsequent
stroke current
I\
01
a)
250
-(PI)
560
50
200
0
b)
TCS model:
full line
Transmission Line model:
0
0
E(t)
6
t-&m)
Fig. 7:
(t)
dashed line
b)
(t)
- 162
TCS model
Traveling current
source
From lightning
channel to earth
Current source
traveling with
velocity v from
earth to the cloud
co in opposite direction of v
i(z,t)= i,(t+z/c,)
Indefinite
Equivalent
Circuit
Current flow
--
-.-
.Summary
Elektra 69(198O),S.65-102.
[41
Trapp, N.: Erfahrungsbericht iiber die erste MeRperiode in der BlitzmeBstation auf
dem Peiflenberg. ICLP(1983), The Hague,
S.23-30.
I51
Feuerer, R.: Zeitliche Anderung der Magnetischen Induktion bei negativen Erdblitzen.
Ph.D. Thesis HSBw Mtinchen, 1983.
161 Djebari,B.,*Hamelin,J.;Leteinturier,C.;Fontaine,J.: Comparison between experimental
measurements of the electromagnetic field
emitted by lightning and different theoretical models-influence of the upward velocity of the return stroke.EMC(198l)Zurich,
5.511-516.
II71 Weidman, C.D.; Krider, E-P.: The submicrosecond structure of the electromagnetic
fields radiated by lightning. ICLP(1983)
The Hague, S.65-74.
References
[II Berger, K.: Methoden und Resultate der Blitzforschung auf dem Monte San Salvatore bei
Lugano in den Jahren 1963-1971. Bull.SEV,
63(1972)24,S.l403-1422.
- 163
RADIATION
CHARACTERISTICS,
C. Weidman,
Centre
30
National
J. Hamelin
F3
OF LIGHTNING
and M. Le Boulch
d'Etudes
des Telecommunications
R.P. 40
22301 Lannion Cedex
FRANCE
Measurements
of the radiation
emitted by
naturally
occurring
lightning
discharges
at
four frequencies
in the VHF and UHF bands are
presented
and compared with simultaneous
recordings
of magnetic
(B) fields and photoelecThe RF signals, which are impultric data.
sive and often similar at the different
frequencies
studied,
are complex;
shape parameters
such as amplitude,
pulse width, and interval
time may vary over several orders of magnitude
Large amplitude
B field
during a discharge.
variations
below 1 MHz often accompany
imporand, thus, stepped leaders,
tant RF emissions,
return strokes and certain
intracloud
discharge processes
are shown to radiate strongly at VHF and UHF.
1. INTRODUCTION
Much of what we have learned about lightning is based on measurements
of electric
and
magnetic
fields at frequencies
below a few or
a few tens of megahertz
/l, 2/.
There is renewed interest,
at present,
in lightning
The phyemissions
at VHF and UHF frequencies.
sical processes
responsible
are not well understood, and because these emissions
may occur
during times when there is little or no low
frequency
signal information,
there is much
that we might learn about lightning
discharge
Lightning
RF emissions
are currently
physics.
being used in atmospheric
electricity
research,
for example,
to locate discharge
sources and
follow channel developement
in time within the
cloud and to relate this to thunderstorm
dynamics and structure
/3-11/.
Lightning
RF emissions
are impulsive
and
often have large amplitudes,
and, thus, present
a potential
hazard to any system which is sensitive to transient
fields.
Past measurements,
often made with narrow bandwidth
receivers
which do not resolve the fastest variations,
are often not suitable
for a proper evaluation
of this risk.
With these two objectives
in mind, that is
to better understand
the lightning
discharge
processes
important
at VHF and UHF frequencies
and to better characterize
the lightning
caused
electromagnetic
environment
between a few tens
of megahertz
and a few gigahertz,
the French
National
Telecommunications
Research
Center
(CNET) has developed
instrumentation
and has
been making measurements
at six VHF and UHF
frequencies
for the past several years.
350
kHz bandwidth
receivers
were used and signals
were recorded
in precise time correlation
with
other lower frequency
measurements
so that the
emissions
associated
with different
lightning
processes
could be determined
with microsecond
In this report we would like
time resolution.
to present and discuss examples
of data obtained during the 1983 experiment
at the St. Privat
d'Allier
station in south central
France.
2. EXPERIMENT
Lightning
RF emissions
at 60, 100, 175, 300,
500 and 900 MHz were measured
using six tuned,
vertically
polarized,
dipole antennas mounted
on a 9m metal mast.
Antenna spacing was such
that effects due to mutual coupling
between adjacent antennas
and due to reflections
from the
ground were minimized.
Antennas
were connected
to receivers,
located 10m away in a metal trailer, using semi-rigid
cable.
Receiver characteristics
at each of the six frequencies
are
summarized
in Table 1.
Logarithmic
amplifiers
were used to amplify and detect the intermediate
frequency
signal giving a receiver dynamic
range of about 80 dB.
In addition
to the RF signals,
horizontal
magnetic
fields were measured
using two orthogonally mounted,
wideband
(150 Hz - 20 MHz) antennas /12/, and measurements
of return stroke
luminous emissions
at elevation
angles of l",
5", 10" and 20" were made using four photoelectric detectors
/13/.
Each detector
had an angular resolution
of about l", a risetime
of
less than one microsecond
and a nearly 360"
horizontal
field of view.
Continuous
recordings
of the RF signals,
the
four optical
signals and one component
of the
magnetic
field were made using a 400 kHz bandwidth instrumentation
tape recorder
(FM mode).
Time synchronization
pulses were superimposed
on all channels
at the recorder
input to permit
precise correlation
in time,
Magnetic
fields
were also recorded,
redundantly,
on modified
video tape recorders
/14/ with 3 MHz bandwidth.
The measuring
station was located 3 km away
from and with a direct line of sight view of
the principal
lightning
triggering
station,
A
number of decisions
such as antenna placement
and orientation,
the choice to record only one
component
of the magnetic
field, and amplifier
- 164
337
348
360
350
385
100
175
300
500
900
Time
Scale
3. DATA
3.1 Millisecond
Structures
Fig.
100
200
300
400
508
ms
165
s3
CmV/m
800 ps 1000
600
400
200
b
CmV/m
1 .. -1
0
Fig. 2
200
400
600
800 ps 1000
first return strokes and thus these are apparently cloud-to-ground discharges.
RF signals at 60, 100, 175 and 300 MHz emitted at the "beginning" of discharge (d) in
Fig.1 (point 7) are shown in Figure 3. Note
that the 175 MHz record is inverted with respect to the others. Emissions at 500 MHz were
not reproduced due to a recorder malfunction,
and no simultaneous activity was observed at
900 MHz. Interval times between the RF bursts
at 60 and 175 MHz in Fig. 3 are somewhat larger than in Fig. 2, but, otherwise, the overall
appearance is quite similar.
A fast time resolved view of the magnetic
field and 175 MHz activity at point 2 in Fig. 1
is shown in Figure 4. Here, the magnetic field
impulses have shorter widths and a higher rate
of occurrence than in Figs. 2 and 3. The magnetic field and 175 MHz peaks in Fig. 4 generally coincide in time.
3
0
,3 t
CLI
0.2
z F----mV/m
,,
0.5
0
100MHz
300 MHz
Yt..
1
0.2
0
0
0.2
F3
30
L-L-1
0
Fig. 3
200
400
600
800 ps 1000
0
Fig. 4
200
400
600
800 ps 1000
- 166
3
OPTICAL
SIGNAL
0
0-3
0.2
200
0
3
I
200
0
A
,,
400
600
800 ps 1000
400
600
_1
800 pslOOO
-3
0.2
!
0
Fig.
t!
-_400
600
200
800 ps 1000
mV/m
100MHz
tI.1.1
I
-20
0
Fig.
130
260
390
520 ps 650
RF radiation
and magnetic
(B) fields
produced
by first return strokes.
The
three signals
in (a) show (top to bottom) the light emissions
at a 10" elevation angle, the B field and the 175
MHz emissions
produced
by the event at
point 4 in Fig. 1. The return stroke
RF radiation
and B field in (b) correspond with point 8.
of microseconds
between the
tens to hundreds
first return stroke radiation
field peak and
Because of the
the peak in the RF emissions.
uncertain
time correlation,
we cannot determine
whether a delay exists between peak RF and B
We note that the peaks
fields in Fig. 5(b).
at each of the four frequencies,
though somewhat difficult
to define precisely,
do not
appear to occur simultaneously.
As final examples
of time resolved
data, we
show in Figure 6, the magnetic
fields and 175
MHz signals which occurred
at points 5 and 6 in
A similar event occurred
at point 9
Fig. 1.
and produced the emissions
given in Figure 7.
These examples
are representative
of many of
the isolated
bursts which occur late in a discharge.
The magnetic
field waveforms
in Fig. 6
have amplitudes
comparable
to that of the first
return stroke (point 4) and the impulsions
at
point 3, both of which occurred
earlier
in the
same discharge,
but forms which are distinctly
We are not able to identify the
different.
discharge
processes
in Fig. 6 on the basis of
the magnetic
field signatures.
60 MHz
+
0
0.2
1
1
0
Fig.7
200
400
600
The RF emissions
at 100,
175 MHz which correspond
in Fig. 1.
800 IJs1000
300,
with
60 and
point
4. DISCUSSION
The data in this paper complement
measurements of the RF emissions
produced
by triggered
lightning
discharges,
made in New Mexico during
the summer of 1982 /22/.
Space limitations
do
not permit more than reference
to a detailed
study of those results and of some 1983 data
given in /23/ and /24/.
Here, we have only considered
natural lightning and have also limited our examination
to
discharge
processes
which emit not only at VHF
and UHF, but also produce,
simultaneously,
lower frequency
magnetic
fields.
This latter
choice was made, of course,
because we hoped to
be able to identify
the type of discharge
from
its radiation
field signature,
We have seen
that many kinds of signals are present in a
discharge
and often we have not studied enough
data to notice any general tendencies.
An
167
exception
are the very
first emissions
in
cloud-to-ground
discharges,
which we would now
like to discuss
in more detail.
4.1 The Activitureceding
Discharges
Cloud-to-Ground
A detailed
study of the electric
fields precloud-to-ground
lightning
discharges
has
They divide these
recently
been given bY /*5{i) a ,,pre,iminary
fields Into two sections:
variation"
portion which usually begins 60 to
70 ms before the first return stroke and generally lasts for 0 to 20 ms, and (2) a stepped
leader portion which follows and has a mean
duration
of 27 + I5 ms.
Of particular
interest
is their observation
that a sequence
of regularly spaced, bipolar
impulses often mark the
transition
between the preliminary
variation
They call these
and the stepped leader phase.
large amplitude
fields "characteristic
pulses."
/15/ have observed
similar pulse sequences
preceding first return strokes and give the following mean signal shape parameters:
ceding
mean interval
time
between
impulses
mean
total
full
pulse
sequence
width
duration
mean interval
time
the pulse sequence
and
the first return stroke
130 + 50 rs
41 + 13 /Js
I-
2ms
53 i- 40 ms
30
F3
The
Submicrosecond
Structure
of RF Radiation
.mV/m
L
175 MHz
250
!-=
.~--------__~________---__-________.
1 -b
mV/m
a
J
350
0.2.-
300
Fig.
175 MHz
ps
400
- 168
REFERENCES
Ill
121
J. Hamelin, C. Leteinturier,
Pulses Emitted
L. Nicot, "Electromagnetic
by Lightning," presented at the Intl.
Aerospace
Conf. on Lightning and Static
Electricity, Oxford, England, March, 1982.
l3l
141
ISI
Djebari,
B.,
Obtaining
Taylor, W.L., "A VHF Technique for SpaceTime Mapping of Lightning Discharge Processes," J, Geophys. Res., 83, 3575-3583,
1978.
Warwick, J.W., C.O. Hayenga and J.W.
Brosnahan, "Interferometric Directions of
Lightning Sources at 34 MHz," J. Geophys.
Res., 84, 2457-2468, 1979.
161
/7/
I81
/9/
/lOI
IllI
I121
/13/
I211
Hayenga, C.O., "Characteristics of Lightning VHF Radiation near the time of Return
Strokes," J. Geophys. Res., 89, 1403-1410,
1984.
Le Boulch, M., "Caracterisation et Mecanismes du Rayonnement VHF-UHF des Decharges Orageuses," Thesis, Universite de
Clermont II, Clermont-Ferrand, France,
1984,
/24/
/25/
and /23/
169
31 F4
EQUBW
EXPONDPIAL
BlL%MlDELs EORCDMPARISGNOF
LIGHTNING, NUCLEAR AND KLRCTRDSTATICDIGCRARGK
SRRCIRA
MANUELWWIK
Defence Materiel Administration
ElectronicsDirectorate
s-115 838stockholm
- 170
systems
increasing.
rapidly
*
specialist?will have failed if they Z
interference issues
unable
to
make
understandable and incorporated into system
initial
the
from
acquisition
conceptualizationphase cmward. Performance
requirements cannot be levied after-thefact for systems intended to function in
stressed environments.
In Sweden an EMC working group was famed
about ten years ago in order to help
incorporating EC and NEMP specifications
into systsan acquisition [6]. After a
proposal frcnn the group the Swedish
Electrotechnical Commission has recently
decided to form a working group for nuclear
?ZMPstandardization.
...(l)
the Spe&nm\
In the frequency damin
asymptote is constant and equaltoA/a for
2 Vf. For intermediate
Ocw<atierew=
frequencies a< w< b Ihe spectrum asymptote
decreases as A/w or 20 dB per decade. For
high frequenciesw>b the spectrum asymptote
decreases as A/w2 or 40 dB per decade.
Another waveform which is more like natural
exponential bshaviour of physical processes
is the reciprocal of the sm
of two
exponentialsgiven by:
-I-
Nr
[ME
tr
iA)
(ns)
T-l
d
(I-IS)
133
133
67
33
266
486
10
10
5
10
0,173
0,05
0,2
O,O2
0,05
800
20
70
OS04 127
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
9,8
9,s
4,6
20
20
200
20
20
200
156
156
73
318
318
3183
318
318
3183
L17
60
L16
300
530
530
1200
L600
3200
...(2)
a
(s-l)
AIN
FREQU
=?qX-dB over
(s-l) (A/m) As/m)
b
(MHZ)
4x106
4,76x1: 139
1,38x10? 2,2x10' 174
3,45x106 2,2x10* 73
3,45x10+ 4,4x10g 46
1,38x10' 2,2x108 348
89
98
93
118
92
630
2200
550
5500
2200
76
35
35
70
35
22
1,6
18
0,03
103
3700
70
22
22
0,4
45
40
40
40
50
50
46
46
84
34
34
14
34
32
12
5
5
280
2,4
2,8
2,8
2,8
2,2
2,2
3
5,8
3
1,2
0,56
0,56
0,29
0,22
0,ll
- 171
31
F4
Exoatrrospheric
nuclear W
(W)
For design rannoses the generalized free
field nucl&-I?&
fran an exoatmospheric
burst is often characterizedas a free field
(Z = 377 ohm) plane wave C8l with the
magnetic field function according to plse
nr 1 in Fig. 1.
This is close to a maximum threat. -ever
one nust expect that the field waveform and
direction varies considerably with lurst
location, observation point, type of weapon
and other factors. At the location of max
peak field pulse nr 2 is assmed, near
tangent radius south of the burst pulse nr 3
and near surface zero @se
nr 4. The 50
kV/m peak field of pulse nr 2 is doubled in
nr 5 for conparison purposes. The spectra
are shm
in Fig. 2.
dB (over 1 As/m)
FREQUENCY
-40.
-.
-6O.----
dB
(over 1 As/m)
O---n-qT~, , ,,,1,,,1
.
-20
LEMP
,(,,,
IO4
105
FREQUENCY
IO6
IO7
108
109
f
-100
(HZ.)
,,,,
,,
IAMP!
8 w
-*Ot-----I
103
13
I
-40 t
102
(Hz)
I I I
I
l\il
I\\ \\
\,
\\I\
1 I I I l\Y I 1
5 I I I IN-\1 1
-140t
102
I
I
103
104
IO5
mD*nrlch,r
106
,li \
108
109
I\\ \
I \\ \
IO7
- 172 -
of pulses nr 1, 6, 7, 8 and 13
dB (over 1 As/mb
dB
(over 1 As/m)
0
,(
I I!(,W I I1,1111, ,rp-TTqnm--l-rr,,,r
. LEMP
I
_20_SNEMP
.-.
I
6\
Y\
-40 t LEWd
-1401
FREQUENCY
(Hz)
,-
13
\
8
I+A-f!
I I I I I lyQ$J
102
103
104
IO5
FREQUENCY
106
107
IO8
109
(Hz)
- 173
_ _ - -:
Flrsl ReturnStrokes
-175
IO
105
Frequency
Id
Id
IO
klz)
F4
Daublc
-55 r
Id
31
References
Cl1
c21
c31
[4]
[51
[63
[7]
[8]
C9]
174 -
- 175
32
F5
COMPARISON OF LIGHTNING WITH PUBLIC DOMAIN HEMP WAVEFORMS ON THE SURFACE OF AN AIRCRAFT*
R. L. Gardner and L. Baker
Mission Research Corporation
Albuquerque, New Mexico (USA)
C. E. Baum and D. J. Andersh
Air Force Weapons Laboratory
Kirtland Air Force Base
New Mexico (USA)
INTRODUCTION
High altitude EMP (HEMP) and its concomitant electromagnetic environment potentially
HEMP, a short (-0.1
threaten an aircraft.
vs.) pulse of large amplitude ("50 kV/m)
arrives at aircraft essentially as a plane
wave. Although this pulse generally contains
no oscillations (zero crossings), it's Fourier
transform shows frequency.content over a wide
band, with significant content up to 100 MHz.
For present purposes we use a well-known public domain HEMP waveform.
Lightning, another potential threat, can
interact with an aircraft in two essentially
First, for a nearby strike,
different ways.
the electromagnetic fields generated in and
near the stroke channel impinge on the airSecond, for a direct strike on the
craft.
aircraft, the stroke current actually flows on
the conducting structure of the aircraft. The
first of these effects may be called field
interaction and the second, current injection.
It is reasonable to expect that the
latter may have larger effects than the former
because the strike current path is along the
aircraft.
Because of the increasing concerns about
these two threats, this study assessed the
differences between the electromagnetic environment associated with HEMP and that associated with natural lightning, including the
manner in which they affect aircraft.
The
investigation was based on the environments
suggested by public domain literature for HEMP
and by published data for natural lightning.
These environments are described in Section 2
of this paper.
The comparison of the two
threats was based on the currents and charges
on a simple geometry representative of the
characteristics of an aircraft that were
caused by the two electromagnetic environments. In Section 3 several simple analytical
models are presented to relate the currents
and charges to the environments. These models
are then used to compare the two threats to
aircraft in Section 4.
In Section 5, operational considerations
for the two threats are presented. Lightning
is improbable but damaging to aircraft. Exposure to HEMP is essentially certain for aircraft in war.
Section 6 presents the conclusions of the
study, that below about 1 MHz lightning
ENVIRONMENTS
E(t) =
-tbf
Eo(e
-e
--)
u(t)
(1)
where
E. = 60 kV/m
(saturation field)
- 176
Lightning Environment
In this report, the current, that is the
electromagnetic environment for direct and
nearby strikes, is assumed to be produced in a
return stroke because it typically has the
largest currents and rates of rise. Detailed
descriptions of the sequence of events in a
lightning discharge and relevant definitions
are contained in Uman (Ref. 3) and Golde
(Ref. 4).
To characterize the lightning environment,
which is the lightning current, three figures
of merit are sufficient to specify the double
The
exponential waveform of Equation (1).
three figures of merit considered here are:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Peak Current
Peak rate of rise of the current
Integral of the pulse
Tower measurements
Measurements on aircraft in flight
Radiated field inference of current
Aircraft Measurements.
Electromagnetic measurements made on an
aircraft in flight represent another useful
data base for determining the electromagnetic
Two recent
environment caused by lightning.
sources provide data on the effects of lightning direct strikes on aircraft.
The peak rate of rise measured on the boom
in front of the F-106B (Ref. 7) is particularly interesting since it has the largest
rate of rise of the current. In spite-of the
low (13.9 kA maximum) peak currents, the peak
rate of rise found by taking a graphical derivative of the current records was 1.3~10~1
A/s. Significantly, the maximum value closely
approximate the 1011 A/s maximum rate of
rise seen in the tower measurements.
Currents Inferred from Field Measurements.
Another method of determining the current
in a discharge is to derive the current from
distant field measurements.
The difficulty
with this method is that the current derived
from the fields is not unique and unfolding
the very complicated early time current evolution of lightning is not a trivial task since
no quantitative model exists for the early
part of the return stroke.
Since the recently published research
using this method suggests very fast rates of
rise in return strokes the methods used will
be more closely examined.
Uman, et al. (Ref. 8) derive the relationship between the electric field and the current in the lightning channel under a restrictive set of assumptions. The initiation point
must be at the ground and the current waveform
must propagate up the channel at uniform velocity and without distortion of the waveshape
as it propagates. It is also assumed that the
fields are entirely in the radiation zone.
Correcting the above modeling to account
for the return stroke currents that initiate
from a point about 100 m from the ground
rather than at the ground reduces the current
and derivative values by a factor of two.
For subsequent strokes there is no initiation region as described here.
However, for
subsequent strokes there is a memory of the
location of the channel.
The breakdown wave
is limited in propagation velocity by the velocity of light rather than the velocity of
propagation for return strokes.
Near the
ground, i.e., at early times the appropriate
velocity for the Uman model is that of light.
Corrections for the data reported in reference
9, which shows the distribution of the derived
rates of rise from the fields, brings the data
from the fields into much closer agreement
with the data reported from tower measurements.
During the initial stages of a return
stroke, the return stroke channel radius is
small; consequently the channel is simultaneously
resistive and
inductive
(Ref. 2).
Detailed numerical simulation of the evolution
of the channel indicate that the channel diameter is less than about 2 mm. The impedance of
the channel for high frequency of the initial
- 177
21, About 20 US
After Closure
32
F5
15v1
12
t
2
E
2
I)-
ar
>
.I4J
ld
>
6-
.r
b
0
3-
0.
-20
20
40
60
80
Time (US)
Fig. 2.
Fig. 1.
I(t)
where
kIpk
-(t-t&,
e
+e
(t-t@f
(2)
k is 1.025 and I
= 100 kA
pk
Tr is the rise time constant = 2.5
x 10m7, chosen to give a maxmum
rate of rise lOI1 A/s
at t = t0
= 50 ps is the fall time constant
Tf
to is an offset time
Figure 2 is a plot of the current described by
Equation 2.
Fig, 3 shows the corresponding
frequency spectrum for the waveform described
in Equation 2.
Based on an examination of
available data, there is a severe threat
described by Equation 2 with a maximum rate of
rise of 1011 A/s and a maximum current of
100 kA.
Also an expected threat should be
represented by the same rate of rise but a
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 3.
INTERACTION
- 178
Medium
Slab
Continuity
Ellipsoid
Sassman
T-Line
T-Line
COMPARISON
179
Environment B
32
100 kA Lightning
\/-
Lightning
/HEMP
Fig. 5.
For more complex models, such as transmission line models (see Ref. 2 for details) the
conclusions are the same for both magnetic
field and normal electric fields as shown in
Figs. 6 and 7.
;s;
\.
. .
1..
*.....
. . . .
A.,
. ...
...
-4,.
,
:. .. .
Fig. 4.
<\
,\?.
.
.:..
:..
. .
\\
:.: Y
\
. :
Frequency (MHz)
Transfer function products.
Frequency (Hz)
..*
--.+
F5
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 6.
V. OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
A comparison of HEMP and lightning is not
complete without considering differences in
-I-
::
.r-
. : .,
1L
3.
4.
.,
;;
\\
\1
P :\
,,
:,:
\\
Fig. 7.
5.
6.
Melander, B. G., "Effects of Tower Characteristics on Lightning Arc Measurements," in International Aerospace and
Ground Conference on Lightning and Static
tlectrlclty, June 26-28, 1984 , 0 rlando,
Florida.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Frequency (Hz)
Comparison of the surface charge
density for HEMP and lightning.
VI.
CONCLUSIONS
2.
A\\
: : \
: : :
10-l
:
.
.:.
__---_.
.
_--.a!
-<
, *
2
2
180
181
33~6
1.
Introduction
The objective of this paper is
not to discuss final requirements
concerning NEMP-hardening and
lightning protection for aircraft
equipment (only first drafts are
available) but to point out the
differences between these requirements. A simple aircraft
coupling model is used to demonstrate the interaction with the
NEMP- and lightning enviroment.
The calculations present an imagination about the interference
signals which might be expected
and allow a comparison of the
different types of threat. Only
cable induced signals are taken
into consideration here. The
result is that important signals
might be induced and that generally ligthning represents the
higher threat. It will almost include NEMP hardening from the
technical point of view if threat
cases with lower probability are
considered, too. The relation between ligthning and NEMP-requirements will become more adverse if
modern a/c materials like Carbon
Fiber Composite are used.
2.
Threat to be considered
2.1 NEMP
The usual NEMP is taken into consideration with an amplitude of
50 KV/m, a rise of about 5 ns
(10% - 90%) and a pulse widts of
about 600 ns (10% - 10%). It can
be expressed by the formula:
E(t)=
52.6.,03&*106t
_,-wwo*t ) ,,,,
2.2 Ligthninq
Two types of lightning strokes
should be considered which differ
in function of time, in amplitude, in area of interaction with
the a/c and in probability of
threat. It is the initial stroke
and the return stroke.
A) Initial stroke:
It enters generally the a/c in
zone I A and leaves in zone
I B. (fig. 2).
182
3.
THREAT
AIRCRAFT
183
33~6
LEMP
4.2
5.
- 184 -
4.
-140
102
10
ld
105
106
10'
f/HI
108
IIf
NEM
q
LEMP
4.1 Currents -p
on the structure -_
outside
In the case of a NEMP the pulse
has a very short rise time. Current densities will appear on the
structure outside which correspond to a resonant current of
about 2000A. This can be calculated by using approximation
methods or formulas of the antenna theory. The resonant frequency
will be about 9 MHz in the case
of the cylindre, the signal will
decrease with a Q of about 4,5.
For a real aircraft structure
resonant frequencies up to 5
times higher might be of interest. In the case of the initial
lightning stroke entering and
leaving the aircraft in zone I a
current pulse of 200 KA will flow
along the structure. Although the
pulse is slow compared with the
NEMP it might also cause resonant
effects. A maximum current of
about 300A may appear. It can be
calculated with approximation
methods on the base of fig. 3.
In the case of the return stroke
and the streamer calculations are
more difficult. Similar results
should be expected. The data ob-
-I
I
185
33~6
6.
Influence
materials-
of new aircraft
- 187
34F7
P. Kronauer
BBC, Mannheim
F. Pigler
Siemens, Erlangen
This paper describes the usual procedure in Germany for predicting the expected lightning-induced interference vOltages,
based
on simulation measurements
in existing installations.
2.
1.
Simulation measurements
strikes. Nuclear power plants, for example, are such installations, The evidence must be presented with such methods that it can be easily reconstructed and accepted by the experts.
the striking point, for the first measurements. This system extends for a
sufficient distance over the area to
be examined, so that the current distribution in the structures and earthing system approximates that of a
real lightning strike (Fig. I).
- 188
only if the installation of the external earthing system and of the internal potential equalization system has
been completed, and practically all
the cables have been laid. At this
stage, however, commissioning of the
power plant is already fully in progress and, as a result of operational
currents and of switching operations,,
a considerable level of interference
exists, Simulation of lightning strike
200m
Fig. 1
148m b
Positive lightning
(in buildings over
IOOm high)
Peak current
kA
Max.rate-of-rise
of current
Rise time
di/dt
kA/ys
15
ps
50
ps
500
i
di/dt
kA
100
kA/ps
100
*I
T2
i
di/dt
ps
ps
5
200
kA
50
200
Decay half-time
Negative first
Peak current
lightning
Max.rate-fo-rise
of current
Rise time
Decay half-time
Negative secondary
lightning
Peak current
Max.rate-of-rise
of current
Rise time
Decay half-time
T1
T2
T1
T2
kA/ps
cls
ps
500
0,25
150
Table 1 Proposed lightning parameters to be used when designing lightning protection for nuclear power stations.
189
34F7
pert.
nuclear power plants led to the conclusion that even with all eXter%al
influences, the intact emergency feed
water system maintains the reactor in
a safe condition. Discussions with the
For this reason, we have recently examined only this connecting duct with
the connected structures for the measurements, and arranged the injection
190
sitUat.ed.
Fig. 3
Where UK
IK
uM
+
143kA
ing simulation,
is
the current flowing via
'Sim
the duct during simulation.
3.
hh=O.Bps
Fig. 4
implies not
In this context, flsimilarll
only the topographic arrangement of
the structures, but the similarity in
the construction of the buildings in
regard to lightning conductors, similarity of the ducts in regard to the
connection of lightning current-carrying conductors over the length of the
duct and over the isolating gaps, as
well as similarity of the duct connections to the lightning conductors of
the structures. We have established
such a similarity by means of detailed
specifications for erecting the structures (Fig. 5).
191
34F7
Fig. 5
uK
lK
'MxlSimXrG
LK
ducts which are both shorter and longer than 30 m the voltage will be
lower than that given by the calculation, which complies with the requirement for evidence of safety in
plants.
power
192
SO
that this
also.
enCOUn-
= ts
x:&-!?-$
the conversion of the simulation measurement to apply it to a planned installation, a safety factor will be
specified in view of the high safety
requirements for nuclear power plants.
The permissible electrical stress of
the electronic components must be above the voltage stress thus determined
by the amount of this safety factor.
We therefore believe we can state with
certainty that the effects of lightning on the safety systems of nuclear
power plants can be ruled out in the
future, just as in the past,
References
/I/
/2/
IMPULSE
CURRENT
193
AND VOLTAGE
PROPAGATION
TELECOMMUNICATION
H.
Friedrich
List
Schuppler
University
GDR -
1.
Impulse
, D.
of
8010
Introduction
currents
impressed,
for
upon buriod
telecommunicain case
of lightning
tion
cables
discharges
to ground
must be dotermined
with
regard
to the propagation
characteristics
of a linear
buried
metallic
conductor.
up to now impulse
current
propagation
wae determined
by means of the system
response
to a unit
step
[Z].
By application
of the convolution
theorem
or
the Duhamel
integral
the determination
of propagation
conditions
leads
to an
extensive
numerical
integration
on the
basis
of power
series
expansion.
The system
response
to a current,
impact
having
a waveform
of 5/65~s
only
is available
in tabular
form in
the CCITT Manuel
on protection
against
[4 . In order
to
lightning
discharges
1,y lightning
predict
effects
caused
currents
flowing
along
cable
sheaths
the voltage
occuring
between
cable
and the cable
sheath
must be
pairs
calculated.
The usucl
method
of calculation
to do so uses
the sheath
current
as input
parameter.
Therefore,
the difficulties
concerning
the calculation
of the sheath
current
as
mentioned
above
are
encountered
in
calculating,
the pair-to-sheath
voltage,
the dopence
of which
on the distance
from
the lightning
current
intake
location
is of particular
interest.
Gcncrally
two different
caees
are
to
be considered
:
- no breakdown
occured
between
cable
pairs
and cable
sheath
- there
is a breakdown
between
cable
pairs
and cable
sheath
at the
point
of lightning
current
impact.
As rcportod
earlier
[I]
the lightning
current
striking
a cable
sheath
can be
described
approximately
by menns of
exponential
functions.
In moet of the
practical
cases
it
can be given
in a
double
exponential
expression.
In order
to develop
a comprehensive
instanC@,
35~8
IN
UNDERGROUND
CABLES
H.
Ristau,
Transport
Lorke
and
Communications
Dresden
method
of calculation
for
the sheath
current
and the pair-to-sheath
voltage
the impulse
response
of Sunde
[Z] has
been
transformed
into
the Laplace
By application
of the
tabuladomein.
ted complex Batoman function
of the
= w(x+jy)
complex error
function
w(z)
and by observing
the Cauchy/Riemann
differential
equations,
length
and
time dependent
solutions
could be
obtained
as shown as follows.
2.
2.1.
the propagation
Calculatin
of impu !! se current
Current
of time
and
and
voltage
location
as
functions
As shown already
formerly
[ 1 a
impulsive
current
can be descri IYed by
a series
of exponential
functions.
In most of the really
occuring
cases
(on condition
that Th/ T, > 2.65)
it
ie sufficient
to suppose
a double
exponential
expression.
So, as you
know,
we can describe
the lightning
current
i(t)
= I(
ewa- es)
This
function
has got the advantage
of
being easy transformed,
what is
important
for the calculation
of the
pulsed
current
propagation
along a
buried
cable.
For the step response
of a linear
buried
core being known [ 21 , a
solution
should
Duhamel
out
to
of the problem
of propagation
be formed
by means of the
integral.
However,
this
turned
be practically
impossible.
For this
reason
the pulse
propagation
has been calculated
by means of the
Laplaca
transformation.
The method of
;;13;;;ation
function
i_(t)
is as
:
- CaLculation
of the impulse
response
P(s,t)
by the step response
E(s,t)
bY
194
(a)
P(s,tl
-
= Erfc(
ConvoLution
and exitation
of
P(s,t)
- Laplacs
convolution
L(P(s,
(2)
T$E(s,t)
E(s,t)
-
results
(4)
of
(b)
In the case
occuring
at
intake
the
JL {i(t){
(5)
= IR&$
u(s,t)
of no broakdown
the point
of current
-R,C,jl
Determination
of the response
function
by retransformation
= I--- {F(p)}
(6)
By applying
this
method of calculation
to a current
flow according
to
equation
(l),
we get for the current
at any point
of the cable
sheath
i(s,t)
Le
in
=
--
~a[~bhX
,&I
- ~&,&=dj
(7)
which
f3li
series
cable
PII
resistance
circuit
Cl
capacity
circuit
permeability
earth
resistance.
9 - specific
Correspondingly
we can compute the
voltages
between
cable
conductors
and
cable
sheath
[S] :
resistancs
sheath
of
of
of
the
the
tha
sheath-wire
sheath-wire
and
which
(8)
(10)
response
* i (tl
transformation
function
i (s,t)
in
*
(3)
impulse
function
at
accor-
svc)
t 14 it)]
= L(P(s$l)
= F(p)
2.2.
sm
(32)
Change of waveform
Observing
a lightning
current
of
the waveform
5/65 US , as it is dona
by the authors
of the CCITT handbook
on Protection
against
lightning
discharges
[ 41
results
in current
paths
inside
the cable
sheath
demonatrared
In fig.
I.
Figures
2 and 3 demonstrate
the paths
of the voltagea
between
sheath
and
cable wires.
The change of the waveform
results
in a variation
of the frequency
spectrum,
Figures
4 to 6 illustrate
the translation
to lower
frequencies.
195
35
F8
1.0J
s=Om
0.8
0.Ej-
P++=
1 l?/km
~=I000R m
too
i-3
80
6C
0.4
,-
4c
).
0.;
2(
1
Fig.
t
A&
I
Fig.
: Current
inside
the cable
sheath
at a waveform of the
generating
lightning
current
of 5/65 rs
RH=1 R/km
L--l
s=Om
between sheath
and
: Voltage
wire at a waveform of the
generating
lightning
current
of 5 65 pus, in the case of
breacdown
at the point
of
f
the lightning
stroke
: Frequency
spectra
of a waveform 5/65 rs lightning
current and the cable
sheath
current
generated
by it at
distances
of 100 and 1000 m
:.o
lmax
0.6
0.4
Fig.
between
sheath
and
: Voltage
wire at a waveform of the
generating
lightning
current
of 5/65 E/S, without
any
breakdown
at the point
of
the lightning
stroke
Fiq.
196
2.3.
GE
Waveforms
recommended
by CCITT
For testing
telecommunication
equipment
to be connected
to cables
CCITT
recommends
to epply
impulse
voltages
of a waveform
lo/700
p s [5] .
At figure
2 we can see half-peak
times
of a few 100 ps occuring
along
cables
hundreds
of metres
away from
the point
of the lightning
stroke.
The longer
half-peak
times
at larger
distances
are
connected
to much smaller
amplitudes.
The decrease
of the amplitudes
is demonstrated
at figure
7.
0.11-
300,
I0
k.m
-wave form
0.8
5165pS
VlkL!
2.
0.1
200
i
16
Fig.
: Frequency
spectra
of the
voltages
between
sheath
and
by s wavewires
, generated
form 5/65
ys lightning
curwithout
any breakdown
rent,
at rho point
of the lightning
stroke
100
brcclkdown
without
breakdown
Ic
Fig.
250
560
10b0rll
s_
750
: Amplitude
of the voltage
appearing
in connection
with
the lightning
current
between
wires
and sheath
in relation
to the distance
from
the
lightning
stroke
(waveform
of the lightning
current
5/65
/us)
Figure
3 illustrates
the impulse
voltage
between
wires
end sheath
having
rise
times
of a few 10 ,us in the near
of the point
of the lightning
stroke.
By application
of the method
for
calculating
the propagation
of impulse
voltages
on cables
described
in [l] ,
the analysis
demonstrated
in
paper clearly
shows that
the
for testing
impulse
voltages
supposed b
the recommendation
the CCITT Y 51 has been fixed
it
imitates
divices
Fig.
: Frequency
spectra
of the
voltages
between
sheath
and
generated
by a wavewires,
form 5/65 ys
lightning
cur-
rent,
in
down at
lighrning
the
case
rho point
stroke
of
break-
of
the
realistic
connected
conditions
to
cables.
this
waveform
10/700 t~s
I<17 of
well,
for
for
3.
Critical
of the
197
35
T,
appreciation
results
The illustrated
above
results
are
based
upon the assumption
the lightning
current
having
a waveform
of
the method
of calcu5/65
p s . However,
letion
used
and the computer
programs
applied
for determining
the volues
of
the diagrams
permit
on the other
hand
any other
waveform
to take
as a basis
which
may bo outlined
by a double
exponential
expression
(cf.
equation
(1)
). As a matter
of principle,
the
method
of calculation
is applicable
to
any wavef 0 rm .
There
is some reason
to give
a hint
60 [6]
which
at the IEC - Publication
defines
the waveform
by giving
parameters
on the virtual
front
time
and
the virtual
time
to half
value.
For practical
calculations,
the CCITT
Manual
on protection
against
lightning
discharges
[4]
defines
the waveform
stating
the parameters
true
front
time
and the
true
time
to half
value.
In this
contribution
the point
of view
of the CCITT
Manual
was applied.
That
is the
reason
why the waveform
of
5/65
/JS usod in this
papor
slightly
deviates
from a waveform
of 5/65
ps
of
the lightning
current
according
to
IEC.
Figure
8 illustrates
the
difference
which,
however,
turns
out
consideto be insignificant
to our
ration.
virtual
front
Tz
virtual
time
T,
true
front
T/-,
true
time
4.
Computer
BLITZ
3
Calculation
current
value
available
(Lightning
of the
3)
lightning
References
Beyer,D.;
Lorke,
H.;
Schfppler,
H.:
Calculation
of lightning
effects
on communication
cables.
5th Wroclaw
Symposium
on EMC, 1980
in
Toronto,
Beyer,
D.;
Gotre,
S.;
Schtippler,H.:
Blitzstromausbreitung
und resultierende
StoBspannungen
auf
unterirdisch
gelegten
Fernmeldekabeln.
Fernmeldetechnik
22(1982)5
[41
CCITT
:
Protection
of telecommunication
lines
and equipment
against
lightning
discharges.
Geneva,
1974
151
CCITT
:
Yellow
Book,
Vol.
IX,
against
interference,
dation
of the I< series.
Geneva,
1981
: Defination
programs
E. D.:
Earth
conduction
effects
transmission
systems.
Norstrand
camp.
New York,
London,
1949
half
BLITZ
4
(Lightning
4)
Calculation
of the wires-to-sheath
voltage
at the point
of the
lightning
stroke
t
i
Fig.
to
BLITZ
2
(Lightning
2)
Calculation
of the wires-to-sheath
impulse
voltage
under
the
condition
of a breakdown
at the
point
of the lightning
stroke
0.Y
TM
value
time
[21 Sunde,
half
BLITZ
2
(Lightning
1)
Calculation
of the sheath
impulse
current
and the wire-to-sheath
impulse
voltage
without
breakdown
;;,;k;
point
of the lightning
[il
0.5
time
to
By application
of an algorithm
for
calculating
the complex
error
function
by Gautschi
are
found
out
the
following
computer
programs
by means
of which
we obtained
the values
of
before:
the diagrams
* 5.
F8
[61
1%
Publication
60-2
High
voltage
test
techniques,
2: Test
procedures.
Geneva,
1978
[71
Gautschi,
W, :
Algorithmus
363
functions.
CACM 12( 1969)
of
time
used
for
impulse
current
the parameter
describing
an
Protection
Recommen-
complex
Part
error
199
36
Gl
Q. Chen
R.C. Husng
B.C. Pan
China Aviation Research Institute for Standardization
Beijing, China
quanti-
0.
tative thresholdlevel, because differences exist betueen the individualsof living things.
thesedata,this
paper specifies the lower limit of PD, and presents acceptable safety threshold,in which a
safety factor of 20 dB is considered.
PD-LDw experimentand test results
Block diagram of the test set-up
fl8
Data of test
Test frequency2pulse wave (PW) 3 CHz, oontinuous wave (CW) 2480 MHz
Test waveform: pulse wave (TElO)
pulse width
z = 1.6,~s
cycling period T = 2500,~s
peak power output 300 KW
Test sample: For PW, 250 rats of whioh one
half is male, one half famsle.
weight: 20&3Og;
For CW, 96 rata, taking double
standard error (0.3OC) in anal
temperatures of 30
sound and
Test results
The test results are shown in table 1.
DRtA sheet
Tab10
1
PoYer
NlTbfJr
nu/cn2
---
Hve
PD-uJw
test
Acoumulated
number
I---
density
of
dea
176
27
2117
20
13.1
Experimentation
Test frequency and wave form: same as those
for PD-LD~o test
Test sample: 84 sound rats. The male and
famale one half each. weight: lx)-3oOg
First were the average ana.3.temperatureof
rats under normal condition taken and double
standard error computed:
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.5
total
7.5
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
tokl
where
50
0.00 0.04ca
5.5
16.67 O.OQTI,
6.0
46.67 0.0166
6.5
88.24 0.0062
7.0
IOO.ca o.cab,
total
0.0705
3.0
4.34 O.M118
3.25
27.78 0.0112
3.75
61.11 0.0132
4.0
85.71 0.0058
4.5
c0.w
tutal
6 *o o ',2
3 -5 o *og
o.wOO
0.0319
24.1 0.17
5.9 0.09
T -
Test results
No appreciablechange in behavior of the
animals was found,noneof them died throughout
the test.Theirweight, blood picture (leucocytes, thrombocytes)did not change.A few ofthem
had light blood statis in lung and intestine.
Test data are shown in table 3.
Tsblc
Data ohect of
PD-ED5ott?nt
s
I:D5()
POWW
density
Exposure
time
Mean value of
weight drop
DeCrelLSillg
rate of weight
aYJe.?
(Inin)
(9)
(R/m)
17.'
22
6.2
0.28
1.8
0.40
0.30--I
173.7
120."
4.5
7
2.1
(min)
3.9
0.10
8.0
0.11
10.3
0.14
(1.
5
15.2
0.14
0.05
20.1
0.14
PU
0.0?5
CW
(min)
14
1.4
---_
9.2
20.1
_--
O.Oq
0.10
-I
Approximateregressionequation of PD.-LD%
Assumption
a. When PD is small enough and a specified
value, animal and personnel will be safe
under radiation of a long period.
b. Only the effects of electromagneticenergy and exposure time shall be consid
ered without regard to other factors.
c. The safety threshold for the animal and
personnel shall be proximately the same,
comform to the L.O. Hoeft model theory
when they are radiated for a long time.
201
36
Return formula 2 to 1:
B=blge
A=lga
a=IOA=l2.34418793
*=
Assuming that:
10.416
1.12.34418 eX
.. 6
Y=lgy
Therefore:
Y=Lga+bI.g
X
Assuming that:
A=lga
B=blge
Therefore
y=AtBX
Where
B=
10.41633733
ii:
y=ae
x= -+
Gl
$(X;-X)(yi-y)
gxi- X,
=0.20164
... 2
2s=O.403295
... 3
A=f?-_Bx
The formula 2 is linear regressionequation.
The parametersin formula 3,4 are given in
tabI. 4,
y=aebX
(a>C)
where
Y_- Power density, in mW/cm2
x-- exposure time, kn min
Assumfng that
x=x
Y=lgy
therefore yd.gatblgeX=AtBX
where
A=lga
B=blge
With the formula 8 solved
... 7
... 8
... 5
f(Xi-Z,(Yi-7)
;='N
&(X-R)
= -22.3490628
= - 0.140471796
159.1
A= Y-BX = 1.63480769
a= 1OA = 43.1328042
b=B
= -0.323448264
Ige
_-.
__
=- 0153284566
0.027629/50
=0.?22/77673
When the confidencelevel o( = 0.05
y=aebx=43.1328042e~0.323448264X ... 9
The formula 9 describes approximately the
functional correlationof PD-ED50.
Linear correlationcheck:
I-critical=0.878
Y>'Tcritical
Formula 5 is meaningful,Y and X are linear
correlatedwith a reliabilityof 95%
y=
+(xi-R.KY-P)
J$tXi-%$
&(Yi-yY
x -22.3490628 = - 0.979835
22.8090
202 -
level
when confidence
Ycritical
D<= 0.05
= 0.878
IYl B r critical
Therefore formula 8 is lfnear
Estimation of interval:
= +
correlative,
=: 0.12288
ZS= 0.24576
The regressive straight line
in interval
with reI.iabiI.ity of 95.6%
Upper limit
yw=A+BX+2S=1.88056769+0.140471796X
Lower limit
y=A+Bx-2S=1.38904769+0.140471796x
The regressive straight line in interval
with reliability
of 68.3%:
Upper limit
y=A+BX+%=1.757~769+0.140471796x
Lower limit
y=A+BX-S=1.51192769t0.14047179611
DiSCUSSiOn
1. Prom formula 6 and Pig. 6.1 we know that
a, when x-+00 . Coefficent
a characterizes
Y
the minimumthreshold of LD * 8 PD. According
to the safety exposure mode;io developed by L.D.
Hoeft,the safety threshold for animal and that
for personnel are about the 8ame, provided the
exposure time lasts Long enough. Therefore the
value of a i8 the approximate safety thre8hoI.d
for personnel.
Fig. 6.1
2. In consideration of safety, however, internationally
20 dB 8re added a8 safety aLlouance. With the difference
between animal and
human being and measurement error considered
and a safety allowance of 20 dB inaluded, the
standard threshold level
may be specified as:
awnit
I &
10
That is to Say,
shaIl not be
iation
RM/C&
1.23 (mW/cm2>
3. The characteristic
of PI)-LD
varies
the form of a exponenti& funat 10
on,
When
radiated at level. a and taken 20 dB safety factor into aoount the exposure time must be shorcomputed
tened. the correspending time can be
from formula I (see Mg. 6.1) .
Exposure time including 20 dB safety factor:
in
X &j=s
= 4.52 (min)
i.e. exposure time shall. not exceed 4.52 minutes, when radiated at 1.23 mW/cm2.
4. We can know from PD-LD% test and formula
9 that ED was too long to measure, when PD
i8 less t ? an O.O25mW/cm2. It can be seen that
the safety threshold of radiating power density
shall be 0.025 mW/cm2or less,if
the anal temperature was taken a8 dicision
criteria.
5. The results of PD-LD50 and PD-ED0 test8
indicate that LD5 end ED5 for the p se wave
are one time shor ? er than 8 hose for the
J continuous wave with similar poner density. The Hazard of the pulse wave is much severer than
that of continuous wave.
Patholog%e statistical
ena.I-ysis of the
microwave radiation
hazard
General
The large amount of statistic
analyses on
pathological. state of PsrsonneIs who are exposing to microwave
fox a long period are meet
important for
analysing the exisiting
hazard
of microwave on buman body. Such analyses
are
very difficult
and must be done carefully.
The total. study cases are 423, 179 thereof
sre male worker8 in field of pulse wave,having
a working time of 3 years or more.244 are workers in contact with continuous wave, in which
male wrkers account for 60%, having a working
time of 9 years or more. The working frequency
ranges involved in statistic8
are 2-9 GRz and
140-160 MHz, the power density around the working area is under1QO~W/cm2.
The control. group consists of 189 persomels
who are not exposing to microwave but they are
similar to the uorkers above in respect of wcp
king condition,
age and sex. The control group
for the pu.ISe wave consists of 109 cases,
the
control group for the continious wave consists
of 80 cases.
The items of stati.stc8 incIude the nervous
system,
cardiovascular
system, digestive
system, crystrilline
lens,
end hematological
examination, Details are described below:
The history of exposure to mfcrovave and
chief complaints.
Reart, lung, liver,
spleen.
Rest sitting position blood pressures taken
on the left and right arms.
Etlectro-encephalogram
(BEG): In rest
sitting position and eyes being closed, the time
occupied by the frequencies of each
vertexoccipito
bi-lead wave of left side and integrated value of amplitude of each wave were recorded by both of B-lead electro-cerebrograph
and magnetic recorder. The frequency spectrum
of electro-cerebrogxam
was anslyaed by computer,
CIinicaI electro-cardiogram
(ECG);To record
rest-sitting
position IZ-lead electro-cardiogram*
Electra-cardiogram
of high rate:
Record
12Lead cIinicaI,
electro-cardiogram
at high
rate with a magnetic recorder, then play back
at low rate to observe the number of high frequency spike of QRS complex wave on the alectro-card%ogr%Dl.
R-R interval record:Connecting
cardiotachometer to teletype tc record the intervals between heart beats.It was recorded for 3 minutes
each in squating and erect position.
The heart
rate variability
Was tlnalysed by computer.
CryataIIine lens checkt After rapid mydriasis
by 2.5% neophrine, the opacity of crystalline
36~1
- 203 -
The results of
analyses of
path&&$!d.
No
.._Il.
...i .._..
___J L__
Table 11
Tnbl.
oh.
chid
co.pl.int
of
dlesntivo
Incidence
of
Imtic~rlar
opacity
system
Note:
C-1 -
(+) -
(+I -
Table 12
Table 8
EM:
P
of Q "a"e
_---Study
plFQUP
control
W'UP
15.44
I'Y -__
::t"dy
CY -group
'antml
Rmilp
co.05
16.67
15.45
15.81
N.!:
The
changea of
Plat*lstaount
opaoitis1 in lens of
hnqru
UBC count
204
or
of
,
number
spiks
of iIF
Inoidmaa
IIlorum
of
P< 0.05
PCO.M)l
rtrtAg0
NNO
P<O.ool
P< 0.001
tlrart nt*
lf
oount
iato
inonua
hurt
P-z O.M)l
PC 0.05
lolls
PC 0.05
N.S
I
P< 0.01
N.9
N.S
PC 0.01
N.9
Analyses
Table 5,6,
Ueurasthevia
cardiovascular
of
control
exists,
PW group is
In particular
the incidence in
R-15$ higher.
Table 8 indicates that the average integra-
(P~;0.05);
electro-oardiogram
microuave are
control
The
of
spike
the
much greater
numbers of
group
dealing
HF
in
difference
exists
(P-c 0.001).
Statistic
enalysis shows
that there is no significance
differenae
in
clinical
eleatrocardiogram.
Table 10 indicates 3 charaatenistics
which
were obtained by recording R-R interval value
autocorrelation
(in ms) of 370 cases and by
function processing with computer. This table
Table 11 indicates
that incidence
of tt
degree opacity in the study group was much
higher than that of the control
group. There
were 9 cases of t+t degree opacity,rtll
of which
were result of working under microwave for a
long period (over 10 years).
Thble 12 indicates
that the average smount
of bloodplatelet
of the study group was less
than that of the control
group and showed
a significant
difference
(PC 0.001) .The amount
of WBCof study group was slightly
greater than
that of control group. There was no significant
difference
in WBC count between the CWgroup
The statistical
analyses
end control group.
showed no significant
difference.
To sum up, we could make the following
observations t
a. All phy&.ologicaI. parameters, except for
had significant
difindividual
cases,
between study group and control
ference
group. Electromagnetic radiation
exerts
an imperceptible
hazard on the human
being (see table 13).
of al1 the
b. According to the statistics
pathological
parameters the harmfulness
oaused by eI.ectromagnetic effect
on PW
group is more serious than that on CW
group, that is to say, the harmfulness
caused by pulse wave to human body is
more serious than by continuous
wave.
When determining safety
threshold,
as
a approximate engineering
treatment the
pulse wave may be used instead of the
continuous wave.
finding
C. The incidence of pathological
(e.g. the fncidenoe of opacity of lens)
relates directly
to the intensity and exposure time of radiation.
The higher the
microwave intensity
and the longer the
uorking period, the higher the incidence
of pathological.
finding
and the more
serious the degree of pathological. &anges. The hazard of microwave with a ILOU
intensity of radiation is a alight, continuous and gradual. harm to the
human
body*
References
Lo.
Roeft:
Microwave
hetingt a study of
1.
the critical
exposure variables for
man
and experiment& animfds. Aerospace Med
36x621,
1965.
2, H.Reering:
uave
Biological
effects of microradiation N7l-23048, 1971. Il.
3. Dumanskij J.D.
205
37~2
___-__--p
T.S. Tenforde, C.T. Gaffey and M.S. Raybourn
Biology and Medicine Division
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
University of California
Berkeley, California 94720
(1)
Cardiovascular System
206
Pre-exposure
baboon ECG
40 ms
+I 400
Adult rats
(N=24)
9
g
I?
;
II
P*%l
II
% Tc
IIP,
AI?
&
3
6
II
MO
300
I Juvenile
es 200.
8
8
i?
._
E loo8
$
n
OO
At higher
field levels, the total electrical potential
at the T-wave locus in the ECG increases more
rapidly as a function of magnetic field
strength, possibly as a result of the superposition of additional, weaker flow potentials
which cannot be detected at field strengths
below 1.0 T.
Based on the timing of valve
displacements during the cardiac cycle (see
Fiq. 1). the maqneticallv-induced flow ootential associated-with puisatile ejection of
blood into the pulmonary artery may also
contribute to the total ECG signal at the
locus of the T-wave during exposure to very
It is also evident
large magnetic fields.
I
0.5
I
1.0
I
1.5
- 207
4s
37~2
B = 2.0 Tesla
5mV
SC_
&.I..
(3)
- 208
on
three
bio-
209
Retinal response
during light cycle
240
s
2
200
3 160
.g
E 120
(d
Q) 80
2
F
40
control/l.0
Tesla
log
I,
240
+j
200
160
120
80
5
rb
40
0
37~2
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Office of
Health and Environmental Research, Office of
Energy Research, U.S. Department of Energy,
under Contract No. DE-AC03-76SF00098 with the
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.
We also thank
Dr. E. E. Dean of the Southwest Research
Institute, San Antonio, Texas, for his collaboration in the ECG measurements on baboons
exposed to magnetic fields.
References
Tenforde, T.S.: Mechanisms for Bioloqical
Effects of Magnetic Fields. In: Bioiogical Effects and Dosimetry of Non-Ionizing
Radiation: Static and ELF Electromagnetic
Fields, Grandolfo, M., Michaelson, S.M.,
and Rindi, A. (eds.) Plenum, New York, in
press
II21 Kolin, A.: An Alternating Field Induction
Flow Meter of High Sensitivity.
Rev.
Sci. Inst. 16, 109-116 (1945)
c31 Kolin, A.: Improved Apparatus and Technique for Electromagnetic Determination of
Blood Flow. Rev. Sci. Inst. 23, 235-242
(1952)
c41 Beischer, D.E. and Knepton, J.C.: Influence of Stronq Maonetic Fields on the
ElectrocardiogFam -of Squirrel Monkeys
(Saimiri sciureus). Aerospace Med. 35,
939-944 (19641.
c51 Beischer; D.E.: Vectorcardiogram and
Aortic Blood Flow of Squirrel Monkeys
(Saimiri sciureus) in a Strong Superconductive Electromagnet.
In: Biological
Effects of Magnetic Fields, Vol. 2,
Barnothy, M. (ed.) Plenum, New York
(1969)
C61 Togawa, T., Okai, O., and Oshima, M.:
Observation of Blood Flow E.M.F. in
Externally Applied Strong Magnetic Fields
by Surface Electrodes. Med. Biol. Eng.
5. 169-170 (1967)
c71 Gaffey, C.T.,-Tdnforde, T.S., and Dean,
E.E.: Alterations in the Electrocardiogram of Baboons Exposed to DC Magnetic
Fields.
Bioelectromagnetics 1, 209
(1980)
Cl1
10
-log I,
[8]
210
- 211
38~3
Antibiotics adminir;trationin every case and at any price, as well as food doping
with the same stuff , produce more and more
bacteria resistant to antibiotic action.
Oxygen hi(;hpressure, especially combined
with magnetotherapy , proves to reestablish
the bactericidal action of antibiotics.
Introduction
Contemporary traffic causes the growing percentage of accidents, enlarges the
number of everyday injured persons with multiple fractures of long bones, joints and
heavy thorax trauma.
As our hospital in Zemun is close to the main east-west highway, we have had long experience in the worst trauma cases followed
by bones polytrauma and gas gangrene which
is a complex infection caused by anaerobic
bacteria.
Beside other clinical treatments of injured
persons, oxygen high pressure /OHI?/ and magnetotherapy are included.
In ancient times magnet was used to cure headaches ,spasms, nerve disorders, ulcers,
bleeding sicknesses and hydrops. Despite
that magnetic fields and magnet have long
been neglected and even forgotten.
Successfulmagnetostimulationof nerve trunk
and an observation that magnetic field can
reactivate the epileptic focus turned the
investigators' attention to magnetobiology
and biomagnetism. Fundamental proof for cell
action dependence on magnetic field is the
cell spontaneous electrical activity alteration after the magnetic stimulus /1,4/. These alterations are shown in J?ig. 1. It is
evident that the amplitude, as well. as the
frequency of spike activities, depend and
alterate at the moment and after the magnetic pulse stimulus.
The broad variety of different magnetobiological effects has recently been reported
/2,3,5,6,7/.
--
set
Fig. 1: The evidence of magnetic field action on spontaneous electrical cells
activity. The discontinuity on lower
trace- the moment of applying the
magnetic pulse, Two upper tracesspontaneous electrical activity in
adjacent pair of Retzius nerve cells
before and after the stimulus.
Certain anaerobic infections have strong inclination to causing thrombophlebitis and
septic emboli. Today, however, with multiple
surgical therapies, by the aid of OHP and
antibiotics, large injuries may be faced on
parenchymatous organs with more confidence.
On the other hand, magnetostimulation expands the healing possibilities.
But in magnetotherapy special precaution
should be undertaken against possible side
effects caused by high field intensity, as
well as in OHP therapy against oxygen toxicity /2,6/.
Methods
The injured with serious traumas are
urgently exposed to oxygen high pressure.
Besides, magnetostimulation is also applied.
After the danger from anaerobic infection is
over, magnetotherapy is the basic therapy
for fast broken bones union.
From the verybeginning of magnetotherapy developing, in addition to the shape of stimuli signals
and their frequency, our interest
was concentrated to finding out the optimal
angle between the fracture surface and the
magnetic flux density vector.
Some controversy among the statements of
different authors, regarding this angle, can
be found in current literature.
- 212 -
Fig. 2: Rotaking magnetic flux density veotor B/t/ obtained from two pairs
ei o&s
flown through by aLternate
currents phase displaced by 90 eleotriad degrers. After the ohange of
oonneator,polarihy on one of the ooils paire, the vector B,/t/ rotates
clockwise.
Fig. 2 enables the simplest approach to explanation of rotating magnetic field as well
as the rotation of magnetic flux density
vector. The components of-this vector in x
and y axis are B,/t/ and By/t/ generated by
currentsthroughappropriate coil pairs. One
coil pair itself ensures the BX/t/ component
vhich changes the intensity and direction
only in x axis. In y axis, the same changes
occur with By/t/. The time changes of these
two vectors result in their sum vector rotation with constant angle velocity w, where the Br/t/=Br/t/ COB wt and By/t/ equals
Br/t/sin wt.
Instead of alternate currents, direct adjustable eurrents fox each pair of coils enables any desired fix positioning of fi,/t/
vector.
In that way, we obtained flexible stimulators for magnetotherapy. For preparing the
reported results, both monophasic and polyphasic stimulators were used.
During the bone healing by the aid of these magnetostimulators, we observed and confirmed that the magnetic field can reaotivate bactericidal action of antibiotics.
Results
Thanks to frequent use of antibiotics in healing in every case and at any price, aa
Magnetostimulation not only fastens the broken bone union, but also reestablishes the
bactericidal action of antibiotics. One of
the informationways of bacteria being resistant is via DNA. Magnetic action on DNA has
several times been reported.
Nevertheless, many a year will pass by before our being able to offer the exact explanation for the mechanism of this magnetic
field action.
References
/U
/2/
/3/
/4/
/5/
/6/
/7/
Beleslin B. et al.: The effects of Pulsed Magnetic Field on Nerve Cells of Leeches, Period. biologorum E, 33, /X374/
Dekleva N. et al.: Magnetic Field and
Oxygen Interaction in Biological Elaterial, 4th Symposium on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, Zurich, 173-174, /1981/
Dekleva N. et al.: Electrostimulation,
Magnetostimulation or Pressure Stimulation After Long Bones Fractures, DRESDEN SYMI'OSITJM"Bone Healing with Electrical and Electromagnetical Stimulation", Dresden, 4.pages, /1984/
Maji6 V. et al.: Biomagnetism and Artificial Magnetic Stimulation of Living
Structures, XXIX Congress of International Astronautical Federation, IAF '78
Dubrovnik, Pergamon Press, /1978/
Petronijevi6 S. et al.: Magnetotherapy
in Otorhinolaryngology, 13th Int. Conf.
on Fledicaland Biological Engineering,
Hamburg, 12.22, /1982/
Stamenovi8 B. et al.: Magnetic Field
Influence on Biological Material, 3rd
Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Rotterdam, 35-36, /l-979/
Skokljev A. et al.: Magnetostimulators
in Periodontal Diseases Treatment,Third
Mediterranean Conference on Medical and
Biological Engineering, Portoroi /Yugoslavia/, 7.4, /1983/
213
39G4
SUMMARY
Microwave losses in living tissues are
mainly relevant to dielectric relaxation of
charge
electric
polar molecules and to
conduction. Polar water molecules can be more
or less bound to their substrates which
modifies the intensity of the wave absorption
considered.
when various frequencies are
respective
Recent results concerning the
hydration of proteins and ions when they are
physiologic
solution
near
the
in
concentration are presented.
dissipation
in
Microwave
power
macromolecules with polar elements is also
results
experimental
and
considered
concerning the power absorption by synthetic
macromolecular systems submitted to pulsed
factors
are
waves with various filling
concerning
microwave
Data
presented.
absorption by
biopolymers
(D.N.A.,
for
Other
also
indicated.
instance)
are
possibilities of specific interactions with
cell cytoplasmic medium and membrane systems
are finally exposed.
INTRODUCTION
Considerable research effort has been
devoted
to
different
aspects
of
the
electromagnetic field interaction with living
tissues in various stages of organization.
Though a strong consensus among scientists
appears that most interactions are thermal in
nature, it was recognized
that
electro
magnetic induced heating is significantly
different
from
that
caused
by
other
modalities of heating. Several interaction
mechanisms
are
responsible
for
the
specificity
of
microwave
the
thermal
conversion which displays a characteristic
dependence on frequency. Some of them have
been roughly described as GXand fidispersions
resulting of cell membranes
and
as Y
dispersion
due
to
region
water
and
electrolyte contents of living tissues. Even
if a good approach was attained in describing
into
considerations
these
Taking
account, hydration of proteins and ions was
recently studied by DELMOTTE et al. (2) in
our laboratory, when they are together in
until
now,
whereas,
solution
aqueous
hydration studies of proteins or ions were
considered
when
they
are
only
made
separately. The mutual hydration of both
proteins and ions is, of course, a better
approach of the wave absorption by living
tissues with a low water content.
determined
by
the
was
Hydration
measurement at 5 GHz of the decrement 6s' of
permittivity
of
mixed
the
dielectric
solutions.
Two kinds of solutions were compared :
ionic solutions (Na,
K
and
Ca)
with
concentrations comprised between 0 and 200 m
mol/l and mixed ion-protein solutions with
human albumin and lysozyme as proteins.
Having verified the linearity of the
permittivity variation as a function of ion
concentration in both cases of protein free
solutions and mixed
solutions,
precised
experimental measurements of the decrement
SE' as a function of ion concentration were
made for 3 concentration values. Experimental
results are reported in figure 1
Na Cl
K Cl
Ca Cl2
KCl-lyso
Na Cl-lyso
..,.,
.,:
.k
..\
T
0
100
CaClz-Alb
CaClz-lys0
200
lmtlSl/l
214
- 215
Mean power
39
G4
MICROWAVE EFFECTS
ON THE CELL CYTOPLASM
In order to evaluate whether the thermal
action of microwaves at the cellular scale of
living tissues is quite different from that
the
changes
in
heating,
of classical
microviscocity of the cell cytoplasm and in
were
permeability
membrane
the
cell
investigated by DARDALHON et al. (10). In
this study, changes in the microviscosity
the
of
were obtained from measurements
fluorescence depolarization of fluorescein
molecules which were produced by enzymatic
substrate
fluorescent
hydrolysis of non
fluorescein diacetate (FDA) in the cytoplasm.
membrane
such
as
cell
Parameters
permeability, cell viability and change in
FDA hydrolysis were also measured with the
same living model, i.e, Chinese hamster V79
cells.
3ow
2ooow
lZ5/
2500W
100 L
50
ml
150
200
Among various
experimental
results,
these experiments have pointed out
that
modifications of cytoplasm
microviscosity
were absent under conditions of low absorbed
microwave energy
expressed
in
Joule/g.
However under the same conditions a slight
stimulation of the enzymatic hydrolysis of
FDA was observed when cells were submitted to
microwaves. This stimulation appears to have
been proportional to the power density used
and was absent when the cells were treated
with conventional heating.
Moreover, this stimulation does
not
exist in osmotically lysed cells treated by
microwaves which shows that the microwaves
have no stimulating effect ont the hydrolysis
enzyme involved. These findings lead
to
conclude that the stimulating effect is due
to microwave-induced modifications of cell
membranes
resulting
in
different
a
penetration of the fluorescence marker.
- 216
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DISCUSSION
dissipation
in
The microwave power
living tissues cau take place through various
pathways. Most of them have been already
studied but, in this work, we report several
recent experiments which are involved in this
field of interactions.
Hydration process of mixed ion-protein
solutions at the physiological concentration
point out the hydration perturbation
of
proteins by neighbouring ions and the non
additivity of the bound water quantities.
However, if these experiments supply with new
theoretical data in hydration processes, the
resulting dielectric decrement which slightly
decreases
the
interaction
strength
is
probably too small to modify the protein
conformation which could result from the
change in bound water
interaction
with
electromagnetic waves, in particular at r.f.
frequencies.
Concerning the power dissipation
in
macromolecular
systems,
several
recent
experimental data on both helical DNA and
synthetic polymers suggest the interaction is
highly frequency dependent due to dipolar
interactions with the electromagnetic field,
at least when vibrational modes can potentially exist. For the moment, it must be
shown that such resonant absorptions are
actually present in I.ivingmatter as in vitro
experiments to take these
effects
into
account.
Experimental
studies
of
the
cell
cytoplasm of various living cells did not
disclose any specific effects except a slight
stimulation of membrane permeability. This
effect, however, should appear for microwave
power higher than that of the generally used
safety standard near 10 mW/cm2.
(1)
-HASTED J.B.
Aqueous dielectrics
Ed. Chapman and Hall (1973)
(2)
(3)
(4)
PROHOFSKY E.W.
Phys. letter 50A, 329, (1975)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
- 217
40
G5
Fig. 1:
- 218
Table 1
Average SAR in a full-sizeman model irradiated
at 2.1MHz with1000 W.
Location in Model
(1 cm depth)
Average SAR
(W/kg)
Head
Neck
Shoulder
Chest
Wrist
Hip
Ankle
ExperimentalProcedure
Determination of SAR began by the
insertion of an RF-transparenttemperature
probe (Vitekmodel 101) into the model at a
depth of 1 cm for a specified location. The
man model was facing the antenna at a distance
of 1.22 m. Temperature probe output was
monitored for several minutes to determine
whether the temperatureat that location was
stable. If the temperature appeared to be
stable, it was recorded each 60 s for 300 to
600 s to serve as a preirradiationbaseline.
Irradiationcommenced for 300-600 s after the
baseline data had been acquired, and
temperature probe output was recorded every 30
s during irradiation. The slope of the
temperature versus time data was determined by
a linear regression analysis using a hand-held
calculator. SAR was calculatedas the product
of the model material specific heat (3767 J/kg
OC) and the net increase in slope of
temperature during irradiation.
Results
Table 1 gives the average SAR determined
from the first series of experiments using the
outdoor ground plane irradiationsystem. For
locations such as the shoulders,values for the
left side and right side have been pooled.
These data are based on an average of 3
replicationsof each measurment.
4.7
3.9
3.3
2.8
0.97
0.82
3.0
WI
Discussion/Conclusion
151
219
41 G6
G. d'Ambrosio, A. Scaglione
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettronica, Universith di Napoli
Italy
F. De Martino, R. Pennarola
Istituto di Medicina de1 Lavoro, II Facolta di Medicina
Universith di Napoli, Italy
38
36
%
--.
0
20
40
60
>
80
min
Fig. 1: Orbital temperature. Eye directly exposed to 15 GHz 100 mW/cm2 microwave
radiation.
Mean values and standard deviations of the orbital temperatures before and immediately after irradiation, in three groups of experimen
ts, are reported in table 1.
Pi (mW/cm2)
At (min)
100
200
200
60
60
120
(C>
35.6 (.5)
35.2 (.6)
35.3 (.3)
Tfl('C)
38.1 (.3)
38.6 (.8)
38.7 (.4)
Tf2('C)
36.3 (.4)
37.0 (.8)
36.9 (.6)
Ti
For each treatment the average of four measurements (two points on each eye) has been assu
med as the initial temperature; the average of
two measurements (on the same eye) gave the fi
nal temperature. In the first group (6 experi-
220
Before
M.V.
S.E.
After
M.V.
S.E.
aamp.
13.17
~I.17
12.5
ztl. 26
b c.t.(ms)
36.67
Lto. 49
39.0
*to.86
b amp.hV> 102.67
h5.41
137.67
29.57
O.P.
AO.17
3.17
1.83
20.31
- 221
41
G6
References
Conclusions
The reported observations, although to be
confirmed by further experiments, suggest two
major findings:
i) Cataractogenic effectiveness of 15 GHz radiation appear quite similar to that well
known at lower frequencies (2.45 GHz) from
the point of view of both the threshold le
vels and the ophthalmoscopic characters.
ii) At exposure levels under-cataractogenic, a
rather precise estimate of the stress conditions of the eye may be acheived by bio
microscopic techniques applied to the microvessels of the conjunctiva, and by func
tional test
such as electroretinography. -
[3]Carpenter,R.L., Van LJmmersen,C.A.: The action of microwave power on the eye. Jour.
Microw. Power vol. 3, 3-19 (1968).
[4]Cleary,S.F.: Microwave cataractogenesis.
Proc. IEEE vol. 68, 49-55 (1980).
[S]Brown,K.T.: The electroretinograms, its corn
ponents and their origins. Vision Research
vol. 8, 633 (1968).
Work done with financial support of the Mi
nistero della Pubblica Istruzione and of the
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche through
the Istituto di Ricerche per 1'Elettromagne
tismo e i Componenti Elettronici.
WIDEBAND
NEAR
EVALUATION
THE EYES
PRESENT
WITH
SUCH
223
42~7
OF MICROWAVE
SCATTERING
AS SAFETY
INTENSITY
STRUCTURES
SPECTACLES
Abstract
A novel monopole antenna method has
been applied to a full-size, image-plane type
model of a human to determine the microwave
field near the eyes and to evaluate the effect
of scattering structures, such as metal-framed
safety spectacles, on those fields. Investigations conducted in an anechoic chamber yield
angles of incidence, test frequencies and wave
polarisation values that give details of shielding, enhancement and depolarisation effects
due to the scattering structure that appear
not to have been previously studied.
I. Introduction
The measurement of microwave fields in
and around the eyes in models of humans is
of prime interest to those concerned with the
health implications of exposure to microwave
radiation. The principal hazard to the eyes
due to microwave exposure is that of cataract
formation, and the true measure of the hazard that exists is the energy absorbed by the
eye [11. In this study our aim is to measure
the effect of scattering structures, specifically
metal-framed safety spectacles, placed near
the eyes and to determine whether safety margins incorporated in standards for permissible
levels of human exposure [z] are compromised
by such structures.
Significant scattering of incident microwave energy can be expected because the
metal frames include closed loop sections to
support the lenses and also straight sections
extending to the ears. Dimensions suggest
fundamental resonances around 1 GHa although these may be heavily damped by the
close proximity of the head which exhibits
large losses at microwave frequencies.
r-----
_---_-__---
,crcwave
anecbolc chamber
micr~,~a
HP 9045
System
control
HP-IO
HP-tB
cmp"ter
HPO409A
ktmntlc
224
HP 9072A
Olgltal
plotter
AY_.
L
model on plane
270
the Cartesian
and spherical coordinate
system used is at the CentFe
of the circular ground plane
that supports
the made1 and
the field measuring probe.
4H
IF.c----Qp
!A
poldrlzalion
wing
T-h
- vertical polarization
horizontal wing
- vertical polarlratlon
vertical wing
225
A. HH Mode
The response of the field measuring monopole at 5 degree steps in 0 can be plotted
from computer files as shown in Figure 4 for
a frequency of 6000 MHz. Results obtained
with 4 = 0 are presented as negative 8 values, and those for 4 = 180 are presented
as positive 6 values. The total length of the
monopole protruding from the ground plane
is 35.35mm, corresponding to quarter-wave
resonance occuring at a frequency of approximately 2.1 GHz.
The ratio .of monopole
length, L, to monopole diameter, D, is approximately 30.
42 ~7
Consider first the case of negative 8 values. For a frequency of 2000 MHz the maximum in response for case 2, occuring at an
angle of about 6 = -65O, is approximately
5 dB down from that occuring for case 1. We
find that this remains so for frequencies up
to approximately 4000 MHz, where the two
maxima then begin to approach each other
in level, until at 4800 MHz they have in fact
converged. Above this frequency, the two patterns remain very similar in shape, although
there
is __~
however a fairly consistent increase of
__-_ _ __
a few dB in response for case 2 for the range of
negative 0 values. In particular, for frequencies between 4000 MHz and 6000 MHz there
is a consistent increase in radiation levels of
approximately 5 dB for case 2 in the approximate range of orientations -60 5 8 5 -10.
We find that there are dips and peaks occuring for case 2 patterns which are dependent on
the frequency and the orientation, however it
is of more value to look for consistent changes
between the two results rather than isolated
cases of dips and peaks which are much more
difficult to explain.
In the region close to 8 = 0 it is found
that there is a consistent increase in radiation levels with both case 1 and 2 results as
compared to those for the monopole by itself. This is to be expected if one remembers
that we would expect zero response from the
monopole by itself, and any scattering structure introduced near the monopole will increase the component of electric field parallel
to the monopole axis. There is also a consistent increase in the level for case 2 results as
compared to case 1.
Consider now the results for positive 6 values. It is found that there is a fairly consistent
increase of approximately 5 dB in the radiation levels for case 2 as compared to case 1,
except for orientations close to 8 = O. This is
to be expected since for positive 0 values the
phantom causes an obstruction in the path
between the transmitter and the monopole
and so one would expect very little radiation
to reach the monopole. However, introduction of the spectacles, and the subsequent reradiation from them, would increase the fields
around the eyes. Cases exist where there is an
increase of more than 20 dB and this occurs
for orientations where there is a dramatic dip
in level for case 1, and subsequent addition of
the spectacles completely overcomes this dip.
The important result in this study is the
comparison of the radiation patterns obtained
for the phantom with and without spectacles.
Subtraction of the two results will yield the
information required, and this is given in
Figure 5, where the difference between the
two results is plotted against orientation for
frequencies of 2000 MHz to 12000 MHz in
2000 MHz steps. Figure 5 illustrates the
22 16 -
227
42
~7
228
229
43Hl
A. de Jong
Dr. Neher Laboratories PTT
Leidschendam, Netherlands
- 230
231 -
43Hl
- 232
233
44~2
PROBLEM
RADIO INTERFERENCE- THE PROBABILI'I?!
A C D Whitehouse
Department of Trade & Industry
London,England
1.
INTRODUCTION
dB(uV/m) -
(11
dB(uV/Ml -
(21
THEPROBABICITY^OF
INTERFERENCE
is the probabilityof an
event x;
P(X/Y)
is the probability of x,
given y;
(31
234
TW
!ci
INI'ERFERENCE
IN THE FREQUENCY
RANGE150 - 1605 KHz.
(4)
= 2.7 x 1O-3
1
526 - 160
(5)
4.4 Separation
Assume a proposed limit for ISM equipment of
90 dB(uV/m) measured at a distance of 30 m on
a radiation test site. It is necessary to
calculate for an ISM equipment which just
meets this limit the distance at which the
spurious radiation equals the threshold for
interferencelevel of 22 dB(uV/m) (see
equation4 1.
44~2
- 235 -
lO.?r(RNDBj2km3
(9)
&,2
NDB
Over the years many measurementshave been
taken which, for this frequency range, show
that the attenuationcaused by factory walls
can vary between 6 dB and 25 dB. A value of
LO dB is assumed in the calculations.
The propagation factor for free space is
defined as the difference between the field
strength El measured at a distance Rl from
a source and the field strength E2 measured
at a greater distance R2.
and
p(v) <
1.8 x 10 -4
It is assumed that
Eor R < &+
A
E 4 $ for R > Tr
is the wavelength.
=2010glo
x
R, CT+
PF= 60 log
R
+
R\
m 60 lo~$~(&)
dB&
<
dB, R2 <
RI
&
= 90 - 10 - PF dB(uV/m)
(7)
/2 <dl km.
R,
(8)
-7
P(I) < 4.5 x 10
Other factors affecting the probabilityhave
not been taken into account because they are
extremely difEicult to evaluate. Such factors
include the fact that the interferencesignal
combines with the NDB identificationto
produce an audio output thus givjcnga warning
that interferenceis present! the directivity
of the induction heating eguqxnent when
considered as a transmittingantenna, and
shielding afforded by the fuselage of the
aeroplane from the interferingsignal
radiating upwards.
It is stated that[lO] for radionavigationaids
providing the sole guidance to an aircraft
during automatmanding
the statistical
probability 05 harmful interferenceshould be
less than lo- . The ILS is a more critical
system and requires a greater degree of
protection than the NDB. Yet the considerations detailed in this section indicate that
the probability of interferenceby induction
heating equipment-50NDBs will be of the
order of 4.5 x 10
if the assumed limit of
90 dB(uV/m) is applied.
4.6 Interferenceto LF/MF Broadcasts
For LF/MF broadcasting a more pragmatic
approach was taken.
An investigationwas carried out to determine
- 236
&3
!Xi/59
60/69Xl/79W/8990/99
Lf3.d at 30 m dB(uv/m)
Fig. 1 :
44~2
237 -
A2
cl
S/A
Al calibrated
PU
dipole
S/A
A2 monitor whip
SG
A
O-60 dB atten- ILS
uator
S
6 dB splitter ILS RX
DC power unit
spectrum analyser
signal generator
ILS/VOR tone
generator.
ILS/VOR receiver
- 238 -
6.
CONCLUSIONS
I.
8.
REFERENCES
Cl1
c23
c31
CISPR/B
r-41
c51
[61
CISPR/B/WGl (Whitehouse/UK)8,
February 1983.
c71
C81
r.91
Cl01
II111
L121
cl.31
[14]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
239
45
H3
(1)
-co
(3)
3 and axL
are
/.
used as estimators for the mean value and
variance of the random variable x. In order
to have a good estimator, it must be:
a)
unbiased
EC63
=9
(5)
240
where #
is an estimator of @.
b)
efficient
Qlx
2
1 is the Chi-square distribution function
n
where :
- r
c)
consistent
where :
-T
is the
Gamma
function
t = F(X-,uxJ/S
nn= N-l
Pit ( is the Student distribution function
wi& n=N-1 degrees of freedom.
4.
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS
The use of sample values as estimators for
parameters of a random variable has been
discussed previously.However those procedures
result only in point estimates for a parame
ter of interest.8 more meaninful procedure
for estimating parameters of random variables
involves the estimation of an interval,as 02
posed to a single point value,which will i"
elude the parameter being estimated with a
known degree of uncertainty.Such an interval
can be established if the sampling distribu
tion of the estimator in questi n is known
9
Y
based upon
For the case of the2variance d
a sample variance S computed fcom a sample
of size N,a confidence interval can be esta
blished as follows :
where:
r I
%;d\t
The degree of trust associated with the
confidence statement is 4-d
and it is
called "confidence coefficient". Furthermore,
if d 2 is unknown, a confidence interval
can s&l
be established for the mean value
ux based upon the sample values x and S as
/
follows:
241
45
H3
where:
n=N-1
Cm:dl2
The degrke of trust associated with the
and it is
confidence statement is l- d
called "confidence coefficient".
= 2010glo(Lo/L2) , for%iN,f;ji6(13a)
IM
EFF
(12a)
= 2olog10(LO'/L11), for6:6;
IM
SYS
(12b)
IM
= 2010glo(u1/uo),
SYS
for Qx,
(12c)
IM
= 2010glo(U1'/UO'), forCi,$
SYS
(12d)
= 2ologlo(Lo'/L2'),forc+,<6+13b)
IM
EFF
h11.3O
= 2010glo(U2/Uo) , for%,;<(l3c)
IM
EFF
IM
= 2010g10(U2'/Uo'),for~$&.3d)
EFF
0
An interferent situstion occurs when IME& 0.
In this case [~2,U21 and (~2',U2'1 are
the confidence intervals computed with emis
sive equipment switched on.Moreover L. and
U. are the lower and upper limits of the
c&fidence interval for the sample mean
distribution function,while L! and U! are
the lower and upper limits of'the coifidence
interval for the
sample variance.
I
I
I
Fig. 1 A
I
I
CL1 *<
t
Lo)
Fig. 1 B
%'P4*,u;ri+,
I
I'
0) in the
6.
PRACTICAL IMPLEMJXNTATIONOF THE THEORY
The evaluation of this confidence interval
in easily performed for a fixed level signal
whose level and accuracy are shown. This si
gnal may be represented as follows:
where :
K = nominal signal level
AK = maximum deviation
IM
IK-AK;K+AKI
= 201og ";
IM
loSTAT
L'
2
(14)
a(t) = K + AK
242
(15)
S2 = K+AK
S3 = K-hK
Therefore:
STAT
= 201og
10
= 201og 1o
IM
STAT
,6;++$
u2
Ul
, x
U2'
Ul'
t 62,+,2CN2(18d)
ILo,
UO(
10;
4~~1
(17)
2Irl
(18a)
(18~)
(19)
,;
,z
= IM
- IM
IM
EFF
STAT
SYS
E
IM
= 201og
N+I
EFF
10U
N=3
ax
N+I
L
IM
= 201og
EFF
lo+-x
N+I
where:
(18b)
IM
= 201og
10 &?EFF
N+I
4;;
ax
N+I
(20a)
(2Ob)
2
(2Oc)
&+&,
O?N+l
IM
= 201og lo ___,
Cr2N+I
EFF
Uo'
~~N+I';~(20d)
Fig. 2
Example of execution time reduction
(1) not interferent case:* ore
I?+I 3
1
L
and x arc
I U 0rU'
N+I
0
0
2
(2) interferent case: x or flN+I ,( L
L 0rL
0
:,
or L'
0
243
Px
where :
Ctfi;e)
'
(22)
S = standard deviation
n = N-l
1-d = confidence coefficient
d = maximum deviation
The previous considera ions are also valid when
the sample variance Q'
an esti
.x
mator of the true varifn:: assumed
:f120=df a + d; .It follows that :
n
o
45
Fig . 4
(24)
Fig. 3
H3
Fig . 5
244
Fig. 7
Data acquisition program flow-chart
For instance Fig. 8 shows a 32 data words
message transmitted by a remote terminal on
the basis of a predefined command word.
When the program runs on the bus analyzer
during the data bus activity,only the messa
ge corresponding to a set command word and
only a data word into this message,defined by
its message location,are captured. All the
captured data words are placed in the inter
nal bus analyzer RAM memory. At the end of
the capture phase all the samples in the RAM
memory are transferred to a host computer via
RS-232 or IEEE-488 for a statistical analysis,
according to the previous theory.
Fig. 9
Example of memory page:the data words are
stored in the memory by inverting the most
and the less significant bytes.
This test procedure allows to discover all the
interferent situations produced by spurious
pick-up in the area before the encoding section
(external sensors,black boxes or remote termi
nals,interconnecting cables and so on) where
the signals are coded according to the 1553B
protocol and transmitted on the line. When the
interfere:iceeffect is directly related to the
on line signal(for example in case of impulsive
noise due to relays enclosure),this causes a
change on the 1553B signal waveform which results
in a transmission error. Also in this case a sta
tistical analysis of error generation can be per
formed by the bus analyzer by activating several
times the interference source. Fig. 10 emphasizes
a typical data transmission affected by errors
generation.
Fig. 10
Updating of terminals activity with tran
mission errors presence on the data bus.
Fig. 8
Example o~~~~~~~~~~F~s~~P~~:D~
a.
CONCLUSIONS
The test procedure described in the previous
sections may be performed monitoring some pa
rameters of interest one at a time. In many
cases the value v under examination is rela
ted to the other parameters
means of a functional relationship.For example:
is the
(25)
245
dfl?f2
-.
) of the
equipment.
- the interference is due to one or more
parameters
In this
f$N.
case the equipment deos not.
produce further interference effects.
- the interference is due to the parameters
and to the equipment transfer function at
the same time.
Therefore in order to detect the cause of
an interferent situation it is necessary
to show the transfer function of the equip
ment under test and to test, with the emis
sive equipment activated, some or all the
parameters $ . . In many cases these are not
always accesstble for the test or the transfe _
function g ( di) is unknown. Therefore it
is necessary in this case to determine an
analysis technique which allows to discover
the actual interference source . This problem
has not been solved at the present and the
purpose on this section is to emphasize the
need to go back to the effective cause of a
malfunction, so that this will be avoided
easily.
45
-------------
H3
--
REFERENCES
Ill
121
D. Middleton, "Statistical-Physical
Models of Electromagnetic Interference",
IEEE Trans. on EMC, vol. 19, pp. 106-127,
August 1977.
131
I41
I51
_. - - - - --
- - - - - ---
247
46
H4
R. Bersier
Swiss PTf, General Directorate
R 8 D Division
CH-3030 Berne, Switzerland
SUMMARY
The inanunities of 16 TV receivers of recent
design were tested by the "current injection"
method against disturbing AM and FM sources
in the HF and VHF range. From the results
good state of the art immunity levels are
established. The constructional features of
the tested receivers that could influence the
immunity are tabulated for the antenna input,
RF-tuner, IF and mains circuits. From these
findings reconunendations are made to improve
the construction.
1. INTRODUCTION
Recalling the problems concerning the RF immunity of TV receiver installations.
During the last years there has been a monotonously increasing number of complaints concerning the interfered TV reception, due to
the lack of immunity of the TV receivers or
of the installations. These interferences may
be divided into the following two principal
classes a) and b):
a) Interference due to the insufficient
TV receiver immunity in the short waves (SW)
range. The deterioration of the situation is
surely due to the increasing number of transmitters (amateurs and citizen band), that are
operating in residential areas. To this
interference class belongs the problem of the
increased licenced transmitter power and the
substitution of the amplitude modulation (AM)
by the frequency modulation (FM). In order to
clarify the situation, comparative tests were
modulation.
made
with
both
types
of
b) Interference due to the insufficient
immunity of the TV receivers or of the cable
TV distribution systems (CATV) in the reception channels.
It is well known that it is not possible
to reuse in medium or large CATV systems the
same channels that are occupied by local or
powerful regional TV transmitters: Due to the
bad immunity of the TV receivers and the CATV
itself, qhost pictures are created by direct
irradiation of the TV or the house distribution part of the CATV. A similar problem arises for the special TV channels (out of the
TV bands), if the transmitters of various
fixed or mobile services, operating in these
frequency bands, are placed in residential
areas.
24e
(1981-82) and originated from different manufacturers, they are denoted in this paper by
the letters A to P.
The immunity was measured in the following frequency ranges:
a) 15- 30 MHz:range of interference from SW,
b) 68-174 MHz:range betweenTV-bands I and III,
c) 32- 40 MHZ: TV'S intermediate frequency(IF)
d) reception channels: 3 (54-61 ms),
S7 (146-153 MHz), 7 (188-195 MHz) and
12 (222-230 MHz).
In the first three frequency ranges, the
interferences produced by AM were compared to
those produced by FM. For this, the disturbing signal was modulated with approximately
1000 HZ in the following ways:
-by AM, at a depth of 80 % and then
- by FM, at a deviation of 5 kHz.
Note: When applying FM, the interference pattern appears clearly more annoying with a
small frequency deviation than with a large
one.
The E.m.f. of the disturbing source was
measured using an average detector; therefore
its indication corresponds to the rms value
of the carrier and is not affected by the modulation.
For the tests in the frequency ranges a),
b) and c) the unwanted interferences that
could be created at the IF or in the reception
channels by the harmonics of the disturbing
source were prevented by the use of appropriate low pass filters or by the suitable
choice of the reception channels (see notes
in the diagrams).
4.
INSPECTION OF THE
IMMUNITY TEST
TION
OF
T3
Fig.
RESULTS
w : wanted
signal
signal
T2
Gl
Am
F
T2
-1
Interference
RF signal
generator,
1.5-230
MHz.
Broadband power amplifier
(Sh: Shielded
box.)
Low-pass
filter.
Power attenuator,
6-10
dB, 50 fl.
thp
immunity
THE
IMPROVEMENT
r--z-;
Tl
----f-3cq~Gl
Metallic
ground plane
Mains coupling
unit
Rntenna coupling
unit
TV test
pattern
generator
FOR
IMMUNITY
i = interference
pJ-@-P
1:
RECOMMENDATIONS
Fc I
Pl
M
A
P
AND
THEIR
test
of
L-
- I
-_I
Sh
249
46
H4
6. CONCLUSIONS
Table 2 gives typical immunity values for the
best TV receivers existing today. considering
that it is urgent to improve the inununity Of
the actual TV receivers and that it is posSible in the most cases to achieve the values
of table 2 with nearly no additional hardware,
we hope that the manufacturers would follow
our recommendations and these or even higher
immunity values would be achieved.
The immunity values of table 2 are to be
considered, however, as an upper limit, that
would be difficult to exceed significantly
without increasing the price of the TV receivers. Moreover, the improvement of the inununity of the TV receivers in the reception
channels would be illusory, without accompanying it by an improvement of the screening
effectiveness of the CATV systems in the
buildings. In fact, it was demonstrated by
measurements (not reported here) that CATV
installations, using the actually best available components, achieve a RF screening that
is just sufficient for TV receivers complying
with table 2.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author appreciates the encouragement and
support that was given by Mr. Ssentkuti in
writing this paper.
REFERENCES
bl
121
[3J
- 250
Diagrams 1 to 3:
Immunity of 15 TV receivers (PAL, B/G, coax. input) in the frequency ranges 15-30 MHz,
68-174 MHz and 32-40 MHz (IF).
0:
0:
0: Modulation AU
Modulation PM
TV receivers with IF section and tuner in the same box
251
Diagram 4:
Immunity of 16 TV receivers (PAL;B/G,
S7, 7 and 12.
\:
Particularities of the test setup fig. 1 for the tests in the reception channels:
F: omitted
Am: omitted
Wanted signal: 1 mV of antenna input 75 tl
Gl: f interference g f picture carrier + 0.75 MHz
1: Constructional fSaturSS
Table
,wer
SUPPlY
252
Coaxial
antenna
influence
Tuner
input
VHF
ion of
th
crreniny
box
immunity
IF
+ UHF
Bonding
3nStXLlC-
their
section
Corrstruction of
to the
prmt
th
connection
t1a*
I
i!
LL
;c
:i
u)
::
..L -_.
__.
-!L-
.__
..-.
__~__
--
__-
___..~~_
--.
---
2.--_
_.L.
N
0
._.x._.
._-.
-5
._G..
._x.-.-_
-.. -5
---K_I_
__c.
D
H
a,
1 = one
2 = two
b)
Test
sinyle
Table 2: Typical
UHF
and UHF
iranunity values
c) covers
fixed on the prmt
d) pinsthrough circular
holes in the screen
e) printed
circuit
through
a slot in the screen
with
.-_
_ A__ __ .._.~~.
are
measured
by
a"
average
detector.
Wanted Signal: 1 mV/75 6) (measured with a peak detector and 300 kHz bandwidth).
Frequency range
Inmwnity value
E.m.f.1)
1.5 - 30 MB2
68 - 174 MHZ
130 dBuV
120 dBlN
123 dBuV/m
120 dBuV/m
(1.4 V/m)
(I v/m)
InUNnity at the IF
107 dBpV
100 dBuV/m
(0.1
80 dBuV
80 dBuV/m
(IO mV/m)
76 dBuV
76 dBuV/m
(6 mV/m)
76 dBuV
76 dBpV/m
(6 mV/m)
32 -
Bend I
40 MB2
: 47-68 MHz
These E.m.f. should produce not more than a just perceptible interference.
ApproxieUte field Strength (evaluated according to Sec. 2) that would disturb
a complete installation, including cables.
Corresponding
field 2,
V/m)
253
47
H5
2. Probability distributions
in ,er
nroof
-- rndi
--...-_ 0 --..
-- erence
.- -._
duced by individual sourCfZf3
Wpee
254
As it is known, a composition of
binomial laws of probability distributions of random variables also results in a binomial law. Therefore
this law can be used for probability
distributions of the number of interference sources which present different types of equipment.
For practical purposes, a Pois son's law is more convenient. Under
certain conditions a binomial law is
converted into a Poisson's law SO
that both laws practically coincide
in this case. Conditions needed for
such conversion are investigated in
a number of works. In particular, in
work [33 it is shown that for this
conversion to take place it is sufficient that conditions Q-<-0.1sand
fG 0.1 should be met where q is the
number of appliances in the batch;
Q is a volume of the sample; f is a
share of defective articles in a bat-ch of appliances (i.e. of articles
whose interference exceed the specified level). The first condition is
met in an overwhelming majority of
cases.
As to the second condition it
should be noted that a value fa0.2
is accepted in the CISPR. In real
conditions, however, an article is
considered to be "defective" if interference exceed the limit even at
only one of the frequences of the
frequency band for which the interference limits are specified, This
exceeding of the limit occurs, as a
rule, at different frequences for
different types of devices. Therefore
the value of f is much less than 0.2
at certain operating frequencies of
radio receiving devices. Therefore
the second condition is practically
met too, and a Poisson*s law can be
accepted for a probability distribution of the number of sources whose
interference act simultaneously at
the input of a radio receiving deviCt?.
47
255 -
is a
random
variable
in a general
C&Se.
Suppression
of interference of
both groups
is achieved in eleCtTtdCal equipment
by different means.
nal:
is a permissible signal-toP noise ratio;
h is a coefficient which specifies such an increment of
noise at the input of a radio
receiving device, which is
due to radio interference.
For instance, if it is permitted
for radio interference to increase
the noise at the input of a radio
receiving device by 20%, hz0.66.
K-1 when as Rp a permissible signalR
H5
(2)
values of effective voltages
of total interference processes are
determined by summation of squares
of efgective voltages of interference (U .) produced by individual sources.effL
ln order to estimate the values
of II&,it is necessary to determine
the distributions of probabilities
Pi;+}.
is easy to show that in the
case of lognormal probability distribution of values (II,&;
) the propability distributions of values (II&,
also conform to a lognormal law wi2h
parameters
The
(3)
where O(N)
&-the probability of
the fact that interference of exactly N sources
act in the reception zone of a randomly taken
radio receiving device;
is a conventional function of a probability
distribution of values
exaciclyN interference
sources
act in the reception zone of the radio
receiving
device.
ferences,'K interferences
refer to group one and (N-K)
interferences refer to
group two:
256
mi
a conventional function
FN,K is
a probability distributio$
of
of
random variables (UtffK
+ UQffd_,)
when the values of N and K am
fixed;
wheref([&
and (r+l)
are tl;anmla
functions;
are parar!letersof+a
probability distribution.
is aasily found in a
similar way.
In order to estimate the error of
an accepted approximation the values
of IJ,, were calculated, which cosrespond to comparatively high levels of
probabilities, F ~u,&o.o
- 0.95,
that are used fox es! imation of quality of radio communication. To this
effect, by a method of numerical integration on a computer, values were found of
g ability distribution
functio%R6 #Y mormal laws with
equal values of-standard deviations
and with K=2;4;8;16 and of corresponding probability distribution functions which were obtained as a result
of approximation,
The results of calculations showed
that within a wide rank;e of values of
standard deviations of effective interference voltagfes, produced by individual source~,W{U~i~~
6 - 15 dB
and that the maxirrml differences between the values of UQ+ccdo not exceed
1.0-1.5 dB.
In order to determine a probability distribution function F,,it is
,
47H5
- 257 -
cpeq3
when
K=d)
;
p and g are, respectively, the probability of appearance of
interferences of group one
and group two among the total
number of B interferences
which act at the input of a
radio receiving device.
In a particular case, when at the
input of a radio reoeiving device the
interferences of only one group act,
for instance, the interferences radiated by electrical equipment, the
formula is simplified:
5.
where F-'(d)
which is determined by
parameters which are
included in expression
(6);
In order to estimate a possibility
of determination of permissible values
of man-made radio interference from
individual sources let us use a simplified Formula (7) taking into account
condition (1) and a formula for b
which was given above.
when 0 < U2
ej& ka,pd+(N-K)aepg
In Formula (6):
cf
i
.A& - 20 1%
Qyp
"i eff
Kr * 3 i 2 dB
258
6. Discussion of the
results obtained
The results obtained enable to
c alculatc the permissible values
of total man-made radio interference processes and to establish requirements for interference from individual appliances.
References
pectively),
- of the probability level at which
the limits of man-made radio interference are specified.
Taking this into account we shall
obtain fox quasi-peak values of interference:
CISPR/AWG2(Pevnitsky-USSR)2,
April 1978. On the draft CISPR
Report on Study Questions Nos.
54/l, 55 and 77. International
Electxotechnical commission,
International Special Committee
on Radio Interference (CISPR),
20 p.
AJl .KamaKoB
F;:)
?5
'~acnpexeneHm
Bf3pofiTHocTei2 Hanpmemi;
pamonoMex
Ha axoAe npuemmrca nprn owospeMeHHOM J303fie~cT~MM CJfyYaBHorC YMwa
~~~~MTHuX
CMrHeaOB". Tpy~qa
HlilVP
181
4) 19B3r.
:i.E.iiiop
C~wmcwdecwe
MeTow am
JIMSa M KOHTPOJI" ICaWCTBa M HQeEHOCTM.
~OH,PiZ~~O, ~:OCtiB+%?.
259
48
Q.
~6
IN CHINA
Chen
Y.C. Zhu
China AtiationResearchIn&.tute for Standardiaation
Beijing,China
which had
ried out for 4 years to study and analyse the condition of electromagnetic
pollution and interference in China.
interference
In 1970'9,
electromagnetic
ference caused
General
machines
by
various
car-
inter-
radio-fre-
2596 of
coverage area of TV broadcasting of main
ship
departments concerned
and
electric railway
transportation
areas
limits
and
ment
an extent
that
large power
engineers who engage in EMC had increased greatly. A lot of progress had been
made in respect of test and measurement,
standard and specifioation,analysis and
prediction, research and development.
and
260
The MD
COtmmiCatiOn
develooed
measurement instrument in
APD
conjunction
Amplitude
probability destribution
(At?D)measurement
interference is
of
electromagnetic
surement method at
present. It is also
The structure
and
establish
has been
It
be effectively esti-
Compar&tar
I
1 bAefOJnce
Amp
Vo/tayO
AI
IF
Fip i.
blocK d'lagram
APD instru-
interference
mathematical statistics.
digram of AFED
block
on
people to study
model by
LDE
of APD
measuring
instrument
- 261
measurement
measurement can
reach 1285 seconds;
at IF bandwidth of
12oKRz, up to140
seconds for NAD
48
S,Scifications
and Standards
_-_)___~,_,I-,_____-_-~__"_-
BYD
China has completly adopted the measuring instrument specifications prepared by CISPii,All publications No.l-16
of CISPR were translated into Chinese
RF anechonic
general
advanced
standards
ment,
the measurement is
conducted in
standards
inter-
and
world
detail.
For radio-frequency equipment
following:
tl3
Measurement Technique
A number of
on
the conducted radio interference characteristics of marine r?ndairborne instrument3 and radio apparatus, household
and issued,
also im-
ported.
~6
dustry,
electrical
equipment,
radio
in in-
household
and
T.V.
and high-voltage
The TEI'II
cell is already used to measure E!{Cto study radiated interference
system,
power
the documents
and
igniter,
transmission
of II%:,CISPH end
and
some equip-
inter-
"EMC Requirements
for Aircraft
and Test
Equipment"
are
Method
applied.
- 262 -
International Cooqaration
Since the late 70's, China has
EMC Training
already begun to exchage EMC technique
Over the years, a EMC tranining has
with many countries and international
been given to the people who are engaorganizations taking part many times in
ging in design, test,production control
activities
held by CISPE, ISO and IEC.
in various ways. The scope of training
The
chairman
and experts of CISPH and
includes basic theory, guideline8 for
SAE visited China and delivered lecture
engineering design, test method, stanand heldacad ozic discussionwith &he Chinese
dards, specifications and project plan
and control.EI% training has made those
experts. The Chinese experts and engiengineers understand and use EMC technineers are well informed of transactions
ques correctly at each phase of design,
of EMC symposium and exhibition and EMC
production, test and maintenance.
proceedings of IEEE, They are very
Methods of training are
interested in these information.
Et$g;Elish booklists and magazines
As described above, China has imported
several complete sets of EMI/EMC
to givi short terms lectures,
to test, demonstrate and exchange
equipment made by some campanies of the
views on the-spot,
U.S. UK and Westen Gemany etc. OF all
to give instructions in interpretaothers they are H/S carp, HP carp,
tion and application of certain stanE.T.N. COHP, SINGER Corp. The equipment
dard or specification,
to Solve problems of EM1 with EMC
imported include interference field
technique,
strength meter, spectrum analyzer,
to introduce application and popilari.verioua signal sources, detector, data
eation of new EMC technology abroad,
acquisitionand analysis
to hold EMC symposium.
system and
Before and after a new standard is
software pertinent to them. Their operissued,we usually hold meetings to diaation frequency is up to IH GHz. They
cuss some technical problems. At the
have been used in many departments in
meeting, the people who prepared the
China such as aeronautical and shipdra.fts of the standard shall explain
building industries, broadcasting and
and verify some
important problems by
T.V., traffic and tele-communication
necessary demonstration and calculation
etc.
to make persons concerned understand
263
49
I1
OF INDUCTIVELY
COUPLED
LINE
SYSTEMS
H.-J. Haubrich
Vereinigte Elektrizitdtswerke Westfalen AG
Dortmund, Fed. Rep. of Germany
Summary
The electromagnetic compatibility of the
components of power supply systems is a criterion participating more and more in the decisions of network planning and operation. In the
following problem cases of electromagnetic and
electrostatic induction by alternating fields
at power frequency are treated, caused by power lines of the electricity supply system to
lines of the own and of external energy or information transmission systems.
With respect to a possible impairment of technical installations not belonging to the electrical power system, special attention has to
be payed to three-phase overhead lines as a source of electric and magnetic stray fields. They leave the closed electric substations and
meet with practically all other line systems
when crossing wide regions.
The principle of trace bundling followed by
the licensing authorities in Germany forces the
power lines to have long parallel runnings with
a corresponding strong coupling to other lines.
High voltage overhead lines are technically and
economically predestinated for high transport
capacity. Due to their high operating voltages
and currents and extraordinary high short circuit currents they can produce interferences in
quite a wide range.
@mpensator
The view of the acceptance or inadmissibility of these interferences requires the quantification of the physical effects. The analytic
simulation leads to reliable forecasts with respect to system stresses and suitable countermeasures. A universally valid algorithm for the
calculation of interference voltages and currents in networks of optional topology or with
several exposures to power lines is presented
and applied to practical problem cases. In combination with the Monte-Carlo method, one can
optimize the protective earthing of pipe-lines
against dangerous induction voltages.
I
i_______+ Coupling
I
Matrix v-c
264
When several lines of the network V are simultaneously involved in an exposure, current
sources have to be added at the boundary nodes
of all interference sections. The resulting
network equation
Both above mentioned constraints can't be simultaneously be fulfilled within the permitted
mistuning range. There is a demand for additional provisions to guarantee the compatibility
of both voltage levels on the same tower, e.g.
by transposition of the 400-kV-circuits [3].
Point
Electromagnetic induction in
pipe-line networks
Modeling
The mathematical model of a line with uniform exposure to the magnetic field of a power
line is derived from the line element ds in
fig. 4a.
2. under normal operating conditions, the neutral point displacement voltage U, should be
kept as small as possible (e.g. U, < 10 kV
in llO-kV-networks).
_,Fig.3 shows the calculated geometric locus
[2] of the voltage vector U, in an IlO-kV-network when mistuning the arc suppression coils
during normal system operation. U, results from
the capacitive induction by two 400-kV-circuits
installed on the same towers with two circuits
of the IlO-kV-network for a length of lpv=53 km
Resulting from the geometrical unsymmetry of
the phase configuration the 400-kV-circuits transfer a high zero sequence voltage into the
llO-kV-network even if the three-phase inducing system is balanced. The equivalent injected
currents are easily found, when the 6x6-matrix
Cpv of the mutual capacities CPV per unit length is known:
i,,
jw
lpv*
C,;
u,
(2)
265
PV
iEn
= c IPi'ZPVi
(3)
49
coshyv 1v
LI
U
Vl
includes the contribution of the np inducing lines P. When calculating the mutual impedances ZPV between the lines P and V by
the Carsson [S] formulae even oblique exposures
may mostly be handled as equivalent parallel
lines in the distance Jal'a2 (fig. 5).
PV
uniformly ex-
WVasinhYVIV
uv2
Wv'IvPyv
I1
sinhyv 1v
WV'coshYVIV
I
v'
I+%
v2
y,
IPV
(5)
= EpV/(~V.WV)
iwm
lil
middle
gmn.tric
dtrtmc.
lioo
w
Fig.5: Failure F of the e.m.f. induced in a conductor V with earth return if modelling
its oblique exposure to the disturbing
conductor P as paralleliSm(frequency:
50 Hz;conductivity of the earth: 50 R m)
Real example
The efficiency of the described algorithm
shall be demonstrated by the example of an underground pipe-line network whose three branches are exposed to the magnetic induction of a
400-kV-double-circuit line (fig.6).
L*>,\
\
1;=1,2kA=I,b
vv=(O,O22+j 0,047)/km
W,=h3,0
+j 2,4 ) R
: node number;
- 20 --:distance in meter
266 -
CF
CF
L
---_-_---__-_
w
a)
conrtrrlnt
i.
65V
t11
UV 0 65 V
Start
Define
+ PF(u,)
-t
Chance variation of rg -
Calculate
vector r.
starting
OF(r)
1
I
no
Protective earthing is usual and well suited
to damp the dangerous potential rise induced by
the steady state magnetic field. The search for
the most effective earthing points and earthing
resistances may be very complicated since the
low-resistance earthing of the normally well
isolated pipes jeopardizes the efficacy of the
cathodic corrosion protection.
no
OF
= C CFi
+ C PFk
is m; k.s nV
(6)
Solution
CL3
r
267
CF and PF are functions of the earthing resistors Ri, being the control variables of the
optimization process. Fig. 9 marks the main
steps of the iterative Monte-Carlo solution. An
arbitrary chosen starting vector I,=(RI,...Ri,..
.Rm) delivers the reference value OF(r,), that
shall be improved by a following chance variation of all random variables Ri within a given
margin. A sufficiently optimal solution is reached when subsequent iteration steps don't
bring any more remarkable improvement. In numerous applications the convergence was reached
after about 20-n" experiments, bad trials inclosed.
The application on the above shown problem
case yields a 35-R-resistor connected to node
10 as the optimal protecting measure.
49
I1
References
The high efficiency of the described optimization method becomes just obvious in such cases where the induced voltages UV can only be
limited sufficiently by earthing the pipe-lines
at more than one point.
POTENTIALS
BURIED
269
AND CURRENTS
CABLE EXPOSED
50
12
ALONG AN EARTHED
TO ELECTROMAGNETIC
EFFECTS
University
of Poznafi
Poznad,Poland
EQUATIONS
- 270 -
VT(x,_ )
lek(xk)
Fig.
Hence
I(x) = IO(x)+k;l
v(x)= vO(x)
Ii(x) + k$
+ '; v;(x)
k=l
1; (x) (1)
n
z vi
k=l
(x) (2)
I;(x)= - sign(x-xk)+
V:(x)=
ZOIek
2
-YlX-Xkl
-ylx-Xkl
Z + Z K
ek
ck + 'ink
(7)
u(x)=
dI(v)
zS
2v
_m
_y
e
Ix-v I
dv,
(8)
where Z, - internal-surface
impedance
of the cable sheath, yc - propagation
coefficient of circuit involving cable
insulation and cable conductor, and the
current I is given by eqn.(l).
EFFECT OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT
POWER LINE ON THE EARTHED CABLE
IN A
(3)
(4)
\
energisation
(5)
where
v
Z
el
e2
- characteristic
zO
cable,
impedance
of the
- shunt admittance
of the cable,
- earth conductivity,
Y!rQ - Sunde's
functions
[5].
electrode
Fig.2:
- 271
5012
IO(x)= +
-YlXi
[sign(x)(l
? .
11
(1 - e
- sign(x-L)
+ 2
wyx,w
-ylx-LI
)I
-Y[v(x-L),
z12z010
vO(x) =
)+
- e
usI>
(e -ylx-LI
(9)
-Ylxl
I+
-e
2z11
+ g-
{n(vx,us)
z12Zs10
uO(x)=
2Zll(Y2
_ e-Yclx-Ll)._e
+
YZslo
2nr
-R
-
[ g
-Yi)
(e -yc
rYSl-
{Q(YX,YS)
-+(v,X,Y,S)
n[u,(x-I;), Y,SlH,
(10)
Ix'+
-ulxl+
(Y2-Yc2)
[y(x-L
YSI)
R[Y(x-L),
e -ylx-LI]+
-t
-t
(11)
- 272 -
IVI
hV1
13(-j
-0,s
Fis.4:
0,5
Potential
I,0
I,5
distribution
2,O
along earthed
2,s
underground
3,0 h-d
cable
IVI
hV1
300
0.1
1.0
REFERENCES
Gi [ S/km1
10
[ll.
cr=5.10-3S/m
sheath
cr= 10B2S/m
( IUl / mV
90
86
83 1 90
85
79
1 IU'II mV
95
91
841 93
87
79
273
5113
In
order
to
estimate
the
protection
tronsmissio n -
protec4 on
circuit
.----
!
,
L----
I -----J--f*--
i-._._._
A shielded multiconductortransmission
line is considered.The coupling process
between cable sheath currents and conductor
currents as well as the propagation of sheath
and conductor currents are described analytically. Starting from this description a
computer code is developed.
Introduction
There are two applicationsfor the cornputations concerning coupling and propagation
of transient currents on multiconductortransmission lines. The first application is explained by Fig. 1.
The coupling and propagationof incoming
pulses,runningto the input terminals of protection circuits as well as the propagation of
residual pulses at the output terminals of responding circuits, running to the input terminals of the electronic device to be protected, are of special interest. Referring to
Fig. 1 the shape, particularlythe edge steepness, of the pulse@determines the response
(dynamic threshold voltage) of the protection
circuit. Often the electronic device to be
protected and the protection circuit are not
directly interconnectedbut separated by a
line of the length 1 as shown in Fig. 1.
Starting from a definite residual pulseOat
the output terminals of the responding protection circuit the transmissionline constants in connectionwith the line termination
dertermines the total pulse@at the input terminals of the device to be protected.Assuming
the worst case the amplitude of the total pulse
@nay be two times larger than the amplitude of
the pulse@ .
The second application,which is also
typical for many cases in pracitce, is shown
in Fig. 2.
Fig.
1:
I
*
._._or LRMP-induced
and residual pulses@on
transmission lines
Propagation
pulses@
of
NEW-
EMP
termination
input terminals 1
termination
.-.-.
input terminals 2
274
d1
-_=-y
'* u
dz
-
(4)
(5)
d [II
- dz = -[y[
Q]
(6)
d2[El
= [z 1 [y 1 [El
l
(7)
dz2
au
xi= -
ai.
,,a
YiZ= - (GtC
(2)
or in the frequency-dcanain
respectively:
dV
z=-z
'. I
(3)
2
IO0
10 2
lo0 2
5
10' 2
MHz
10'
fFig. 3: Typical curves showing the transfer
wance
of braided shields [2].
co: optical coveraqe
5
(8)
5113
275 -
[g ] [y I [VI
= [VI Cr21
[g-l [gJ[yI[vl
= [r21
(lo)
'(11)
(12)
Yu = au + jfiu
able
al 1
inner
shield)
consist
conductors
This formula shows clearly the two parts belonging to the incidentorreflected wave respectively. Generally it is not easy to cqute
the matched termination for a multiconductor
transmission line, because terminating impedances between all conductors are necessary.
In case of the computationprocedure presented
by means of various matrix operations the
matched termination can be found. Matched
terminationmeans, no reflected waves are
existent, therefore the following equation is
valid:
[v]-*[u(O)]-[r]-*[rs]-*[~
]*[&(O) ]= 0 .
(16)
After various mathematicaloperations the Ymatrix for the matched terminationof a multiconductor transmissionline is obtained:
I&J=
fCnzl
Fig. 5: Transfer impedance (normalized),
- solid curve: braided shield
- dashed curve: equivalent cage
Equation (lo), multiplied with [v], provides
(11):
C3 l-l~[~l~[rl~[~l-l
(17)
Computation results
In this paragraph results - referring to
Fig. 2 - are presented.As already mentioned
above problems and results - referring to Fig.
1 - will be the subject of another publication.
Concerning Fig. 2 a multiconductortransmission line is excited by a spatially short,
pulsed electramagneticfield. In the present
case the computationsdo not start from this
field but from a sheath current Is, which can
arbitrarilybe assumed, as lumped source lo-
- 276 -
a)
termination
termination
600R
p@]g
600R
b)
piq. 6: FQuivalent circuit of multiconductor
transmissionline of infinitesimal
length dz
cated at the line center. The parameters of
the dissipative transmission line investigated
show the following values:
- lengthl=lcom
- 4 inner conductors
- transfer impedance of the sheath,servingas
shielding, according to Fig. 5 curve no. 1
- the puls-shaped sheath current I assumed
has a rise time t =50 ns and a h&f-amplitude pulse duratign tf=5,5 us.
These values are valid for figures 7 and 8.
Referring to Fig. 2 the curves of Fig. 7
show the currents I_
(termination1) and
termination
ICI
ll!flI
l/L_
1.1
85
-.OS
0
tcps1
termination
t bsl
.05
L------
2.1
-.05
6
tIpsI
6
tIpI
t&4
a)
terminations
1 and 2
600R
600R
b)
termination
4
termination
0
Fig. 8
1
4
Fig. 7/%:
10
20
30
t lps1
-.L
D
10
20
30
tIpsI
IC2
conductors.Both ends are terminated with 6coR
symmetricalas shown in Fig. 7a. In Fig. 7b
the incident and in each case two reflected
guided.waves are representedthat means at
both ends two reflectionsare considered.Fig.
7 c shows the total currents at both terminations. Fig. 8 shows the corresponding
currents for the case that the end"l"is terminated with 6cxQ symmetricaland the end/'2"
is short-circuitedaccording to Fig. 8a. In
figures 7 and 8 the currents are normalized on
the amplitude of the primary sheath current
Fiq. 7:
IS
Apart from the transmission line COnstants the pulse shapes are dependent essentially on:
- line length
- line terminations.
References
[l] ter Haseborg,J.L.;Trinks, H.: Protection
circuitsforsuppressing surge voltages
with edge steepness up to lo KV/ns.
277
5113
und Schirmung in
[31 Kaden, H.: WirbelstriSmE!
der Nachrichtentechnik.Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, Gijttingen,
Ileidelberg,
1959
[41 Clements,J.C.;Pau1,C.R.; Adams,A.T.:
Computationsof tlX?capacitancematrix for
systems of dielectric-coatedcylindrical
conductors. IEEE Trans. Electromagn.
ccXnpat.,vol. FMC-17, no. 4, Nov., 1975
of
[51 Pau1,C.R.; Feather,A.E.: Ccanputations
the transmission line inductance and capacitance matrices from the generalized
capacitancematrix. IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Ccanpat.,vol. W-18, no. 4, Nov.
1976
[61ter Haseborg,J.L.;Trinks,H.:
Transient
response and protection of multiconductor
transmission lines. InternationalAerospace and Ground Conference on Lightning
and Static Electricity,Orlando, USA,
June 26-28, 1984
[71 Agrawa1,A.K.;Price,H.J.;Gurvaxani,S.H.:
Transient response of multiconductor
transmission lines excited by a nonuniform
electromagneticfield. IEEE Trans.
Electromagn.Ccmpat., vol. EMC-22, no. 2,
May 1980
279
52
14
Response of a S it-w
le-ConductorOverhead
Wire Illuminated by an InhomogeneousPlane Wave
-
it,(;)
= (k:+VV.) I
$1)
6,
+.(
r )d;'
(1)
structure
- if P
g,(G)
region 2 :
= (k$+VV.) I
$2)
+ +.I
(r, r )dg'
(2)
structure
where k represents the wave number :
k? = w2p
- jwpiui
1
i Ei
i = I,2
fi.
(@c:,
+ it(Z))
(3)
280
k: f
Zj+A/2
zj-A/2
+(z
hg>ij + (zhg).I.
hg
or:Z..=(Z
1J
4
source
term
or
(Zmn)(In) = - (Eim)
(I)
&
E;(X,h)+$?o
+ $Q
!; I,Wk&
~hI,(0,z9
+ $$$
x=x
V12dZ' X1=0
Z=h
(G22-G21+k&)dZ'
&
II'Ix(X',h)
($
x=x
X'=O
Z=h
+ k;)(G,,-G,,)
0
x=x
+
a2
k2
2 (w
+ +f$$
+ *22 I
V22
I,
L&Z)~
dX
a2
Z'=h
z=h
/-hrz(L,z,)
&
x=x
,r;
(G2,-G21+k;v,,)dz
V12 dZ'
ij
ho
W
Zj+A/2
zj-A/2
a2
hg)C
..
! lJ
corrective
term
&
f(X,Z)
f(X,Z): =
f(X+A/2,z+A/2)-f(X+A/2,2-n/2)
A2
_ f(X-A/2,Z+A/2>+f(X-A/2,2-n/2)
A2
The first purpose of this paper is to
obtain the current value at the point M in
the frequency domain.
Then, these results are used to investigate the transient behaviour of the antenna
current mainted over perfect ground.
As a first step, the transfer function
(impulse response) of the structure current
is computed using the previous results. This
transfer function is then multiplied by the
spectrum of the EMP (electromagnetic pulse),
and finally the Fourier inversion is performed numerically via a Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) routine to obtain the transient response
E(t)
= El(e-et- eeBt)
- &)
- j E1(;&-&'&
;I;"
zhg =
Xi
x=x
+ *
) lJ
image
term
;': ;
where
a2
V22 dZ'
axaz
x=x;
i(t) = 1
I(f) ej2xft df
281
3. Results
a) In the frequency domain :
Results are given for a case closely
related to Taylor and Castillo's (4) with a
different height of horizontal part to take
the same patches length on horizontal and
vertical part of the structure.
We used 40 patches on horizontal part
and 1 patch on each vertical part : this choice
ensure that moment method solution converges.
Response in the frequency domain of the
structure is given for a perfectly conducting
ground, when vertical parts are each loaded
first by 100 R, second by the caracteristic
impedance Zc.
52
14
lines theory is equal to zero that is verified between resonance frequencies (5) *
III
(Al
4.p
2f.QMh.z
3.19
2.18
ld?
where
<
f < 40 MhZ
Ii1 (A)
800f
700..
800.
500'
fr = mcl2L
400.
300.
200,.
100
0.75
282
-y2(z+z')(Y2-y~)
=2fme
22
W 21
k:Y, + k;Y,
(A,->
Ad),
'
(Y2-yl)Jo(Xr) AdA
-Y2(z+z')
U
200
'-I
Jo(Xr) Xdh
22 =
Yl+Y2
100
BW22
a) Green's functions
.-jkzR2
.-jk2Rl
G22 = ~
G21 =R2
e-j
w21 =
we have
G12 =-
e-j
x-2 = x2 f
y2
order
References
11) A.J.
tion
Poggio, E.K. Miller, 'Integral equasolutions of three-dimensional scattering problems', in Mittra, R.(Ed.) :
'Computer techniques for electromagnetics' (Pergamon, 1973), pp. 159-263.
(21 R.F.
and h = 1~')
(4)
Jo(Ar) XdX
0
k;Yl + k:Y,
co
"21
eY1z-Y2z'
321
Jo(hr) XdX
0
kZY, + k;Y2
e-Y2z+Ylz'
"12 = 2 jm
0
11
L 2
Jrn
0
i = I,2
(3)
b) Sommerfeld integrals
"22 =2j
ki)l:!
RI = (r2+ (z + h)2)1'2
where :
(X2-
kl RI
RI
"21
Gll =R2
Yi
(& - &'i
Rl
kl R2
= k; V22 - U,,
Annex
Expressions of Green's functions and
Sommerfeld integrals used in Ba?los's formulation.
az
(5)
A. Bazos, 'Dipole radiation in the presence of conducting half-space', NewYork : Pergamon Press, 1966.
C.D. Taylor, J.P. Castillo, 'On e'lectromagnetic-field excitation of unshielder
multiconductor cables', PEEE Transactfons
on electromagnetic compatibility, vol.
EMC-20, NO. 4, November 1978.
A. Albert, Jr. Smith, 'Coupling of external electro-magnetic fields to transmission lines', John Wiley and Sons,
New-York (Eondon) Sydney (Toronto,1977).
Jo(Xr) Adh
k:Y, + k;Y1
eYl(z+z')
Jo(hr) XdX
k; Y2+ k;Y,
TIME DOMAIN
SCATTERING
283
5315
A HOMOGENEOUS
Laboratoire
ABSTRACT
This
paper
electromagnetic
shows
pulses
of any
form,
terized
by a conductivity
the
above
capital
current
stage
induced
equations,
the
by
thin
o.The
is
the
on the wire,
taking
scattering
wire
a homogeneous
into
of
problem
from
is resolved
by integral
in
-Figure
which
of
the
charac-
determination
account
The
space-time
presence
space
of
Some
I-
applications
domain
of
and electric
are
chosen
in
telecommunications
or railway
systems.
theoretical
to
responses
through
on these
installations.
perfectly
was
treated
wire
illumination
of induced
currents
scattering
problem
structures
[ll,
of a perfectly
[2],
with
takes
a finite
into
account
conductivity.
Fresnels
approximation,
in
integral
equations
verified
induced
on
wire
[41
and
structure.
the
the
simulator
as antennas
earth,
with
The
of
method
of
interpolation
is also applied
radiation
or essay
transmission
of
waves.
moments
used
in pulse
emission
11.1. Principle
the
the
any
in the
(I?,
Gal,
the
superposition
at a point
(gd,
of
a wire
perfec-
half-space,
t which
is respon-
the
M of the
it
(?$I)
expressed
on
by
(2)
(3)
determined
electric
half-space
conditions
called
as
the
half-space
Knowing
@,
field
a current
operator
wire
arrives
wave
half-space,
in
= L[I(M,t)l
ting
I%
(1)
Ed(P,t)
boundary
in
its written
integral
the
obstacle,
+ Ed(P,t)
equations.
point
(I?,
half-
this
to
field
Maxwells
larly
total
structure
= Ea(P,t)
an
wire
@, fia) illuminates
of
with
the
a reflected
point
due
on its surface
field
by
8 radiated
and therefore,
wire
surface,
on the
the
at
particuone applies
perfectly
conduc-
in presence
pulses
s;?(M,t) = 0
where
PROBLEM
of the method
any
in
+ Er(P,t)
wave
(4)
is the
at the point
II - THEORETICAL
wave
At
of diffracted
is
incident
is
= Z(PJ)
point
Without
creates
treated
earth.
it
conducting
sible
is
Therefore,
current
are
to some
electromagnetic
line.
establishing
solution.
This work
problems
by the
Lagrange
to the numerical
field,
It consists,
the
the
obstacle,
QP,t)
paper
1).
applied
induces
conducting
plane
without
tly
[3J,
the
(figure
half-space
problem
ground,
When the
ground.
ground
fir)
Ea(P,t)
structures
pulses
Transient
in presence
This
in
of
the knowledge
conducting
or dielectric
real
work
electromagnetic
proceeds
by
the
the
both
INTRODUCTION
The
of
the
equip-
above
when
on
protection
( &?I
Iair
P,,rr
,r,,,r,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
earth
the
the earth.
ments
:;:y_e&+
structures
ground
established
directly
domain,
ABOVE
GROUND
Using
lows
to
unit
tangent
vector
to
the
path
M.
obtain
integral
condition
verified
(4) alby
I(M,t):
field,
First,
in
we
the
the
order
time
the
reflected
our course
of action
is the
following.
consider
the
reflection
domain.
domain
by aninverse
the
air/soil
we
use
Laplace
the
R(t)
takes
and
the
function
the
earth
we present
the
= $$
(e-d)
is
at
e-T,
(ii)
- 02
_(6-d)
the
horizontal
-t
+ (8-d) IO $1
with
where
tion
-- Bt
e
*
0;
B=
CI
E E r
sin
obtained
Thus,
consists
of
two
the dielectric,
of order
RTM(t)
reflection
parts,
the other
2 shows
dence
angle
of
the
half
one
of
which
R(t)
is
due
to
(8)
the dependence
is
= E(o,t)
11.3. Integral
The field
poles
on the
the
computed
at
any
from
point
the
plane
waves
gd = L(I) being
boundary
conducting
the
wire
integral
condistructure
equation
verified
1:
the
earth,
[T*(t)]
= [R(t)l.[6*1
where
the source
dipole
R(t)
is the
by
the
which
express
connected
with
matrix
= [R(t)l.[:o*l
the unit
reflection
dipole,
matrix
of the
connected
vectors
to
dipole.
field,
with
radiated
the
functions
sin 4
II61by :
et RTM(t)
[R(t)].
- RTM(t)
cos
- RTM(t)
sin 4
i
the
(M~,A,P)
by adding
. Frequency
have
by
domain
using
the
\iq*( image)
- RTM(t
angle
of
incident
of the Fresnels
been
validity
obtained
comparison
ground,
condition
zones
Fresnels
plane
coefficients
[7]
with
of
reflection
in
the
approached
coefficients
frequency
exact
domain
method
using
integrals.
For an
domain
Sommerfelds
cos $
3).
The
earth
RTE(t)
0
(figure
wire.
3 -
RTE(t)
method
up
di-
polarization
11.4. Validity
is obtained
is
method
- Figure
to obtain
reflection
field
6 (t - +G
ed(P,t)
A is suppo-
field
dEd(P,Mo,t)
the
3).
of the
[@I
equation
the contributions
perflectly
reflections
4
(3
one
RTE(t)
at the interface
j$(p,t)
on
from
of the
field
application
by the current
conductivity.
reflected
space
be
to the conductor.
can
function
allows
the
and where
polarization.
the
[_5], the
on
the
a tb
Bessel functions
expression
for a vertical
reflected
spring
at the point
coefficient
0)
bf3
e =-
similar
one
at M; (figure
the
at
formed
dT
and 1.
A
by
seems
The diffracted
reflec-
(11 (9)
0(
and
emited
MO, is
. s(t)
a = cos 8;bnJcr-sin*
with
is
domain,
e-av2
e-d(t-d
_- Bt
2 ] + sb
b*B
d=jyr-g
done
known
polarization.
situated
time
at
half-
frequency
(RTE ou RTM).
(@.)
02
dipole
which
which
the
used
in
situated
wave
wave
expressed
only
emdt - a?_$-
wave
in
very
consists,
dipole
straight
oneself
the
The reflection
It is written
RTE(t)
image
characteristics
R(t)
ground
product
incidence.
for
one
the
(6)
[61. Here,
analytically
tion
of
by
the
P by
seats
earth,
[2]
supposing
sed
into account
angle
in
reflected
g(o,t)
it
transform.
interface,
by the convolution
is given
in
one
the
method
point
coefficient
Then,
above
domain
determine
Near
field
When
space
to
frequency
(5)
field computation
In
electric
= 0
284
the
electric
height
dipole,
h must
situated
verify
the
above
following
01.
,.*..*. 150
100
1,
50
,,
208
285
5315
Er.,l..l.
0
50
250
100
150
200
240
t(ns)
t,(ns)
_d--.5
-5 -
-4
Conduct
i vi ty:
lG3
mho/m
t
t
-I
t
t
(, . . . .
,.
-1.5
_-3
Conductivity:
-2.5 t
5
(*la
mho/m
-25 i
18
(Xl0
(-
50
100
150
(
250
2h0
t(ns)
-rib
-108
-100E
Conductivity:
Conductivity:
18
-2
mho/m
-150
-1500
-200
-250
IL
- Figure
ANGLE
Permittivity
OF
2 -
INCIDENCE
E, = 10.
. . . . 60"
--_
---
450
300
00
REFLEXION
ANGLE
AND
OF
FUNCTION
CONDUCTIVITY
INCIDENCE
RTE
(t)
oINFLUENCE
(degrees)
18
-1
mho/m
h>--X
07
Ee = Er +-z-JWEo
JF7;1
from thlis height
condition,
[S] a frequency
0,7)cZ
h2
f >
(12)
it is possible
condition
using
Fresnels
available
so
magnetic
pulse
are
reflection
that
all
the
wire
behaves
like
is
The
seems
However
first
penalizing
high
For
Moreover,
(sod
our
attention
border
effects,
equation
TM
by the
sampled
numerically
method
resolved
sequence
[ 21.
proceeds
in the sample
t-R*/c
The
original
Ru
by
of
stage
the
(so,+-
of
ximed
I(so
NS
where
of this
time
$$so,T)
of time
1,
uq
seen
to
=-2
can
term:
dT (15)
be
intervals
s;+
segments
and where
AR(*)
to
(221
< 0,5
avoid
interpolation
(j+m)-th
term
appro-
(16)
all
.
I
time
at
into
interval.
time
step
sampled
tj
current
,i,
Ri$s+l by,
:At/2
may
be
values
up
(sl;,t?] dt = J!l
For reasoning
(23)
Pis
easily
the reflection
to be a constant
interval.
t) .
TM
within
function
is con-
space
segment
each
This approximation
is satisfacto-
polynomial
,At/2
v+2
mZv R$j-s+l
TM
and NT
The
spacetime
then
be written
otherwise
t,$?m)dt!l
Ii+1 s+m
At/2
dependent
convolution
(24)
term
can
as
j+m +1
0,
) > 0,5
At/,
ti = to - tj)
of space
AR(*) = c(tR$
for
include
Pijbi,tj)=Pijz
sidered
variation
(21)
[2].
problem
convolution
NT
jgl Iij (sY,tj) u (s?) v(tjl)
NS is the number
the number
future
and time
s zz s - s.
i
0
I
with
for
want
[4]
repeated
bv :
= igl
we
to ti
of moments
spacetime
(20)
p.
1+1, jtm
I.
are the current
and convolui+l,j+m and Pi+l,j+m
rion term values at the center
of the (i+&tk space
TM
current
(191
1 I-1
the
(14)
moments
of a
in two dimensions
and
is .:
ds 0
function
Q,m!
B..
J
* -$-y(so,to*)}
(18)
(I,m) I,
i+l, j+m
(9 =-I
because
Its integral
vc;j,
Bij
v+2
JzV,
(1
the
i and
where
+I v(l)+2 (so-si+ )(t(*)- t.+ )
(1 m)
p 0
B!$j
= II1
p=-1 pT$)(Si+l-si+p)(tj+m-tj+qJ
very
we restrict
segment
response
isnt
TM
Its
. Method
V+2
rn%
and the
Gigg-0 (so,to)- K&o)$$g+o,to*)segment
the
convolution
and
the
Us;)
interpolation
pulse.
wire.
pij (sY,tT)
+1
=,5-l
pij(,+
domain.
the
21
+1
= c
1=-l
MHz
dimensions
it
of space
interpolation
Lagrangian
Iij(s;,t;l
Fresnels
[9].
by
in neglecting
P(So,to*)
filter
lengths
II z) in the form
we can put Iij(sy,tif and pij(si,tj
in taking
finite
otherwire
t; = t* - t.
I
0
1
. Lagrange
be
SOLUTION
so like an infinite
cO
with
< _nz
At the
= i;;
to
in time
Therefore,
simplicity,
wire
than
uncorrectly
III - NUMERICAL
intervals.
with
electroma-
using
generally,
to treat
:.Rs,t,=g
Ai and
time
mho/m,the
higher
pass
moments.
a long
with
method
electro-
But
method
obstacle
of the electromagnetic
to
of
(13).
inapplicable
interested,
the
verify
correctly.
approximation
in
frequencies
frequencies
wave
treated
one
the
coefficients
the
spectre
for
h = 10 m, E = 10, d = lo-
r
condition
shows
that
only
frequency
gnetic
necessary
0,
p(so,to*)
be
It;1
Similarlv.
(13)
E
r
1,
to deduce
- 3,24 102 (5
would
for example
vet!;,
. Time domain
It
286
V+2
R$Mj+m-s+l
I~+,+~ s+t
(25)
287
where
v has been
taining
and
terms
used
later
in place
than
of
to avoid
5315
radiation
ob-
time t.
v-t2
in pulse
[l] JECKO
(26)
B. Diffraction
sionnelles
developments
and
(14) allows
currents
current
matrix
at
convolution
the
integral
expression
time-step
to
for
be
equation
the
unknow
obtained.
It
is
(27)
Ziu is
the
between
v = 1, NT
u = I, NS
SELDEN
in
the
matrix
the
of
the
structure
mutual
interactions
segments.
It
is
space
0.
It
Ii v are
specified
c&entvalues
repeated
to
sequence
bJ
obtain
of
$1,
Ii2,
matrix
etc...
with
in
method
long
frequency
domain
frequency
[lo].
The
by lines
approximation
the
are
using
solution
the
4)
problem
inverse
validated
finite
which
differs
work
an
results
method
rencies
The
the
time
wire
is
is
obtained
evolution
h, the conductivity
tivity
greater
the
current
ted
its
is (Figure
wave
which
intensity,
6 and
the
the
the
current
different
height
later
is,
the
stronger
the
reflec-
the
diminution
and
later.
conductivity
and
of
Figures
permittivity
V - CONCLUSION
proach,
of the
by wire
of
treated
work
directly
electromagnetic
structures
particular
study
[8].
in
waves
of any
homogeneous
developed
constitutes
about
This
an
in the
It
first
time
scattering
form,
ground.
method
the
space
ted
(1972).
de
Field
the
JECKO
3eme
(France)
computation
Mac Millan
B. Diffraction
filaires
Colloque
Company
en
june
1983.
F.
These
de
d1.E.M.
presence
National
Electromagnetique.
University
T.K.
sur
la
Tregastel
Doctorat
of
domain,
problem
presence
continues
infinite
wire,
is
applied
ap-
the
already
to
the
Analysis
thin-wire
ground
antenna
planes
M.
New Brunswick
3eme
june
values
influence.
This
half-
vol.50
Limoges
of
structures
[71 SARKER
3eme
instigates
antennas
conductivity
Doctorat
R.F.
Z&me
Limoges
de
3eme
(France)
cycle
arrays
SC.
G.
over
E.,
These
de
of
These
University
J.P.,
imperfect
Universite
of
Doctorat
de
Limoges
(France)
1984.
de
of
Internal
Doctorat
Limoges
1983.
[IO] BERENGER
orien-
(1971).
University
january,
cycle
of arbitrarily
Canada
M.P.
[91 LEBORGNE
5). Effectively,
arrives
7 show
of
for
of the height
E. The
des
sol
no 2-84,
a little.
observed
G.3.
(1983).
et
[81 GOURDY
diffe-
on
du
BURKE
(1968).
0.
II61MAUMY
(Figure
treat
execute
The
Transform.
forthe
compared
which
and
Ann.
to be published.
applied
. its
wire
methods
the
is
mdtalliques
of Physics
de
Method
New-York
cycle
several
Fourier
by
february
(France)
operations.
impul-
of wire
University
par
I.
IV - APPLICATIONS
about
J.
Compatibilite
is possible
E.M.
Analysis
These
by Moment
time
) . ..) v - 1.
j=l
by
currents
in terms
earth.
A.J.,
of
Canadian
151 DAFIF
the
E.S.
141 HARRINGTON
independent.
Finally,
the
(1983).
POGGIO
presence
cycle
x=I,...,v-I
n5-6
E.K.,
and
n8-83
i = 1, NS
t.38,
[2] MILLER
term
[3] DAFIF
with
of
dondes
Tdlecomm.
of
presence
BIBLIOGRAPHY
C\l,m)
Substitution
in the
report.
de
(France)
288
3500
3000
2500
1500
1500
-3
506
mhoim
t,(ns)
01
I..
50
Figure
XXX
coo
4-
Current
wire
158
evolution
on
the
(ct.)
I
I.
180
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
00
(In)
Figure
5 - Height
influence
can
be
used
to verify
the
condition
02) in
time
domain.
Here,
our method
using
the Fresnel's
approximation
(-)
is compared
with
a rigorous
solution
(---)
fourlded on
the
Huyghens's
principle
(81
Fresnel's
approximation
Lines
approximation
Finite
differencies
I(t)
I(t)
500E
2508 -
400E
///,,///
N/Y AH
2000 .
3000
1500 -
2006
100a -
500 *
100e
t(m)
a~.."'..."*.'."
0
-
Figure
56
100
Conductivity
150
influence
Figure
10
20
30
40
Permittivity
.,
50
I.
60
70
influence
.,
00
et(m)
NOISE SOURCES
289
5416
AND INTERFERENCE
VALUES
H. RGhsIer
A. Strnad
Energie-Versorgung
Stuttgart,
of investigations
have
interference
problems
there ist no detailed
and the interference
in HV
Schwaben
AG
West Germany
- earth faults
Earth faults caused by the described events, by switching overvoltages,
conductor galloping or faulty switching are to be regarded mainly with respect to the
electromagnetic
waves radiated.
- switching in secondary circuits
De-energizing
of inductive
loads generate
transient
high frequency overvoltages in secondary circuits.
- electrostatic
discharge
Electrostatic
charged persons cause a very steep current with a rise time of some nanoseconds
when
touching earthed equipment.
- radiotransmitters
(walkie talkies)
The high frequency
field generated
by radiotransmitters,
including
those which are used by maintenance
staff,
can influence
sensitive
electronic
equipment.
The described noise sources affect the secondary circuits. It has to be distinguished
between the interference by conductive
(direct), inductive
and capacitive coupling on the one hand (guided waves) and
interference
by radiated waves (interference
fields) on
the other hand. The influence of radiated waves on the
secondary circuits working as antenna gets important
for high frequency events in the MHz-range.
3. Interference
and GIS
Switching
in primary
circuits
affected
circuit
290
protectioncircuit
controlcircuit
auxiliary
supply circuit
type of
interference
guided
wave
radiated
wave
guided
wave
radiated
wave
guided
wave
radiated
wave
dimensions
kV
mT
kV
mT
kV
mT
0.3
0.3
0.3
atmospheric event
2.5
1.5
2.5
1.5
2.5
1.5
switching
atmospheric
earth fault in primary
event
circuits
0.3
2
1
0.1
1.5
1 .o
Noise sources
E
earth fault
z
21
2
$
?i
frequency range
open
air
substation
0.05-10
kHz
0.024
MHz
MHz
__I
:: (11
0.3
1.5
1
0.1
1.5
1
0.3
1.5
1
0.1
1.5
1
CJ
GIS
0.24
MHz
0.2-100
0.05-10
0.024
MHz
kHz
Note: The electric field is not considered; due to the screening always existing there is no serious interference.
The
figures are valid for the common mode voltages. In measuring transformer circuits common mode voltages and transverse voltages are identical
Maximum interference
values to be expected in I-IV open air substations
and GIS
with a rated voltage of 123.....420 kV
Table I:
The situation
is shown in Fig. 1. If, e.g., an opened
circuit breaker is isolated by a disconnector
from the
plant alive reignition occures as soon as the restriking
voltage across the disconnector
contacts is exceeded.
The shape of the wave transmitted
into the secondary
circuits is characterized
by a steep front with a rise
time of 100 . . . 200 ns in open air substations
and
5 . . . 20 ns in GIS. The high frequencies
in the MHzrange are able to influence secondary equipment seriously or even to destroy it. The maximum interference depends on the first ignitions when closing and
the last ignitions when opening the disconnector,
i.e.
the interference
rises with the restrike voltage and
hence also with the rated voltage of the substation.
The measured frequency range of the described events
is 200 kHz . . . 100 MHz for open air substations
and
GIS.
primary circuit
secondary
circuit
U, striking voltage
u secondary
Fig. 1:
3.1.2
voltage
Atmospheric
events
Lightning
,Lightning overvoltages
are limited on the HV level by
lightning arresters. The maximum overvoltage influencing the secondary circuits depends on the threshold
Lightning
strokes
HV substations
to earthed
components
of
291
5416
considering
the actual exposure
area of the substation
and the isokeraunic
level.
The maximum
transient
voltages
to be expected
at the selected
measuring
points
can then be calculated
by bringing
in the
statistical
distribution
of the lightning
parameters.
Fig. 2 shows the result of such an investigation;
for
the measuring
point M 3 the voltage
of 2700 V is
exceeded
once in ten years,
the corresponding
value
for M 4 is 560 V.
TK
Fig. 4:
Interference
by guided
waves.
The impedance
3.1.4
of the noise
source
10-l
The energy
content
of a noise voltage
is of great
importance
and has to be considered
especially
when
electronic
components
are stressed.
Consequently
for
a certain
shape of the noise voltage
the knowledge
of
the source
impedance
is necessary.
For a generator
constructed
to test the interference
withstand
capability of secondary
equipment
the proper simulation
of
the source impedance
is also an inevitable
demand.
_j_
a
10-a
IO2
Fig. 2:
103
V
T----)
2
IO4
A model of an interference
in Fig. 4. Here are
Noise voltages
ii2 in a 420/123 kV open air
substation
caused
by lighting
strokes
to
earthed
components
H frequency
of strokes
producing
a noise
voltage which exceeds b,
M3, M4 measuring
points
the impedance
%Q
the voltage
u1
z,
Switching
in secondary
circuits
Overvoltages
produced
by de-energizing
inductive
loads occur because
of reignitions
during opening the
relay contact.
These overvoltages
are typically
sawtooth
shaped
followed
by a damped
low frequency
oscillation.
The amplitudes
of the overvoltages
can
exceed
5 kV, the risetime
of the spikes being in the
order
of some nanoseconds.
The frequency
of the
damped
oscillations
is normally
below
I MHz, but
sometimes
comes
up to 20 MHz. Figure 3 shows an
oscillogram
of the transient
voltage
generated
by
de-energizing
a relay coil. The application
of voltage
limiting
devices
allows to reduce
the transient
voltages to less than 1000 V.
impedance
time
the frequency
the secondary
dependent
equipment
of the secondary
of the secondary
input
cable
impedance
the resulting
-za
is shown
the travelling
the voltage
u2
waves
the characteristic
cable
ZK
K
3.1.3
by guided
impedance
of the noise
of
cable
source.
The characteristic
impedances
of secondary
cables
(conductor-conductor;
conductor-screen)
come up to
30 ..* 100 ohms nearly independent
of frequency;
however, these figures are not valid for the circuit screenearth return. In most applications
we have zK L Z+.
During
Z+
TK
= zSQ;
we
then
After
3 T,
approximation
for
ist charged
T~L
t L
4 TK
to
+ ZSQI.
by the
an alternating
Z+ = z,,
the cable
u2 = 2 UIZK/GK
Caused
find
reflections
behaviour,
with
at the cable
the final value
T = z,,
to zsQ
CK
and
ends Z_ shows
being
CK =
2
-.SQ
T~/Z~,
the
is sufficient.
U2
J
--Y-
200 V
3.2
+I I-
3.2.1
2 ms
Fig. 3:
Transient
voltage
zing a relay coil.
generated
by de-energi-
Radiated
waves
Switching
in primary
circuits
The magnetic
flux density
produced
by switching
in
420 kV substations
comes up to 0.1 mT nearby secondary
cables
a
range
of
in
frequency
electric
field
up
292
to
Lightning strokes
substations
to earthed
components
values in
in HV
4.1 Primary
circuits
Nearby HV substations,
especially
nearby GIS, overhead lines are equipped with two or even three earth
shield wires. This measure reduces the frequency and
the amplitude of strokes to the conductor. By this the
influence of lightning strokes on secondary circuits is
reduced, too.
3.2.3
Earth faults
Radiotransmitters
(walkie talkies)
4.1.1
4.1.2
3.3 Electrostatic
discharges
The electrostatic
charge can be limited to a value of
5 kV also for substations.
The voltage people can be
charged up to depends on the material of the carpets
in control rooms and on the relative
humidity; for
lower humidity the maximum voltages rise strongly 161.
against
Configuration
lightning
of earthing
strokes.
system
An earthing system properly designed for 50 Hz stresses needs only slight modifications
to reduce transient
voltages. Firstly single tee off connections
have to be
avoided in general,
and secondly
bare conductors
should be layed parallel to long cables and be connected to the earthing grid.
4.1.3
Measures at CT and VT
The transient
voltages transmitted
via the measuring
transformers
to the secondary circuits can be reduced
by careful earth connections
within the transformer
and additional screening of the secondary windings 191.
4.2 Secondary
4.2.1
Protection
circuits
Screening
of secondary
cables
4.2.2
Configuration
of secondary
circuits
293
from and
5416
4.3 Introduction
of new technologies
by guided waves
It is the advantage
neither conductive,
nor radiated waves
sion. Consequently
mary events will be
4.2.3
a radial
confi-
devices
voltage limiting
devices are:
Condensers
or RC circuits that reduce HF overvoltages and are adequate both for circuits coming
from the switchyard
and for supply circuits.
An
interesting
application
consists
of filtering
the
auxiliary D.C. power of circuits and equipments at
the lowest EMC level, supplied by a battery which
is feeding also circuits
and equipment
(e.g., HV
breakers and disconnectors)
at the highest EMC
level.
LV arresters discharge overvoltages
at high energy
content
in A.C. and D.C. circuits
having voltages -5 48 V and have such a time delay that they
are not adequate for steep and HF overvoltages.
They require
a low-impedance
earthing
to the
equipment
they protect;
generally
they are installed on telecommunication
lines.
Zener diodes are advisable for overvoltages
at low
energy content only and therefore
should be used
with great care. Transzorb diodes are electronic
components similiar to zener diodes with very good
characteristics
such as very small delay time and
leakage current and constant voltage limitation
up
to some hundreds of volts. With a series-parallel
combination
they can be used for high voltage
limitations and for high energy transients.
Varistors show a restistance
that is inversely proportional to the applied voltage; utilization
of the
zinc-oxide type is spreading (there is a tendency to
replace zenerdiodes
and RC circuits
with these
varistors) because of their short delay time (5 25 ns)
and high impulse current (up to 25 kA).
Appendix
Estimation
of transient
secondary
lightning strokes to the conductor.
voltages
caused
by
resulting
2.1710
Bl=
kV
13.7
in
kA
ZW
of the
with 2 = 250 ohms as the surge impedance
overh&x line. Lightning currents between 13.7 kA and
36 kA can produce secondary transients
of 2500 V and
more.
It is known from measures that the steepness S of the
primary voltage ist proportional
to the amplitude of
the secondary transient
for S 2 10 kA/,us. Since 97 %
of all strokes have a steepness 2 10 kA/ us anyhow this
value is fixed as a bottom limit fo t/ the steepness
considered.
234
125
T;:
i
::
100
Fig.Bl
50
25
25
50
100
150
200
250
3;0
L=
0.8
kA/ks-z
w/km
= 3.81
km
N, z 1!9;a
km21
[l]
- 1.9/(a=circuit)
60
50
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
l(km)
3.81 3.75 3.60 3.38 3.21 3.00 2.70 2.25 1.50 0.00
PI%)
0.0
0.2
0.8
2.4
4.6
8.0
40
35
30
25
20
15
Table B
S(kA/,us)
43
I(kd
PC%)
0.2
1.0
1.6
4.2
10
10.2 14.4
50
100
150
200
250
I
[LA]
From Fig. A the 95 % value of the steepness corresponding to IB2 = 36 kA can be derived 5 = 65 kA/ US
[3]. Regarding an attenuation
of 0.8 ps/km along t!he
line the collection length L becomes
IB2 * 10
300
bA1
b) 420 kV GIS
Considering
two earth shield wires the maximum
- 16 kA, the
stroke current to the conductor
is I
95 % value of the steepness is 43 kAv2ui. The measured transient secondary voltage cause 6 by switching
in primary circuits is U2 = 1000 V. To estimate
how
often a secondary voltage of 2000 V is exceeded the
corresponding
primary voltage U - 684 kV and the
stroke current j-,1 = 5.5 kA have take considered.
The collectlon
ength 1s L = 1.53 km, from table B one
gets pZ= 7 % and the frequency of transient
voltages
exceeding 2000 V is
H = B*L* p,- k*NB
= 0.025 * 1.53. 0.07 * 0.25. 1.9/(a.circuit)
ZZ0.0013/(a.circuit)
i.e. a substation
with five circuits will be stressed
every 157 years with a secondary transient A 2000 V.
References
PI Anderson,
meters for
BALLOON
AND SATELLITE
295
55
OBSERVATION
OVER NORTHERN
Takeo Yoshino
University
l-5-1 Chofugaoka,
17
EUROPE
of Electra-Communications
Chofu-shi,
INTRODUCTION
As shown in a recent paper [l], the
observation results of fundamental ELF
wave propagation characteristics
of
Power Line Radiation to horizontal and
to vertical direction were observed by
using of balloons and rockets over
-Japanese island. One of the purpose of
this experiments was the determination
of the standard propagation characteristics of ELF waves during the condi-
Tokyo
182, Japan
296
500 kV or more.
At major geomagnetic disturbavce on
September 21, 1977, the huge unbalance
anomaly current of over 25A to 50A was
induced, and observed this induced
current at the grounding point of the
transformers on the Manitoba line of
Canada. And there are many troubles
appear on this line such as the breakdown of main circuit breakers and the
burnout of transformers wires. The
many similar troubles in this time
appeared not only on the power lines
of the Manitoba lines but also on the
other long power line system at subpolar and polar area as Alaska, north
Canada and northern europian areas.
At same time, the troubles were expanded other field as long distance
communications
wire and the pipe lines
in the sub-polar and polar regions. [2],
[3] and [4].
Above mentioned induced anomaly
current on power lines induce magnetically saturation of transformers core,
and the waveform of current and voltage
will be distorted by the non-linearity
effect of the saturated transformers.
This distorted current will be produced
lot of higher harmonic frequencies
radiation from power line system to
magnetosphere. [5,6].
BL5-2N
OBSERVATION
BY BALLOON
(1982/11/23-24)
70
(1982/ 3/20
U.S.S.R
1lJ
1982/
3/20
.I
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
DE
LONGITUDE
Fig. 1.
The flight trajectries and altitudes of balloons Bl5-1N and B15-2N. The
balloon B15-1N was launched at 1907 UT on March 20 and the balloon B15-2N
was launched at 2059 UT on November 23, 1982 respectively.
297
5517
ELECTRIC
FIELD
,
PRE
AMP
AMP
E
PRE
AMP
AMP
HPF
U-MAGNETIC
FIELD
I
1
L
Fig.
2.
A schematic
block diagram
line radiation measurement
board the balloon.
of the power
system on
RESULTS OF Bl5-1N
Fig. 3 (a) shows the H component
variation of geomagnetic disturbance
at Andoya during flight the B15-1N
balloon.
The Figures 2 (b) and (c)
l-i
;;
2
:::
i 6)v-i
g
5
E
5
i
ml9
s
;
;
';
6
i
z
L
!:
g
d :
i !2UT
21
20
1982/
3/20
5OHz
,60HZ
\lBOHz
ml9
20
21
.-I
Fiq.
RESULTS
z2UT
7JME
1982/ 3/20
3.
(a) The horizontal
component of
the masnetograph at Andoya, Norwayl
(1;) and (c)the maanetic and
electric field intensity which
observed by balloon B15-1N on
March 20 1982. Solid line indicated 50 and its harmonics, and
dotted 1 i ne indicated 60 and 180
HZ.
I
298
REXULTS OF B15-2N
Fig. 5(a) is shown the magnetgram
record of H-component magnetic field
intensity and ULF magnetic pulsation
on November 23, 1982 which observed at
ESBANGE, Sweden, during the flight of
Bl5-2N balloon. A polar substorm are
occured at 2251 UT and decayed after 30
minutes. A negative bay of H-component
of magnetic field and a sudden comencement of H-component of magnetic pulsation at this substorm were recorded in
Fig. 5(b) and 5(c) illustthis figure.
rate the magnetic and electric field
intensity variations during the balloon
and
flight at 50Hz, 60Hz,100Hz,150Hz
180Hz respectively. The contours of 60
Hz and 180 Hz indicate of background
noise level close to the fundamental
0.5
Freqency
range between
LkHzl
40Hz to 1 kHz observed
by
299
and 3rd harmonics of power line radiation. The magnetic field data between
2115 to 2220 UT should be omitted,
because the large swing of ccpztaurs
are
affected by the joggle of gondola
during the ascending of balloon. It
gives a clear evidence that the intensities at 50Hz,lOOHz and 150Hz were
not enhanced during substorm.
The electric field intensities of
50Hz, 1OOHz and 150Hz had increased
from 0115 UT to 0230 UT in spite of
low geomagnetic activity, when the
balloon flew over the large industrial
and mining area near Mulmansk in USSR.
The level of enhancement of the magnetic component are much less than the
electric component at this time. This
record is suggested that the enhancement of power line radiations could be
induced by a localized power line
system. The Lapland area have not much
high voltage power lines. Fig. 6 shows
the dynamic frequencyspectra of electric field intensities at this time.
r
I
FREQUENCY (kHz)
Fig. 6
21
22
23
00
01
02
03
-4
6X21
22
23
00
01
02
I03
Fig. 7(a) and 7(b) shows the amplitude spectra of magnetic and electric
fields around 2250 UT of the frequency
range between 4OHz to 1kHz of PLR
harmonics radiation during the geomagnetic substorm which started at 2251UT
as shown in Fig. 5(a).
From the observation results in
this figure, it is clear evidence that
the spectral peaks at the harmonic frequencies of the power line radiation in
the frequency range higher than 200 Hz
are enhanced at the time of the substorm onset at 2251 UT in the electric
and magnetic fields. The intensity in
enhancement at 300 Hz and 450 Hz corresponds to the duration of the enhancement of ULF pulsation included high
frequency component as shown in the
Fig. 5(a).
- 300 -
CONCLUSION
ill
References
Yoshino T,, and I.Tomizawa: Rocket &
balloon observations of power lines
over Japanese islands, EMC 81,Zurich,
pp525-530,(1981).
Boerner, W-M., Res. Grant Proposal
(1979 and 1980)
Akasofu, S-I., and Merritt, Nature,
279, 308-310,(1979)
Lanzerotti, L.J., Space Sci. Rev.,
34, 347-356, (1983).
Helliwell, R.A., et al, J. Geophys.
Res., 80, 4249-4258, (1975).
Luette, J.P.,,C:G. Park and R.A.
Helliwell, Geophys. Res. Let.,4,275278, (1977).
Hayashi, K., et al, Nature, 275,
By the balloon and satellite observations of power line radiation characteristics, the relationship between the
power line radiation and the magnetic
[21
substorm must be separate to estimate
at the effect of the frequency range
[31
below third harmonics, and at higher
than 4th harmonics of fundamental fre[41
quency of power line for three phased
AC transmmision system. The intensity
[51
of fundamental frequency and lower
harmonics of PLR observed on the ball[61
oon is not controlled by the geomagnetic substorm. And it is suggested that
the enhancement of power line radiation
[71
at lower frequencies will be influenced
627-629,
(1978).
mainly by the localized condition of
[81 Park, C.G.and R.A. Helliwell, Science
power line networks and power consumpScience, 200, 727-730, (1977).
tion in that area.
t91 Tomozawa, I. and T. Yoshino, Memoir
However, the intensities of the
of NIPR, Special Issue 31, 115-123,
higher harmonics more than 4th orders
(1984).
are enhanced by the magnetic field
variation of substorm as shown in the
Figures 4 and 8. This phenomena was
also observed clearly
on the ground at the
time of geomagnetic
b)
subsrorm, which increase
of 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th
and more higher harmonics of power line. This
data appeared in Central
Canada in 1979 [7].
Ry the radiation
mechanisum described the
recent paper 111, the
intensities of radiated
magnetic field are emitted from a current loop
r!
which consists of neutQ,
ral wire of three phase
iT
system and the ground,
.umust be intensified by
these harmonics current. E
The intensity of PLHR at
g
2
more than higher frequencies can be even induced under the condition of the more weak
1.
a.*0 1
0.5
0.5
0.0
1.
FRE:QUENCY
substorm. [8,91.
tra
of
thdkE
&tric
_I
and
magnetic
Fig.
7
Dynamic
spec
The data of this
field betwee n 40Hz-1kHz observed by B15-2N.
balloon and satellite
I
experiments will be able
Rev
to offer the lot of
qls:
valuable saggessions on
the research field to
related effect of power
line radiation in the
magnetosphere.
T--l
l-u 1
Acknowledgement
The authors 'are deeply
indepted to Drs. H. Yarn;-gishi, T.Ono, H.Fukunishi,
H.Miyaoka and M.Ejiri of
NIPR, and the staff of
ESRANGE, and the staff of
ISAS to their cooperation
and to helpful discussion,
and to the assistance of
S. Yamakawa in the spectral analysis.
171
- 301
56~1
I.
INTRODUCTION
*Work performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by the
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under contract No W-7405-ENC-48.
302
i,(F)
i?(F) - - &
t,(F)
I(s)(E
x 0
-3
2(F) = 2
I(s)(k2P
g(;,;))ds
- 3
t*,(F)
Is(G)
~1
a2
PC:,
i)ds
Z(s)
ZG f
:2(G)
[zs(:)
X V
g(;,;)]dA
(2)
s1
where
and
g(;, ;') = exp(-jk(r,
;I)/\;
;I
-i,(i)
k =WV!J E
00
I&')(2
x 0'
g(t,;)ds
I is the induced current, E' is the exciting
field, s^ and s^'are unit vectors tangent to the
wire at s and s', and i;and P' are vectors to
the points s and s' on the wire contour C.
n(F)
x V
ES
V' g(r,?)ldA'
(3)
a2
asasl)
- -
g(;,;)dA
f i,(i). [?$l)x
Numerical Solution
g(;,;)]dA
I(s)(k2$
9 js(G)
X [j,(?)
S,(G)
s1
a(;)
1
z?
- 5
(1
Ij(s)
= A. + Bjsin
3
k(s-sj)
Is-ss(
+ Cjcos
kb-sj)
< Ai/2
J
(4)
56
303 -
Jl
4
S,(X,Y)
= Iofbw)
1 gj(x,y)
(sj-Iosj)
(6)
j=l
where I, is the current at the base of the wire,
and
x2+ yy
h
P(x,y)
2?T(x2 + y2)
=-.-L-L_
s at
junction
q$)
- y
(5)
5 =3(x,y)
j
s j
k = 21~/X
y = 0.5772 (Euler's constant).
qx%Y)
= 1
(d+x)(d+y)
4d2
.!J2(XY)
= -+
(d-x) (d+y)
4d
.qXY)
(d-x) (d-y)
4d2
g4(xY)
(d+x) (d-y)
4d2
I(s)
j&jfj(5)
and (xj,yj) =
(x,Y)
304
CAPABILITIES
OF NEC-3
Source Modeling
A voltage source on a wire may be modeled
by an applied field on a segment or a
discontinuity in charge between segments.
Alternatively, a structure may be excited by a
plane wave with linear or elliptic polarization
or by the near field of an infinitesimal current
element.
Loading
Lumped or distributed RLC loads may be
specified on wires. Also, the conductivity of a
round wire may be specified and the impedance
computed taking account of skin depth.
Ground Effects
Three options are available for an antenna
in or near the ground. A perfectly conducting
ground is modeled by including the image field
in the kernel of the integral equation. This
doubles the time to compute the interaction
matrix. An approximate model for a finitely
conducting ground uses the image modified by
Fresnel reflection coefficients. This
approximation is usable for antennas at least
0.1 to 0.2 wavelengths above the ground and
doubles the time to fill the matrix.
NW-3 includes an accurate treatment for
wire structures above, below, or penetrating the
Input
A user-oriented input scheme permits
defining straight wires, arcs, and surfaces.
Electrical connections are determined in the
program by searching for wire ends and patch
centers that coincide. Shifts, rotations, and
reflections can be used in building complex
structures. A solution can be repeated for
modified model parameters (transmission lines,
loading, etc.) without respecifying parameters
that are not changed.
output
Output selectable by input parameters may
include:
current
charge density on wires
input impedance, admittance, and power
radiated power, ohmic loss, efficiency
radia,tedfield, power gain, directive
gain
average gain_
near E and H fields
maximum coupling (for matched source
and load)
receiving patterns
scattering cross section
For accurate results, the lengths of wire
segments should be less than about 0.1 A.
Longer segments up to about 0.15 x may be
acceptable on long, straight wires or
305
T = 3(10-4>kN2/M -I-2(10-6)~3/~2
where
and
(7)
Jl
or reflection coefficient
approximation
noncritical
parts of a structure while shorter
segments,
0.05 A or less may be needed in
modeling critical regions of an antenna.
A
reasonable
maximum for the area of a surface
patch appears to be 0.04 square wavelengths.
limited
56
T = (10-5)k(2Np)2/M
+ 2(10-5
(2NJ3/M2
IV.
REPRESENTATIVE RESULTS
ol0
306
I
. 270
90
180
360
OBSERVATION ANGLE
V.
-16.
-.5
-.4
-.3
-.2
Distance
-.l
0.
.1
.2
(Wavelengths)
CONCLUSION
56
Jl
Buried Pipe
l
l
- 308
REFERENCES
Cl1
C81
c21
cg1
c31
DOI
c41
c51
Ccl
Stales (;evernment.
Wversity
of (alifornia
press or implied,
curary.
Neither
hy sn agency of
complctenesc. or uwfulncw
or respwnihilily
of any inform&m,
ex-
for the w-
appsralw.
preducl, or
process disclosed, or rcprewnts thrl its USCwould not infringe privately owned
rights. Referenre herein tu any specific commercial productr, procre.
c71
nor the
manufacturer.
or otherwise.
rrcommcndatien,
of ~alifornia.
or wnice
or fweriog
hy Ihe Initsd
.I'he
views and opinion% or
awlhers expreasad herein de not necessarily Qrte or rellecl thow of the Iniled
States G~~~rnent
dorwmeot
purposes.
or product cn-
CClvB?UTER-AIDED ANALYSIS
IN VHF-FM
309
57~2
OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
BROADCASTING
D. J. Bern, J. Janiszewski,
Technical
University
Wrockaw,
The paper
method
presents
a computer-aided
compatibi-
for electromagnetic
lity analysis
casting
(EMCA)
The method
networks.
developed
in VHF-FM
on the basis
mathematical
model
broad-
has been
of an original
of the VHF-FM
net-
NETWORKS
R. Zielidski
of Wroclaw
Poland
The coverage
The protection
considered,
is determined
called
compatible
mitters
which
compatible
tic environment
dition
requires
of compatibility
all systems
information
should
compatibility
of various
signals.
tions provide
kinds
Simulation
us with
the performance
making
external
interferences.
number
ters distributed
frequency
achievable
ceivers,
with
and, at
from
co-
transmit-
predetermined
method
presents
a computer-aided
for electromagnetic
compatibi-
(EMCA) in
networks.
VHF-FM
The computer
in
FORTRAN
broadprogram
1900.
munication
ponents
mitter
consists
of
transmit-
should be
area.
of
done in
area,
i.e.,
a good reception
domestic
In a computer
of
and allocation
normal
value)
adjacent-channel
Models
for possible
in the
ever a definite
channels
the field
of distur-
of radio
This distribution
and
casting
and analysing
network
(protected
investiga-
allowances
A broadcasting
value
broadcasting
networks
which
lity analysis
this
characteristics
and existing
a certain
In the
an effective
for forecasting
planned
signal
area. The
range of a transmitter
The paper
an undisturbed
of a desired
presence
method
network
so
of the trans-
this
the
level.
of
be observed.
means
to
signals
or processing
case of a broadcasting
bing
regard
using electrical
for transmission
reception
by
ranges
service
an area over
usable
of the electromagne-
strength
Introduction
ratio,
the service
means
work.
COMPATIBILITY
is
re-
model
system
of a radiocom-
the following
can be distinguished:
models,
antenna
com-
trans-
models,
recei-
ver models,
propagation
models,
and a
geographical
environment
model.
These
models
describe
system
components
all properties
in compatibility
Propagation
which
are
of the
important
analysis.
model.
The propagation
curves based
370-4
on CCIR
Recommendation
are used for calculations of the
field strength.
strength
to path
covers
the greatest
poss'ible
valent
Part of a given
geographical
area.
a parameter
They relate
length with
transmitting
antenna
for various
field
the equiheight
percentages
as
of
- 310 -
in various
They represent
tic regions.
strength
exceeded
and apply
model
for
vegetation
Pr = -119.6
allowance
and man-made
structures
surface.
paths
and
However,
terrain
the territory
cluded
is enough
the transmitter
follows
analysis
in-
patibility
the considered
for
emissions
as a determined
Power
nominal
distribution
spectrum
com-
showed
are beyond
range.
a frequency-dependent
ratio
The receiving
characterized
antenna.
(ij protected
by
- rural
is
para-
of the field
emission:
70 dBp - great
emission:
- urban
value
(monophonic
cities;
54 dBp - rural
areas,
(ii) noise
mismatch
transmitting
and receiving
the omnidirectional
mismatch
power
are
not taken
adopted
model
value of the
the reception
absence
is correct
of interference
value
66 dBp
cities);
field
prefer-
Tab.
1. The
antenna
since
in
is
the
it does
Table
in the
Transmitting
antenna
vertical
horizontal
circular
linear
Attenuation
coefficient
Receiving
antenna
horizontal
vertical
linear
circular
ing conditions
sary
height
equal
to
e.g., when
to know
smaller
represented
3
made
of ,the recei-
10 m.
in cars,
In some
the
it
receiv-
.is neces-
field strength
and then
for
an additional
is introduced.
by
antenna
can
a probabilistic
in the case of an
nal antenna
18
testing
the
heigths
correction
CdB]
curves were
be
model
omnidirectio-
usa-
which
for
(minimum
antennae
of EMC analysis
The transmitting
is the minimum
of
the
is
in
into account
cases,
The protected
between
presented
method
areas,
input.
strength
case
ving antenna
stereophonic
74 dBp - great
the
polarization
48 dBp
areas,
of an omnidi-
In
Polarization
[2].
by two additional
recommended
or the model
rectional
CCIR propagation
strength
which
[4]
antenna
to
meters:
._
by
in the transmit-
introducing
protection
a directional
According
of
power[l] .
selectivity
models.
is
equal
output
is described
The
emission
value
antenna
of the
to the internal
of the fundamental
ter output
The
Cl1f
emission
frequency
the transmitter
It
treated
model.
related
of the nuisance
models
by two deterministic
CCIR
power
has been
model
dBm
E = -1.6 dBu
The receiving
deover
transmitter
This
Ah,
irregularities
and receiver
[3)
Antenna
in the model.
Transmitter
susceptibi-
field strength
on
irregularities.
of Poland,
cor-
it takes
scribing
by
lity threshold
land-sea
mixed
terrain
to the receiver
pro-
introduced
consideration
to 4,5 dB which
and
into
responds
noise
The discussed
attenuation
the Earth's
digital
med to be equal
ver-
to both horizontal
field
The receiver
field
at 50% of locations,
tical polarization.
pagation
clima-
the
[l]
- 311
57~2
EMC analysis
(2)
- O.O063(Ah/h)
and of time distribution
(3)
omnidirectional antenna
the standard deviation of spatial
distribution of the field strength is
caiculateci from
formula (31.
Lj probabi-
input:
usu
= HA + ESU(50,50) + PPATRU +
(7a)
+ 'EFHU + pPoLu
'PATR
model of an
where 0L
(6)
u;,=&Y
the spa-
USI = ESU - E
is
SI + Ap
(8)
-'
- 312 -
is - according
of places
distribution
- described
AUS(L,T)
to the normal
which
by
siderations.
H(T) = F(T) _I
0TU
(lib)
with
F(x) being
distribution
>
ratio depends
ference between
fering
of the protection
(11) to eq.
eqs.
and inter-
(7), (8)
(13)
ble
(14)
the spatial
lity of nondisturbed
The following
reception
parameters
in
EMC
probability
reception
[53:
of places
is fulfilled
with
Compatible
the value
exceeds
strength
included)
of the wanted
the minimum
signal
usable
segment
(MODY),
set of calculation
by the
as new transmitters
introduced
The
components
median
presence
of many
(in
point.
the
sources)
The SIP0
version
one; it selects
transmitters
to
EMC
performs
interfering
is a simplified
the previous
also the
of
analysis
observation
this
he wishes
procedure
where
at a given
which
well
by the
of
POINT
net-
transmitter
of
only
at the observation
point.
with LVS
(16)
being
of the spatial
reception.
user of
transmitter
Any
data file as
full interference
L* b LVS
limit value
who
useful
set
a particular
for analysis.
are possible.
(15)
is the
on disc,
analysis
of undisturbed
Ta =
EU(5O,5O)>,EC
output
permanent
Seven procedures
EC
algO-
perform.
field
steering
particular
rithms,
procedure
is fulfilled
realizing
kind of analysis
range of a transmitter
a supervisory
(Fig. 1)
where
99%.
in
systems.
network.
of undisturbed
- percentage
(2)
system
analysis
compatibility
MASTER,
selects
describing
was
segment
work
Lj.
program
sound broadcasting
probabi-
sound broadcasting
are of interest
Spatial
VHF-FM
program.
determine
condition
is accepta-
=1-T
TX
computer
FORTRAN
segments.
TWO sources
of time
interference
VHF-FM
in
procedures
- A(T)
TX is the percentage
easily
and
- ESI(50,50)
+ AP + H(TX)
Knowing
NEWEMCA
described
of the
lysis of internal
during which
method,
written
It contains
H(L)<ESU(50,5O)
where
dif-
signals.
By substituting
the
(12)
A(T)
the wanted
(17)
program
On the grounds
on the frequency
condition
= LVS
Computer
of time
the observation
the
be
of the protection
percent
AUS(L,T)
Notice
must not
one can
of the field
at
LE
of AUS(L,T)
median
fulfilling
function.
The value
ratio
Gaussian
the inverse
strength
point
con-
the wanted
level of
- the value
signal
H(L) = F(L) JvL;
0LU
For example,
The lowest
(lla)
and,
the economic
LVS = 0.5.
assume
where
developed
the
probability
This value
the purpose
for
The
it
RANGE
possible
coverage
is
to determine
area of a given
or a set Of transmitters.
SIAR
procedures
operate
make
the compatible
transmitter
The SIRA and
similarly
procedures,
to
the only
difference
fields
being
interfering
the
that
are calculated
in a simplified
313
57~2
at the analysed
interfering
denotation
manner.
interfering
fields
a function
to be presented
described
and capable
by the system
necessarily
physical
mainly
the
as
of frequency.
The program
oriented
allows
procedure
SPECT
The
who
need not
in the
specialists
phenomena
addressed
involved.
It is
the system
to
plan-
to which
frequency,
of undisturbed
for
inter-
transmitter.
transmitters
there
generating
levels exceed
However,
DATAR
opeproba-
reception
transmitter
In the example
the
condition
to a smaller
name of
it belongs,
rating
wanted
of
contains:
and spatial
bility
fering
The list
of the transmitter,
the country
a pair:
applied
of being
analysts
be
user
is
point.
transmitters
three
are
signals whose
protected
value.
(16) is satisfied
degree
EAD.
------a_
Fig.
Examples
of application
NEWEMCA
Fig. 2
shows
calculated
which
yield
tially
such which
generate
exceeds
means
by means
a signal
be compatible.
list of interfering
(after
amplitude
i.e.,
point
value.
absence
This
of
ters would
poten-
that in the
ference
list of
inter-
transmitcomplete
transmitters
and frequency
tion) makes
it possible
investigate
the interference
selec-
to thoroughly
situation
of
is no
compatible
at the analysed
The results
of results
analysed
the protected
so there
ception
transmitters,
the
program
(50%)
of POINT procedure
an ordered
at
of
program
an example
compatible
1: NEWEMCA
discussed
point.
of spectrum
interference
point
are given
SPECT
confining
of frequency
within
The
operating
the transmitter
compatible
points
the
in
the range
71.5-72.0
MHz.
frequency
which would
reception
is 71.8.
at
Fig. 3.
realized
with
were
optimum
analysis
situation
The calculations
procedure
re-
at the
of
ensure
analysed
- 314
the frequency
possible
It is also
compatible
analysis
casting
SPECT
a perfect
and planning
networks.
procedure
By means
situation
transmitter
NEWEMCA
within
program
of
Fig. 2: Results
POINT
of calculations
and
pick up
frequency.
can be applied
the frequency
the
of the
at the site of
broadcasting
after completing
can
one
analysis
operating
case
attractive.
is very
interference
the optimum
broad-
latter
In this
the
modelling
of this procedure
planned
model
VHF-FM
of
the
set of
simulation
The
us with
MHz.
to determine
ranges of a given
transmitters.
provide
65.5-73
range of
range
for
systems
87.5-108MHz
TRANSMITTERS
set.
by
procedure
References
[l] Rotkiewicz, W. (edit.) : ElectroCompatibility
in Radio
magnetic
Engineering. Elsevier, Amsterdam,
WKiE, Warszawa 1982.
[2] Huet, M., Rutkowski, J., Harhi, M.:
Planning of FM sound broadcasting
in the VHF
band. Telecommunication
Journal, Vol. 50, 1983, No. 7,
PP. 295-31.
[3] Duff, W.G., White, D.R.J.: EM1
Prediction and Analysis Techniques,
A handbook series on electromagnetic interference and compatibility
Vol. 5.
[4] CCIR: Recommendation
412-3, Geneva,
1982. Planning standards for FM
sound broadcasting
at VHF.
Fig.
3: Results
SPECT
of calculations
by
procedure
Conclusion
The discussed
the VHF-FM
makes
possible
spatial
model
of
of the
undisturbed
transmitters
or planned
of
system
the calculation
probability
reception
existing
simulation
sound broadcasting
operating
and
alrea,dy
within
- 315
58J3
SUmARY
Two computer models, one developed by
the Bell Telephone Laboratories (BTL) and the
okher by the Systematic8 General Corporation
(SGC) were modified and used in this analysis
to determine power-flux-density (PFD) limits
for satellites operating in the 2025-2300 MHz
These
modifications
range.
frequency
capability
to
the
extended
the models'
evaluation Of the PFD limits, using the
technical characteristics of equipments in
A distinction was made between
this band.
geostakionary and nongeoskationary satellites
for this analysis.
The Bell Lab model was
used to evaluate PFD limits for geostationary
satellites and the SGC model was used to
evaluate
PFD
limits
for nongeostationary
satellites.
These limits were calculated
using technical characteristics of equipments
in the 2025-2300 MHz frequency range.
The
analysis takes into account the emission
(spectra)
of
the
desired
and
undesired
signals
and
the
noise
criteria
for
interference from satellites as specified by
CCIR Recommendation 357-3.
This analysis
indicates that the PFD limits on the surface
of the earth adopted by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) for the 20252300 MHz frequency range may be raised by 10
dB for geostationary satellites and by 16 dB
for nongeoskationary satellites serving the
United States.
The results also indicate
that
the
calculated
PFD
limits,
which
restrict satellite emissions to analog radiorelay receivers are adequate for protecting
digital
radio-relay
receivers
in
the
frequency range noted above.
The procedure described for selecting
the input parameters and the modifications
made to the computer models are necessary and
sufficient for determining the PFD limits in
other frequency bands. A brief discussion of
the models used in this analysis is included
in this paper.
INTRODUCTION
The space activities during the second
half
of
the
1950's alerted
ITU member
administrations
to a new demand on the
frequency
spectrum.
Spectrum management
problems
encountered
among
ground-based
emitters and/or airborne transmitters had
been more regionally oriented.
The spectrum
sharing difficulties with global impact that
7-
-45
F
1
3
a
-50
9
&
El
g
-55
-60
!O
dBWtm2 I"
-154+.05
(b-5)
-144
where
is
any
kliz 8
.I
"
I.
I.
the
angle
of
< 6 < !+
<8
< 25=
6 > 25O
arrival
in
- 316 -
i4
= k(Af,m) n4
(1)
where:
k(Af,m) = a
function
dependent
on
modulation indices of both the
undesired and desired signals
I4 =
n4 =
i, =
interference in
channel
nC =
the receiver
- 317
t21:
'41nBW1
(2)
k(Af,m) =
Bwn
where:
i41n =
BWl =
BWn =
levels
normalized
interfering signal
of
the
bandwidth
of
noise
power
IX
NF
VK
- Value of k function
N
- Number of stations in a trendline
NTR
- Number of trendlines
XL
- Latitude of the first station (deg)
DXLL
- Latitude of the last station (deg)
XL1
- Latitude increment (deg)
ss
- Satellite spacing (aeg)
DBRNCO - Allowed noise level in receiver
DBL
- Feed loss (dB)
TS
- Receiver noise temperature
FGHz
- Frequency (GH2)
_
The typical antenna pattern for a radiorelay receiver and the satellite PFD limits
are two sets of important input data.
The
antenna gain pattern for a radio-relay is
similar to that given by the CCIR [4].
G(0) =
dBi
O0 <e
A f B log 0
dBi
e1 <e
-10
dBi
<el
< e2
8 >02
80.0
the
for
the
ratio
receiver when the interference
is noise
(npr) = noise power ratio when the
noiseiis the interfering signal
(npr),
58~3
60.0
40.0
20.0I -
0.cI
80
1220
810
460
INTERFERENCE (PW)
Figure 2.
The modified
GM is useful for the
determination of PFD limits in any shared
frequency band.
However, care should be
exercised
in
the
preparation
of
input
parameters.
The input parameters for the GM
should be based on allocations in, and the
technical characteristics of the equipment
using, the frequency band.
Tn an earlier
analysis [2], it
was shown that PFD limits
for geostationary satellites can be raised by
'10 dB
based
on
the
use
and
technical
characteristics of equipments in the 20252300 MHz band,
CQMPUTATION OF NOISE-POWRR RATIO (npr)
The algorithm used in the computation of
NPR is based on the method developed by
Pontano, et al. (51.
The equation for the
determination of npr is:
(3)
npr =
ml 2 fml
HP(f) 2
(5)
(1 - E) I(a,b) fch2
where:
rms modulation index of desired
signal
fml = maximum baseband frequency of
desired signal
HP(f) = frequency response of preemphasis network
E = ratio of minimum to maximum
baseband frequencies
f ch = midfrequency of baseband
channel under consideration
m,
wherd
A,
B,
C,
el, and 0
are
input
parameters to the program.
T8l
e PFD limits
from the satellites to Fixed Service radiorelay receivers that have been accepted by
the CCIR are in the form of:
FVl
0 < 6 <EVA1
I(@) = FVl + FV2 (6 - EVAl) EVA1 < 6 ?EVA2
6 IEVA
I FV3
(4)
- 318
00
and
[Pl(f + a) P2(f - a) +
I(a,b) =
(6)
;I gs; :r;;;
separation of desired
fs =frgquengy
and undesired signals
baseband frequency
Pl$f :: interfering signal spectrum
Pp(f) = desired signal spectrum
Evaluation of the convolution integrals given
in Equation 6 was done using the algorithm
For a large number of
developed by Das[6].
systems, the integrals in Equation 6 should
be evaluated numerically. This algorithm was
used in the determination of (npr), and
(nvr). in Equation 2.
I
-n
NOtiGEOSTATIONARY
MODEL (NGM)
emission
on
the
A
radio-frequency
surface of the earth from a nongeostationary
satellite is time-dependent because of the
relative motion of the satellite with respect
to the earth. More specifically, the time a
fixed radio-relay receiver on the earth is
exposed to the potential interference from a
nongeostationary satellite varies since the
satellite appears in a different location in
the orbital sphere as it travels in its
orbit. Since the potential interference from
the nongeostationary satellite to radio-relay
receivers is intermittent, it is feasible to
compute a different set of PFD limits for
satellites.
The
nongeostationary
interference criteria, as shown in Figure 1,
for a smalLer percentage of
are higher
Hence, the
reception time in any month.
potential
time
for
.accumulated reception
trendline
from
to
a
interference
nongeostationary satellites is a major factor
The GM
in the determination of PFD limits.
computer program discussed earlier does not
account
the
duration
of
take
into
interference, because the algorithm in the
program assumes continuous interference.
The NGM is an extension of the GM. This
program computes the potential interference
from nongeostationary satellites to trendline
receivers as a function of the percentage of
month.
This
for
model
time
was
any
originally developed by Locke and Rinker [7].
visibility
statistics
The
of
nongeostationary satellites were the subject
of an earlier article
[8].
A bounding
equation was derived that related the longterm visibility of a satellite in circular
orbit to the orbital inclination angle and
the latitudinal and longitudinal bounds of a
orbital
sphere
of
a
the
region
on
The percentage of time that a
satellite.
nongeostationary satellite will remain in a
certain region visible to a ground station,
over a long period of time, is given by:
sin(L1)
T(%) = hh
2x2
arcsin
sin i
(7)
sin(L_) 1
L
- arcsin xl00
sin i
I
-I
'where:
AX = the longitudinal region on the
orbital shell, between the
latitudinal limits of Ll andL2
319
58~3
3.
Interference
nongeostationary
in a trendline
IS
EXCEEDED
in
receivers
plan.
BI~~R~B
am
(BEP)~COWPUTATION ~DELS
6
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE
Figure
4.
RATIO S/N,
0,
Probability
of BER vs.
S/N
demodulator
for
a receiver
shift
keying.
(dB)
at the input
to
using
amplitude-
- 320
Figure 5.
1.
Figure 6.
[Il.
[21.
REFERENCES
Farrar, A.,
Assessment
of
Satellite
Power
Flux-Density
Limits
in
the
2025-2300 MHz Frequency Range, Part I,
NTIA Report 83-135, NTIA, Annapolis, MD
(1983).
Farrar, A.,
Assessment
of
Satellite
Power-Flux-Density Limits in the 20252300 MHz Frequency Range, Part II, NTIA
Report
84-152,
NTIA,
Annapolis,
MD
(1984).
COMPUTER
BOUNDS
321
PROGRAMS
FOR CALCULATING
OF INTERFERENCE
ARBITRARILY
59J4
BETWEEN
Kazuhiro
Hirasawa
Fig. 1: General
wire antennas
Computational Method
Wire antennas are analyzed by the
method of moments using piecewise
sinusoidal expansion and weighting
functions [63 for the current on the
antenna. The current is written as
. . . (1)
Im m
m=l
where M is the number of expansion
functions, and J, is the mth expansion
function of the position. The boundaryvalue problem for the current J can be
reduced to a set Of linear equations in
I, (m = 1, 2, .... M) by standard
methods [51. The results may be written
in a matrix form
5=
[Zl [II
= rvF + VLl
. . . (2)
tz1-~w,
+ VLl
. . . (3)
At
...(4)
Li*Li
where ZLi (= RL;'t jXL_) is the load
impedance and ILi is l&e element of [II
corresponding to the load port.
Consider the case where there is
only one load ZLi' and the feed voltages [V,l are known. By using (4) the
vector [I] in (3) is expressed with
respect to a variable ZLi, and an antenna performance index such as active
impedance, power gain, etc. can be
written as
* *
2
allZLil +a2ZLi+a2ZLi+a3
...(5)
**
'i bllzLi12+b2ZLi+b2ZLi+b3
322
obtain
Pmin or cmaxr and [Z + Z,]-1
in (7) becomes a new [Z]-l in (3) as
the start of a new iteration. Although
at the start of the iteration it is
assumed that all the load values are
zero, any initial load values can be
chosen. Also note that this algorithm
finds only the local bounds for more
than one load and the global bounds
may not always be obtained.
The bounds are analytically obtained at each iteration, and the iterative method used here is equivalent to
P-dimensional search procedures without constraints (P is the number of
the loads.). On the other hand, general nonlinear optimization methods
require 2P-dimensional search with
constraints RLi 1 0 (i = 1, 2, .... P)
for the same problem. Thus the method
used here may find the bounds in many
fewer steps than general nonlinear
optimization methods do.
Description of the Computer Programs
The program is written in FORTRAN
IV and has been run on an HITACHI Ml70
computer.
The antennas are assumed thin and
are thought of as being divided into a
number of short segments connected
together. Each segment is defined by
its two axial end points. The complete
set of points (together with the antenna radius) essentially defines
the geometry of the antenna structure,
and individual points are numbered
consecutively from the first point of
the first antenna to the final point
of the last antenna. The spatial coordinates of these Noints are a part of
the required data input. Normally,
about 20 segments are used for each
wavelength of the antenna subject to
the condition that each segment length
should be at least five times the
radius of the corresponding antenna.
One current expansion function
where a 1' a3, bl and b are real constants, a2 and b2 are 2omplex constants, and * stands for the complex
conjugates. Then the bounds of pi and
the correswondina values of Zl:
(RLi ) 0) can be-obtained anayftically [31 .
Pi
(Zr,i,max)
Once we know Z
the vector III
obtained from (2)L&Ad (4) as
[II
[Z + z,1-lny
L,=1.25m
L2=lm
L3=0.6m
L4=0.5m
(6)
is
. . . (7)
-4
Radius:#l=#2=O.Olm,_ #3=#4=O.O06m
f,=120MHz, f2=150MHz
f3=250MHz, f;=300MHz
Fig. 2:
59J4
- 323 -
FREQ(MHZ)=
IMAGE= Y , i#l;;ANT=
4 , # DF FEED=
ANTENNA
LENGTH(METER):
0.250
0.500
0.300
0.625
ANTENNA
RADIUS(METEH):
0.01000
0.00600
0101000
0.00600
# OF EXP FUNS:
4
6
3
7
FEED POINT:
1 v fd OF LOAD=
L;IAD POINT:
8 12 la
50 OHM
LOAD
CHARACTtRISTICS=
N 9 PWR
2: N 9 VSWR= N , E-FIELD=
N , E(THE)=
N ? E(PHI)=
N )
0.0
2,000
0.0
;:;oo
%oo
;:",oo
;:;oo
0.0
o*o
0.0
0.0
0.0
izoo
0.0
0.0
!?!:800 2.000
2,000
0.0
2.000
2.000
0.357
-0.083
0.083
0.446
0.0
01167
01179
0,225
-0.083
Oe268
0.300
0.0
LPZ
a 9 LOAD
++ i_P= 12 s LOAD
tt LPZ 18 I LDAD
tt
FP
1
LOAD
IMP=
IMP=
IMP=
CHARACTERISTICS
0.5000Et02
0.5000E+O2
0.5000E*02
2rooo
2.000
0.0
2.000
2,000
0.0
2.000
o*o
2.000
0.536
01083
0.250
0.625
0.167
-0.075
0.250
INPUT IMP(OHM)
0.9265Et02
0.3954E+02
PHMX=
PHI
270.
EMX=
MAG
3::
60.
90.
120.
150.
180.
0.9614
0.8267
0.9533
0.8247
Or9965
0.7921
0.9938
###X#
a*0
0.0
0.0
(OHM)
(OHM)
(OHV)
VSWR(ZO=
50.
2.29
-1.65
-0.34
-0.42
-1t67
-0.03
-2.02
-0.05
210.
180.
240.
270.
300.
330.
360.
0.8439
0.9938
0.8496
1*0000
0.7920
0.9995
018267
3.01
MAG(DB)
-0.05
-1.47
-1.42
-Z3
-0100
-1.65
##K## BOUNDS
DF POWER GAIN ####Y
(RELATIVE
TO HALFWAVE
DIPOLE)
PHI
3::
60.
90.
120.
150.
180.
2100
240.
270.
300.
330.
360.
GAIN
3r29
2.45
2.45
3.29
2.43
2.86
4.83
2.29
2.29
4r82
2.86
2.43
3.29
(08)
3r03
1.74
1.75
3.03
lr72
2.42
4.70
1.46
1*45
4.69
2.42
1.72
3.03
Fig.
GAIN
0.44
0.49
0*49
0.44
0.48
0.77
lr29
0.39
0.39
1.29
0.77
0.48
0.44
(DB)
-5.68
-5r24
-5.22
-5.66
-5.35
-3.28
-I*02
-6.23
-6.25
-1.03
-3.29
-5.35
-5.68
3: The output
+t
t*
**
OHM)
""HORIZONTAL
PATTERN""
0.7405
GNE
2,002
GN(DB)=
-----THETA=
90.0 ----MAG(DB)
PHI
MAG
0.0
2.000
FEED VDLTAGE(HEALIIMAG)(VDLT):
1.000
0.0
,c%%ia# 50 OHM
G=
of the program
- 324
extends over the two consecutive segments, and two adjacent expansion functions are overlapped on one segment.
Thus the first expansion function
begins at the first point, has the
peak (= 1) at point two and terminates
at point three, while the second begins
at point two, has the peak (= 1) at
point three and terminates at point
four, and so on.
As an example, the bounds of the
power gain of antenna #l operating at
120 MHz as shown in Fig.2 are calculated where antenna #2, #3 and #4 are
loaded at the center of each antenna.
The computer output is shown in Fig.3.
The first statement is the operating
frequency in MHz and is 120 MHz. The
next statement is IMAGE (= YES), the
number of antennas (= 4), aiid the
number of feeds (= 1) and loads (= 3).
If IMAGE = YES, the symmetry of the
antenna structure with respect to the
-_-
50 R loaded
-5
180
360
@(degrees)
(a) Antenna
i
-101
0
,
180
$(degrees)
(c) Antenna
#l at 120 MHz
I
360
#3 at 250 MHz
I-
s
-0
F:
vi
2
50 R loaded
L,
,1
-5
-10
Bbunds
180
360
'0
180
360
@(degrees)
@(degrees)
(b) Antenna
#2 at 150 MHz
(d) Antenna
gain relative
to a halfwave
#4 at 300 MHz
dipole
(0 = 90)
59J4
- 325 -
L1=0.5m, L2=0.6m
Radius: #1=#2=0.005m
Fig. 5: A linear
antenna
(IT
f?
= 300 MHz, D = 1 m
= 300 MHz, D = 2 m
fl
-_a
a
if
-20
-2c)._
-30
-40
-90
D=co
--I cl-
fl10
a
Q
=
w
Results
-30
-40
90
@(degrees)
@(degrees)
(a) D = 1 m
Fig. 6: The electric
90
(b) D = 2 m
field magnitude
of the linear
array antenna(6
= 90')
- 326 -
NUMERICAL
SIMULATION
327
OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
IN TIME
AZRAK
G.
The
development
of
system5
with
high
electromagnetic
noise
immunity
levels,
in the
civil domain
as well as in the military
one,
electrodevelopment
of
the
necessitate5
magnetic
compatibility
simulation
models.
TO
different
the
analysis
of
end,
an
this
coupling
paths
between
electromagnetic
noise
system
is
prethe
perturbed
sources
and
This
analysis
is based
on the "Twosented.
A spectral
study
and associated
Box** model.
computer
program
package
have
been
developed
to
find
either
the
system
response
in the
time or frequency
domains.
The
temporal
study
is particularly
interesting
when perturbations
As
illushave
a wide
frequency
spectrum.
simulations
and experimental
results
tration,
are presented.
I- -IoN
During
the
last
decade,
a
technology
trend has baen to assemble
in the same system
the power
and control
equipments,
this could
not be undertaken
without
initiating
problem5
involving
the
compatibility
in
the
same
electromagnetic
environment
of the different
elements
of the system.
Another
trend,
in the
drive
for
greater
performance,
has
led
to
signals
with
steep
fronts,
therefore
very
wide
emission
spectrum
will
occure.
very
Equipments
must
then
operate
in a polluted
electromagnetic
environment.
In
addition,
electronic
circuits,
especially
digital
ones,
are
more
sensitive
to
perturbations.
It
follows that these EMC problem5
must be dealt
with
in proportion
to the
important
safety
ma
economic
impact
involved.
lb.-o big
packages
to simulate
the EMC problem5
exist
in the USA. These packages
are very ponderous
to
handel,
require
large
computers
and
operate
in
the
batch
mode.
Other
computer
programs
are
conceived
for micro-calculators
and
dont
take
into
account
the
phase
variation5
of the
coupling
modes.
Thus,
we
found
it
necessary
to
develop
a
coupling
model
between
offending
sources
and
target
syotems
ana
an
associated
computer
package
adapted
to
widly
distributed
mini-systems.
This package
takes
into account
the principal
physical
parameters
of the system.
APPIUNCFI
COMPATIBILITY
DOMAIN
Merlin-gerin
Generales
Dpt. Recherches
38050 Grenoble
- FRANCE
II- SPECTBAL
60~5
Dpt.
AURIOL Ph.
Ecole Centrale
de Lyon
Electrotechnique
(U.A. CNRS
69131 Ecully - FRANCE
629)
of
the
nature
impulse
of
the
Because
the
EMC
study
of
signals,
a
offending
pr&lema
in the tFme domain
is necessary.
The
dependent;
are
frequency
system
parameter5
a spectral
analysis
coupled
with a
therefore,
Fourier
Transform
may be used.
In addition
to
this approach
can provide,
the time response,
with
modest
computing
power
and with
enough
the coupling
spectrum
independently
accuracy,
of the type
of interfering
signal.
This
is
very useful
to find the frequency
band where
the
system
is most
susceptible.
The
direct
approach
by
resolving
differential
equations
using
the
finite
difference
method
is also
interesting,
especially
when
non-linear
elements are to be integrated
in the system.
In
order
to
formulate
different
the
coupling
paths
and to simulate
the effect
of
an offending
signal
on
a system we have used
the following
simulation
models.
IIIOur study
SIMULATION
is based
incident
W3DEI.83
on the
Two-Box
model:
electromagnetic
YaYe
---.-_-
boxx
---.____--
box+2
interCOnneCtlo
-----__-_
- &iprit-&&f
------__-
- Z&l. cl&it- -
boxa
ground
ourrent
ground
grounding
impedance
328
rib
--.cosa.cosP
A
nl
c = -.cosa.sinP
A
h,l = loop geometry
a, 13, 9 = wave space
where
double
exponential,
nonnalised
form
form
used
to simulate
chopped
parameters
. GLR is defined
as the
ratio
of
victim
voltage
over the induced
voltage.
equivalent
scheme is the following:
CAI-
mixed
Y=
the
The
CA2
fronts
boxe
grounding
impedance
v.
The
damped sinusoid
used to simulate
oscillatory
circuits
with a
damping
factor
phenomenon
equations
that
set
of
can be written
as:
govern
the
t r = rise time
tf = fall
= peak
xP
time
value
IV- EMCCGUPLINGPATHS
Electromagnetic
interference
may enter the
system by a number
of different
paths
leading
from
the
offending
emission
source
to
the
We
could
devide
the
paths
victim
receptor.
into two main classes:
l- radiated
coupling
paths
2- conducted
coupling
paths
Yh -
predominate:
Field-to-cable
common-mode
coupling.
This
mode=
devided
into two parts:
l
Common-Mode
Coupling
(CMC)
l
Ground-Loop
Rejection
(GLR)
Ct4C converts
an electromagnetic
field
to
a common
voltage
into
the ground-loop
area.
This
voltage
then
acts
as
a potential
EMI
source
to push
current
around
the loop area
which
includes
the victim
cabl.e. The
resulting
differential-mode
voltage
developed
in
the
victim
cable
appears
across
the
victim
input to constitute
the potential
EMI threat,
l
CMC
coefficient
is
the
ratio
of
the
voltage
over
induced
the
electric
field,
i.e.:
vi
4h
-=--*
EO
77 cosa.sin(
CO98
.sin(y) .sin(a).
20)
sin(&)
ii-ii
5, -
*here
Radiated
coupling
paths
Three coupling
modes
rrs1
cc _ -_
sh(pX)
trc.(x
+ -y--j
P
ID.(X
z2,
P
+Vc.( CWih-l
-------)I
P.2,
-its-E
(RG
S=
s.lc,.iz
CP.Bl
B.(LBl
Ht(Z
rem
LLG!
bnm)l
(ET - G + IT)
ju
The nterconnection
is
considered
as
a
distributed
constant
line.
The resolution
of
this
system
leads
to the
rejection
coefficient
lVi/Vol.
Field-to-cable
differential-mode
couplinq,
This
coupling
mode
is
the
same
as
the
previous
one
except
that
the
Field
couples
into
an
area
formed
by
the
wire-pair
separation
in a cable
along
its length.
For
this coupling
mode,
two protections
are often
used.
One
consists
in shielding
the
cable,
the other,
less
expensive,
in twisting
it,
Shielding
effectivness
is represented
by the
ratio
SE of
the
transmitted
wave
over
the
incident
one;
hereunder
we
give
the
SE
corresponding
to
the
shielding
by
a rlgid
tube. As for the twisting
effectivness,
it is
represented
by
the ratio
TE of the induced
voltage
in the twisted-wire
pair over the one
that would have existed without
twisting.
z-1
=-)Texp(-2yt)lI
K+l
(l+Tt)2
Iexp(s).--.rl-(
4ii
SE =
it
where
329
-12c12-ml2(cl+cl2)
-11c12-m12(c2+c12)
m12c12+12(c2+C12)
The study
of separated
tive
and capacitive)
leads
system:
%I
= CMI.[VLI
complex
where
is
a
relative
to air
/+ z tube permeability
cl = tube conductivity
propagation
constant
in the
metal barrier
iI
1 tube thickness
1%
ll(cl+cl2)+ml2cl2
CBl =
= Cl/(l+j)l.J2a/(w&+o)
2nx+
1
1 + 2nX.sinC3rr/(4n~)l
60~5
couplings
(inducto the
following
expression
mij
which
depends
on:
common length
of cables;
line constants
Per
mutual
capacitance
and inducunit
length;
the
propagation
phenomenon
in both
tance;
nh > 1
lines.
x = wire length
n = twists Per length unit
A = wavelength
of the incident
where
wave
cables.
coaxial
for
exists
also
DMC
are
currents
then
surface
Field-coupled
produced
on the outer surface
of the Coax. By
the transfer
imPedance
of the coaxial
line, a
differential-mode
voltage
is produced.
cable-to-cable
couplinq.
By
field
Near
inductive
and/or
means,
from
a
capacitive
nearby
source
cable carrying
either
raw Power
or
signal
emissions,
cable-to-cable
coupling
produces
unintentional
emissions
on a victim
cable.
The following
figure
shows the network
involving
coupling
between
culprit
and victim
circuits:
Conducted
coupling
Paths
we limit
our study
to
As a first
step,
the
common-impedance
coupling.
Another
COUPling mode
(Power
supply)
exists.
Within
the
framework
of our
study
we thus
suppose
the
supplies
ideal.
common-impedance
coupling
exists when two,
networks
or equip
ments
circuits,
or more,
share a commun
section
of a ground
plane
due
also
exists
grounding.
It
to
multi-Point
current
high
frequency
goes
whenever
a
through
the
ground
plane.
In the
study
the
ground
plane
is considered
as an homogeneous
plate. !lwo theories
are developed:
l
finite thickness
plate
l
infinite
thickness
plate
The
calculation
of the
dissipated
Power
and of the electromagnetic
energy
accumulated
in
a
Prism
(a,b)
leads
to
the
following
exPressions
of the ground plane impedance:
*finite
thickness
plate.
1X
dx
The equivalent
follows:
scheme
may
be
presented
as
a
R=
(a/b).
L = (a/&)
2~6
206
*infinite
- -.
sin(e/s)
+ sh(e/6)
Cch(e/6) - cos(e/6)1
sh(e/6) - sin(e/6)
Cch(e/6) - cos(e/6)1
thickness
plate.
. . --_
dx
nr I *#It=2
,,=Z.rn-I
Both,
culprit
and victim,
are considered
as distributed
circuits.
The equations
governing the phenomenon
may be written
as:
a2
[VI =
$&
a2
lil = CBl ~2
CA1 s
Cvl
R=LU
where
[il
where:
ll(cl+cl2)+ml2cl2
-llcl2-ml2(c2+cl2)
CA1 =
1
L-12c12-m12(cl+c12)
m12c12+12(c2+c12)_l
= a/sb6
6 is the
skeen
depth
in metal
= G,
As
for
common-mode
voltage,
the
any
ground-loop
rejection
ratio is applied
to the
common-impedance
coupling
to find the differential-mode
voltage
that
appears
acros8
the
victim
input
and
constitutes
the
Potential
EMI threat.
v-
330
sIMuLAT1OW
Package characteristics
for research and industrial
A
package
applications for computer aided design in the
area of BMC has been realized on the basis of
the different coupling modes developed in
It covers most problems related to the
IIV.
Two-Box modelr
.
interconnection. we
can consider a
simple wire-pair, a twisted wire-pair or a
we
can also consider
shielded wire-pair:
shielded and twisted wire-pair or a coaxial
line with the shield grounded or not.
l
boxe grounding. we can choose solid
grounding, isolated boxes or inductive grounding with or without cabinet bond.
We can also consider optical isolators.
As offending signal the three forms developed
in 5x11 are used. A real signal f(t) can be
entered directly on a computer terminal.
The package is especially designed for
users who are not particularly expert in EMC.
This has required the development of special
procedures to facilitate the input of data
and the output of results. The modularity of
the package enables it to be useful even when
the initial hypothesis are inadapted; in this
case it is easy to replace or to modify the
corresponding routines.
This full interactive package, written in
Fortran 77, is implemented on a mini-computer
(HP 1000) and is thus easily transportable,
Computed results
As
illustration,
we
present
spectral
simulations that show the effect of the
grounding and the interconnection nature on
the ground-loop rejection (figure 1).
0 . --
isolated
t boxes
inductive
C) coupling by the
wire-pair
grounding with
D) coupling by the shield I cabinet bond
E) coupling by the wire-pair with solid
grounded boxes
I;
t(/ksec.)
_.
-
331
60~5
t(psec.1
figure
3- isolated
boxes
wo
conclusions
are obvious:
with the ungrounded
boxes
the peak voltage
is
13
times
than
with
leas
grounded
ones.
Elsewhere,
oscillations
appear
around
4.5 MHZ
which
is the maximal
susceptibility
frequency
of the system.
Experiments
were made
in spectral
domain.
They were
carried
out in a Faraday
cage.
As
illustration,
we
present
the
calculated
and
mesured
ground-loop
rejection
for two lengths
of wire-pair
(figures
4-5).
figure
5- cable
length
= 113.5
meters
agreement
up
to
We
notice
loogood
30ckBz.
Beyond
this, oscillations,
due to the
propagation
in the wire-pair,
are noticed.
VII-aNzLoBIoN
figure
4- cable
length
= 40 meters
We have
presented
a methodology
to study
the susceptibility
of an electronic
equipment
to
electromagnetic
perturbations.
An
associated
interactive
package
has
been
presented which
operates
in both
the spectral
and
time
domains.
The
different
starting
hypothesis
were
always
incorporated
with the aim
to realize
a versatile
tool adapted
to minicomputers
and
corresponding
to
an
investment
easily
justified
by the quality
gain
on the equipment
to design.
332
EM1
may
now
With
numerical
simulations,
somewhat
predictable.
as
being
be
regarded
The
package
is not
limited
to the
computer
aided
design
but
could
also
be used
for a
posteriori
analytical
study
of a system
with
Simulation
its
immunity.
improve
a view
to
coupling
a
improved
by
quality
could
be
station
to
the
calculator
so
that
testing
real
perturbing
signals
could
be
directly
analysed.
C63
technique
for
CLYTON
R. PAUL - A simple
- CH 1936-2/t33/0000estimating
crosstalk
0430, 1983, IEEE, p.430.
173
HENRY
JASIK,
Editor
- first
ring
handbook
Bill Book Company,
Inc.
I81
EUGENE
D.
KNOWLES
Cable
effectiveness
testing
- IEEE
Electromagnetic
Compatibility,
16, No. 1, Feb. 1974, ~~~16-23.
and
C.D.
TAYLOR
HARRISON,
J.R.
Cl1 C.W.
terminated
transmission
Response
of
a
line
excited
by a plane
wave
field
for
IEEE
incidence
arbitrary
angles
of
on Electromagn.
compatibility,
vol.
Trans.
EMC-15,
No. 3, August 1973.
193
M.A.
DINALLO,
L.0,
HOEFT,
J.S.
HOFSTRA,
effectiveness
of
D. THOMAS
- Shielding
typical
cables
from lMBz to 1000 MHz The BDM Corporation,
1601 Randolph
Road,
N. M. 67106, pp.499-493.
SE Albuquerque,
233 Donald
R.J.
White,
MSEE/PE
- A handbook
on electromagnetic
shielding
materials
and
1960,
second
copyright
performance
edition,
sec. 1.3, pp. 1.8-1.14.
C41 J. LIFERMANN
- Theorie
la
transformation
de
Masson 1977.
et applications
Fourier
rapide
de
-
C51 V.M.
TCJRESIN
- Electromagnetic
compatibility
guide
for design
engineers
- IEEE
on Electromagnetic
Compatibility
Trans.
vol. EKC-9,
No. 3, Dec. 1967.
Antenna
edition,
engineeMcGraw-
shielding
Trans.
on
vol.
EWC-
simulation
des
AZRAK
Etude
et
Cl01 G.
subies
perturbations
electromagnetiques
systemes
electroniques
dans
les
par
These
de
l'appareillage
electrique
a
1'Ecole
Oocteur
Ingenieur
presentee
Centrale
de
Lyon
(France)
le
16 Oct.
1994.
Cl11 G.
AZRAK,
Ph.
AURIOL
- Calcul
de
la
susceptibilite
electromagnetique
des systemes
electroniques
industriels
- S.E.E.
Journees
d'Etudes
9,
10
et
11 Mai
1984, Grenoble,
France.
333
61JS
CYLINDRICAL
Technical
University
Wroclaw
A procedure
for treating
a nonlinearly
loaded
thin
cylindrical
antenna
as a scatterer
is described
and illugtrated.
Following
the procedure
the
use of computer
to solving
nonlinear
magnetic-field-type
(Hallen-type.1
integral
equation
for a current
distrlbution
on the antenna
has been shown.
The equation
IS solved
numerically
by
method of moments and nonlinear
problem is treated
by applying
the Bairistov numerical
procedure.
Numerical
and experimental
examples
for several
loads
are presented.
Introduction
A number of man-made objects
and
many physical
phenomena are inherently
nonlinear
in nature.
In the area of
nonlinearitles
may
electromagnetics,
be unforeseen
and undesirable
In the
design
of a particular
system.
For example,
in radar
applications
it may
exhibit
nonlinear
effects
which In turn result
in new frequency
components
appearing
in the backscattered
field.
Whereas others
nonlinearitiee
may be
essential
in functioning
of the system
i harmonic
radar
detecting
system).
One
example
of this
nonlinearity
involves
metal-to-metal
contacte
were nonlinear
properties
are belived
to be caused by
discontlnultiss
or joints
of imperefect contacting
junctions
and oxide
layers or films
in the component.
Other
important
example
of such man-made nonlinearities
are antenna
systems
containing
devices
involving
semiconductor
junctions
(diodes,
integrated
circuits,
voltage
limiters,
etc.
I . This
nonlinearlties
are especially
present
at high RF levels
(transmitters,
lighting
strike,
EMP 1 .
The objective
of this
paper is to extend the formulation
of nonlinearly
loaded
antenna
or scatterer.
The behaviour
of antenna
or scatterer
when loaded with nonlinear
element
can be
than ed greatly
from that
observed
under 9 inear
conditions.
In some cases,
the nonlinearity
causes effects
such
as the harmonic
( Intermodulation)
products.
Various
methods of calculating
IMPEDANCES
ik
of Wroclaw
, POLAND
of an antenna
with a nonlinear
load
have been addressed
in literature.
Alternate
integral
equation
have been
develaped
by Schuman [ll , Liu and
Tesche
121 and Sarkar
and Weiner
131
to study
influence
of a nonlinear
loads on the behaviour
of a linear
Wire
Network
loading
of the wire
antenna.
antenna
or scatterer
was reported
by
an alternate
techniLandt [41 . Here,
For the present
dique is presented.
scusion
of an antenna
with a nonlinear load,
which is localized
at a single point
on the antenna,
the magnetic-field
integral
equation
(MFIE)is
used for obtainfng
a solution.
The
electromagnetic-field
problem
is reduced to a network
problem
by appllcation
of the method of moments. Sol ving MFIE numerically
by this
method,
reduces
It to a linear
system of nonlinear
algebraic
equations.
The study
of behaviour
of nonlinearly
loaded
antennas
or scatterers
can next be described
as an electric
circuit
analysie
problem
with characteristics
of nonlfnearity
and periodic
steady-state
conditions.
The formulation
is cast for
the stead -state
response,
and solution
is oz tained
by extrapolation
method,
based on the harmonic
balance
method.
The nonlinear
problem is solved by applying
the Balristov
algorithm. The numerical
approach
is outlined, and the frequency-dependent
reponses Of several
examples
are presented.
Formulation
Throughout
this
paper,
we shall
consider
the antenna
configuration
depicted
In Fig.1
. Most of numerical
results
will
be for the scattering
problem.
The wire antenna
(cylinder)
with
radfus
a and length
2H is assumed to be perfectly
conducting.
The
axis
of the wire
is taken
to be parallel
to the z-axis
of Cartesian
oo-ordfnate
sytem,
ae shown in Fig.1. It is
placed
in fbee space and is excited
by
electric
e
field,
tangential
to the
wire.
A current
i
Is induced
on the
antenna
by incident
wave and this
induced current
in turn produces, a acat-
334
L2k]
=_{
t+z;tl
K(H,z*l
dz
Medium
Kit,z*~=
KiH,zj-
= [(z-z)
Rin
Flg.1:
Conducting
cylinder
with
central
nonlinear
load,
illuminated by slnusoidel
time-dependent plane wave
tered
electromagnetic
field.
If an impedance is added at the center
of the
the induced
current
Is modiantenna,
fied
and likewise
the scattered
field.
The technique
of impedance
loading
has
been applied
to a linear
antenna
to
modify
Its
radiation
and scattering
characteristics
before.
The nonlinear
resistive
element
contained
in the load, which is located
at z-0 has a votage-current
i v-i)
characteristic
defined
by
vLiO,t)
- F C iL( 0,t)l
ii)
FL.3 is,
in general,
a known zewhere
ro-memory
nonlinear
function
and
v
are the instantenuous
voltbge
and
IL
across
and current
through
the load
respectively.
The formulation
element,
of solution
of the harmonic
responses
of thin-wire
loaded
antennas
as scatterers
is covered
in great
detail
by
invokes
the usuKrrysztof
lk C51 , it
al thin-wire
approximations
to a space-time
domain MFIE. Th? advantages
of
using
the MFIE of Hallen-type
for solving
antenna
problems
have been discussed in a previous
paper
C61. We shall
use this
formulation
for the solution
of the induced
current
on the antenna
with
a nonlinear
load.
The analysis
was limited
to a thin-wire
antenna
in
the Interest
of simplicity
in developing the theory.
As such,
the treat
ment can be applied
to the large
class
of objects
modeled by wires.
For conf iguratlon
illustrated
in Fig .l
solving
the boundary?
value
problem,
the MFIE for the total
axial
current
i(r,t)
Is given,
in operator
form,
by
LEI it,tll
--
FCi
(0, t 11 C3(zI -
C,eJz)Ep,owt
(21
where
LCliz,t)l-
LIC i(s,t)lI,(
z,jt)Klr,z)
Cd(Z) L2Ciiz,t)l,
dz
R -
11
R
4
expi-jkoRZ)
expi-jk
RH)
+ a 2 ,I/9
RH quantity
z -
C,(z)
=Lcos
C3 (z)
sin
CJzl
cost kozl/cos(
(k,z)/cosi
k,i
H-
,
,
k,W~I/60
11/30k,,
cos ikoH)
k,H)
iiz,t)is
the unknown current
along
the
thin
straight
wire surface,
FliiO,tll
relating
cuIs a known function
ill
rrent
to the total
tanget&ial
E-field
along the wire
sIrface,
k Is the waand E is the tangential
ve number,
component
of theincident
E-field
along the wire surface.
For
x=0
i iz,tl
= i(t)
as can be observed
in Fi.l.
The
first
term on the right
side o $ $\now
contains
the unknown quantity
.
The relation
between
load voltage
VL
is in geneand the load current
i
ral described
by a non&near
function.
Several
methods can be used to treat
nonlinear
elements.
A method that
has
been
found to give correct
results
Is outlined
here.
Recent works indicates that
an appropriate
approach
Is
to model of nonlinear
v-i
characteristics
by a Taylor-type
power series
expansion,
which is intrinlsically
polynomial
in nature.
Both,analytical
and experimental
studies
indicate
that
such an expansion
is a valid
representation
and, furthemore,
the backscattered
response
is characterized
by
harmonics
and intermodulation
products
of the input
frequencies,
as predicted
by the polynomial
model.
Let as assume
that
Fc.1 is adequatly
characterized
by the power series
l
vLit)
A ikit)
(3)
k=i
k L
are theconstants
represenwhere
Ak
ting
the
parameters
of the nonlinear
load.
By putting
this
nonlinear
relation
in 12) we observe
that
the only
unknown quantity
is the current
through the load.
Hence,
the induced
current
on the surface
of antenna
linearly
related
to the incident
eld.
Numerical
Treatment
Is
nonE-fi-
Nonlinear
MFIE (21 may be reduced
to a linear
system of nonlinear
algebraic
equations
through
the method of
moment8. A PopovlEs
polynomials
C6,61
expansion
procedure
is
employed
in
space-domain
for the current
basis
functions.
The wire
structure
is approximated
by straight
segments
of finite
radius,
and point
matching
is employed
at the centers
of these
segments.
At a point
2*0
and time
t, the
numerical
approximation
of (21 yields
61~6
335
the
following
ctlymonotically
eguat ion
increasing.
Numerical
Li;
P;i)
I~%osWtl}.
(4)
151 r-l=1
N
= 43
(z) &Ak(
I
+lPncos@t)
I
k
-c.$
REcosmt
Fig.2:
Equivalent
circuit
representations
of cylindrical
antenna
with
nonlinear
load for three
harmonic
frequencies
As seen in
Fig.2,
nonlinear
load have
been replaced
by series
current-cont&led
voltage
sources
A I (01. The
nonlinear
portion
of condbcto 5 A
manifests
itself
as a dependent
vo f tage
sources,
driving
the linearized
circuit,
different
for other
harmonic
f requencles .
The solution
of nonlinear
algebraic
eguations
(4) may be obtained
by using
a standard
numerical
procedures,
such
the Newton-Raphson
or Bairlstow
as
metl!rods. It Is sufficient
to state
that
for the configuration
under study
in this
paper the solution
exist
and
is unique
if the nonlinear
loads
v-l.
characteristic
function
F1.l la stri-
Results
Following
the procedure
outlined
above the method under study
is now
applied
to the analysis
of center-lodipole
antenna
irradiated
aded , thin
by a 330 MHz E plane wave parallel
to the dipole.
Specifically,
the analysed
system consists
of a center-loaded dipole
of length
0.57 m and raload con.002 m . The nonlinear
dius
sist
of single
diode or two parallel
Schottky-barrier
HP 2800 diocircuit
des. To continue
the analysis
of a
diode loaded
system,
it is necessary
to have a reasonably
accurate
v-l
relationship
for these
type of load.The
data needed to specify
the
v-i
characteristics
of the diodes
were measured and then fit
in to the analytic
Ak
expansions
( 3 1 . The COeff ICientS
of series
expansions
of the
single
diode and two parallel
diodes
are chosen as
load for
circuit
1-11;:
;:;Q@rn
2tw
..
(11
flz
fq3
R4
fl?
.::y$,~
..JIII,t7 :+#
:$I1 :s
$r~~~,~..~t_f.fl
:$X:23
(rljf~..l.!.~ :!#:f:gI.
+:rf~~).+.A:.$:#4)
4pYdll.,l.fl :#t$!~)
3.277x
Ql
- ,/G975E 9@
., 82 1SF-W3
=,
- I 2@64E-l$4
2 Y61 ?ME-88
2888
4. %I41.9E 68
5 I/3!?22E-85
-I 8264E-04
- 1ZVE!E,-@8
5.%E!lE-I.0
n
respectively.
The scattered
field
from the nonllnearly
loaded
antenna
structure
contains
many components
at frequencies,
such
as
330 MHz (f,) , 660 MHz (2f I
MHz (3f I, etc..
To obtain
th& i9.z::
strengths
at different
harmonic
frequencies
the current
distributions
&nduted on the antenna
surface
are determined at frequencies
of interest
.6ince
the voltages
across
the nonlinear
loads are known at different
harmonic
frequencies
the current
distribution
on
antenna
structure
Is obtained
by
premultiplying
the voltage
vector
eveluated
at a certain
frequency
by the
admitance
matrix
of the antenna
structure
evaluated
at the same frequency.
Once the current
distribution
is known
the problem
is reduced
to a conventional antenne
analysis
problem.
The antenna is then excited
by these
currents at different
frequencies
to give
the scattered
field.
The harmonic
backscattering
cross
sections
G
be used to quantitavely
descrkbe
!tx
scattering
characteristics
of nonlinearly
loaded
antenna
structure
as a
scatterer.
It is clear
that
the knowledge
of higher
order
6,
could
provide addStiona1
signifficant
information
useful
in classifying
and identifying
the
scattertng
antenna.
Also,
the knowledge of
should
allove
to predict
the powk r spectrum
of the received signal
once the power spectrum
of
the trensmitted
signal
is specified.
The
&k
Is def lned,
as
2
Ep 1
= 10 log 1 E;i)&
k
where
the
E ( k1
re-t-ad
E-field
are
[d6 m21
amplitudes
the
reradiated
st
336
k-t-h
of
-80
1
-20
-30
EP ;0[d13/rn I0
k*
kre$l experiment
20-H
000
xxx
2
6
3
___
ber (five)
of terms in the series
exThe discrepancies
can be
pansion
(31
further
red&ed
if a more elaborate
model of the nonlinearly
loaded
antenna will
be used.
fre-
~%~~~%F3
-40
theory
Conclusions
In general,
the analysis
of scattering
by nonlinearly
loaded
wire antenna is an extremly
difficult
pro kkreces
demonstrated
in this
paper,
the special
case of ainusoida1 excitation,
for
a nonlinearly
loaded antenna
can be described
as an
electric
circuit
analysis
problem
involving
it*s
nonlinearities
and respoas well
as, preassumed
steady
nses,
- state
conditions.
In such applications
of the procedure
can be adopted
that
do not require
a detailed
knowledge
of the transient
phenomena.
In
this
paper the use of the extrapolation
method,
based on numerical
approximation
of nonlinear
MFIE by means of
method of moments and the harmonic
balance
method has been investigated.
In
any har-c,
particular,
the responses
at
manic frequencies
are obtained
by solving
of the linearized
equivalent
network in which the nonlinearities
sppear as known excitations.
To validate
the analysis
the
redictsd
responses
of the system fol e owing known incidens have been compared with
those measured by the author.
The two sets of
results
agree favorably
.
Acknowledgments
The author
wish to express
his
thanks
to
Prof.
0.3.
Bern of Wroclaw
Technical
University
forhis
discussion
and valuable
comments.
References
(11
-30
40
-io
.
0
EP ) [dBV/ml
backscattering
cross
Fig .3 t Harmonic
sections
of cylinder
(2H no.67
a- .002 m ) with
central
m,
nonlinear
load
: A/ by single
Schottky-barrier
HP 2800 diode
B/ by two parallel
circuit
similar
Schottky-barrier
HP 2800
diodes,
a5
function
of
330 MHz
E-field
strength
of broadside
incident
wave
-40
The compairison
shows the relative
agreement
between
the measured and
theoretically
predicted
harmonic
beckecsttering
cross sections.
The exsting
discrepancies
may be attributed
to the
simplicity
of the assumed model,
especially
to nonzero
junction
capacitance
of the diodes
and other
parasite
components.
Moreover,
the nonlinear
v-i
characteristics
of the loads were approximated
by a relatively
small
num-
121
[31
141
[51
DETERMINING
EMI
337
62
Kl
James J. Whalen
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
State University of New York at Buffalo
Amherst, New York
Summary
During the past decade there has been a
considerable effort to determine the effects
of EMI upon microelectronic circuits. Some
efforts have been essentially experimental.
The microelectronic circuits investigated experimentally have included analog small-scale
integrated (SSI) circuits such as broadband
amplifiers and operational amplifiers, digital
ss1 circuits such as NAND gates and line
driver/receivers, digital medium-scale integrated (MSI) circuits such as lk memory
devices, and some very preliminar work on
very large scale integrated (VLSIr circuits
such as microprocessors. Other efforts have
focused on developing models for computeraided analysis and prediction. The Nonlinear
Circuit Analysis Program NCAP has been shown
to be useful for predicting low-level RF1
effects in both bipolar and FET analog SSI
circuits. The computer program SPICE has been
used to predict RFI-induced upset in both
bipolar and FET digital SSI circuits but not
in MS1 nor LSl nor VLSI circuits. Prediction
of EMI effects in MSI, LSI, and VLSI circuits
which have thousands of transistors must
await the development of macromodels for this
purpose. Such a development is occurring,
but at a slow pace. More recently the emphasis of several investigations has shifted
toward being able to determine the statistical
variations of EMI in microelectronic circuits
and toward developing procedures for coping
with these variations. The review will attempt
to place in perspective what success has been
achieved during the last decade and what problems remain for future investigators to solve.
1.
14260, U.S.A.
bility criteria for analog and digital Circuits which are valid today [2]. UnfOrtUnately, there is not enough space to review the
earlier papers on EM1 in microelectronics,
and this paper will concentrate on the work
done during the last decade. Reviews on the
status of determining EMI in microelectronics
were given in 1981 at Zurich [3] and at
Boulder [4] and were updated in 1983 at Zurich
[B]. The purpose of this paper is to consolidate and to extend the previous reviews, to
describe on-going investigations, and to
indicate the additional efforts needed in
the future. The emphasis continues to be on
how microelectronic circuits respond to conducted EMI signals. It is convenient to organize this paper into the following sections:
the basic approach used to determine EM1 in
electronic systems containing microelectronic
Circuits;
predicting EM1 caused by UHF and
microwave signals; predicting EM1 caused by
MF, HF, and VHF signals; statistical investigations and probabilistic approaches;
future needs and problems.
2.
(1)
(2)
Introduction
Basic Approach
(3)
(4)
to predict the electromagnetic fields inside a system enclosure for a known electromagnetic environment (field-aperture
penetration);
to predict the pickup of the internal
fields by the cables and wires inside
the system enclosure (field-to-wire
coupling);
to predict the resultant EM1 effects in
the microelectronic circuits connected
to the cables and wires;
to predict the behavior of the electronic
system which results from the EM1 effects
induced in the microelectronic circuits
in the system.
- 338 -
339
62
HI
- 340
Many papers have been presented on determining conducted EM1 in Small-Scale Integrated
Circuits (SSI) which contain less than 100
active devices. Few papers have been presented on determining EM1 in Large-Scale Integrated
Circuits (LSI) which contain over 1000 devices.
An exception is a recent paper on measuring
the EM1 susceptibility of a lk NMOS memory
IC [42]. In that paper the problems associated with measuring the susceptibility of digital ICs were discussed. A method suitable for
determining the susceptibility of a lk NMOS
memory and its susceptibility levels was presented. Sinusoidal RF signals with frequencies
in the range 1 to 500 MHz were injected onto
one line. That line was connected to an address pin or the chip enable pin or a data-in
pin. An important observation was that stored
data were not altered by the application of RF
during a Read Cycle. All RF-induced errors occurred when information was being transferred
in or out of memory, The errors were caused
primarily by the wrong memory cell being read,
by the wrong IC being enabled, or by the wrong
information being written into memory. Plots
of incident RF power or RF volts (peak-to-peak)
vs RF frequency are given. It was noted that
some of the RF-induced errors (e.g., the wrong
cell being read) cannot be detected by error
checking codes such as a parity check. The use
of repeated operations to detect errors may not
be successful if the RF is present during all
repeated operations.
It is doubtful that an IC as large as a
lk NMOS can be simulated in its entirety using
a complete model. Even computer simulations of
EM1 effects in a single line receiver using a
complete model in which every resistor, diode,
and transistor is modeled completely, as in
1401, require much computer time and are expensive. When a digital system consisting of line
drivers, transmission lines, and line receivers
is to be simulated on the computer, a complete
model for each integrated circuit is undesirable because computer time and expense may be
too great. Both computer time and expense can
be reduced by using macromodels. Recently, the
EMC design of digital systems containing line
drivers, transmission lines, and line receivers
usin macromodeling procedures has been described il
431. The paper describes the macromodel
topology for the ICs and their interconnections,
macromodel parameters and procedures for determining their values, and computer simulation
results.
The development of macromodels for digital
microelectronics that will facilitate the EM1
analysis of large digital ICs is one of our
most important needs. Initial efforts have
begun for small-scale digital ICs such as TTL
NAND gates [44]. However, much more remains to
be done before LSI and VLSI microelectronic
circuits can be simulated for EMI.
62
- 341
6.
Kl
Conclusion
References
[II
RI
c31
J.J.
342
[41
[51
"Modeling
[I51 J.A. Woody and C.A. Paludi, Jr.,
Techniques for Discrete Passive Components
to Include Parasitic Effects in EMC
Analysis and Design," Rec. IEEE 1980
Internat. Symp. Electrzagnetic Compatibility, pp. 39-45, Baltimore, MD,
Oct. 7-9, 1980, IEEE Pub. 80CHI538-8 EMC.
I61
c71
J.J.
C81
[91
[lOI "Nonlinear Circuit Analysis Program Documentation," Tech. Rep. RADC-TR-79-245, ~01s.
I-III,
Rome Air Development Center,
Griffiss AFB, NY 13441, Sept. 1979. J.F.
Spina, C.A. Paludi, Jr., D.D. Weiner, and
J.J. Whalen, Engineering Manual, vol. 1,
J. Valente and S. Stratakos, User's Manual,
vol. II, J.B. Valente and S. Stratakos,
Programmer's Manual, vol. III.
till "Integrated Circuit Electromagnetic Susceptibility Handbook," Final Version,
Report MDC E1929, 1 August 1978, McDonnell
Douglas Astronautics Co., St. Louis,
Missouri 63166. This handbook contains a
bibliography which includes approximately
20 titles of technical reports published
on the MDAC Integrated Circuit Electromagnetic Susceptibility Investigation conducted over the period 1972-1978. Copies
of the handbook (NTIS N79-14312) can be
obtained from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA, 22161,
U.S.A.
[I61 J.A.
343
Kl
Whalen,
c341 K.N. Chen, G.K.C. Chen and J.J.
"Using Macromodels to Compare RF1 in Bipolar and FET-Bipolar Operational Amplifiers," Proc. 4th Symp. & Tech. Exhibition
on Electromagnetic Compatibility, pp. 157162, Zurich, Switzerland, March 10-12,
1981.
II241 J.G.
cm
62
26093-8).
Fang, "Nonlinear System Analysis in
Bipolar Integrated Circuits," Ph.D.
Dissertation, State Univ. of New York at
Buffalo, Amherst, NY 14226, Feb. 1979
(copies of the dissertation can be obtained from University Microfilms, 300
N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106); also
published as Tech. Rep. RADC-TR-79-324,
RADC, Griffiss AFB, NY 13441, Jan. 1980.
[261 T.F.
t-271T.F.
C281T.F.
Fang, J.J.
Whalen, and G.K.C. Chen,
"Using NCAP to Predict RF1 Effects in
Operational Amplifiers," 1979 IEEE Int.
Ep,
pp. 96-103, San Diego, CA, Oct. 9-11,
1979.
II291T.F.
Whalen, "Macromodel
Predictions for EM1 in Bioolar Ooerational
Amplifiers, IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic
Compatibility, vol. EMC-22, pp. 262-265,
Nov. 1980. Also see Proc. Conf. on
Electromagnetic Compatibilitv, Univ.
Southampton, 16-18 Sept. 1980, IERE
Conf. Proc. No, 47, pp. 363-375.
Whalen, "Comparative
c351 G.K. Chen and J.J.
RF1 Performance of Bipolar Operational
Amplifiers," 1981 IEEE Intern'1 Electromagnetic Compatibility Symposium Record,
Boulder, Colorado, August 1981, IEEE Pub.
81CHI675-8, pp. 91-95.
[371 J.J.
Ii391 J.
[421 J.
344
345
63~2
Joseph G. Tront
ABSTRACT
VDD
PADDUT4
Several typical input and output stages for
a digital IC have been simulated using the
electronic circuit analysis program SPICE2. An
RF1 signal is injected into the circuit at the
point where the output stage is connected to an
input stage. The effects of this RF1 are
exhibited as a changes in the dc transfer
characteristics of the circuit, as well as, a
changes in the transient behavior of the circuit.
A comparison of the relative RF1 susceptibility
of several different types of integrated circuit
pin drivers and pin receivers is made.
tl
A-+
PAD
Figure 1.
Schematic diagram
driver PADOUT4.
for
the
pad
INTRODUCTION
Digital integrated circuits are being used
in a wide variety of applications. Many of these
applications leave the integrated circuit exposed
to
a harsh
external environment. In some
. applications there exists the possibility for the
introduction of radio frequency interference
(RFI) into the digital circuitry. The effect of
this interference could be detrimental to the
digital circuit. Thus, it is necessary to
determine how various levels and types of RF1
will effect a digital circuit. Since many digital
circuits are fabricated as MOSFET integrated
circuits, an investigation has been undertaken to
determine the susceptibility of a MOSFET IC to
being 'upset" by the effects of RFI.
The term "upset" means that the digital
circuit will operate uncharacteristically during
all or part of an RF1 event, but will return to
normal operation after the event is ended. This
excludes the condition where any part of the
circuit is permanently disabled by the RF1 event.
Several researchers have used simulation
techniques to investigate the problems caused by
RF1 in bipolar analog as well as digital circuits
[l-3]. RF1 effects in MOS circuits have also
been studied [4,5]. Typical simulation tools
used to conduct these studies include the
computer programs SPICE [6] and NCAP [7]. These
programs perform a simulation of the circuit
operation at the electronics level.
This paper reports on the continuation of
the work performed by the author and reported on
at Zurich in 1983 [8]. In that work a single
driver/receiver pair was analyzed. Here, a
- 346
o VDD
PADOUT
Figure 2.
PADIN
with Load
RF1 INJECTION
The sources of EM1 and the mechanisms by
which it is coupled into an IC are not within the
scope of this paper. It is assumed that RF1 is
picked up by any of the conductive elements of a
circuit. This includes the conductive traces of a
pc board on which ICs are mounted, as well as, the
conductive materials within the IC. However, for
a given EM1 strength, the RF1 voltages and
currents induced in leads external to an IC will
be stronger than those induced internally because
of the physical size of the conductive materials
involved. Hence, the injection of RF1 into the
circuit is modeled as an effect seen at the pins
of the IC.
We have chosen to model the RF1 as a simple
voltage source (VRF) in series with a capacitor:
This source is connected to the wire which joins
an output pin of one chip with the input pin of
another chip. The effects of injecting RFI'into
the power supply pins is not considered here
since it is assumed that the power supply pins
capacitively
bypassed. A
appropriately
are
diagram of this injection scheme is shown in Fig.
2. Figure 2 further provides .a view of the
electronics internal to the PADOUT and PADIN
, .circuits.
Figure 3.
Schematic
circuit.
diagram
of
the PADMUX
63~2
- 341 -
tDRT
tDR
10
9 t
PADllUT4- PADIN
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
PADClUT4- PADIN
8
7
6
5
'4
3
2
1
1-1
1 1 I2 I3 4
;
11; 6 7 8
5
f
I
9
>
10VMAc
Figure
4.
>
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10VMAG
Figure 6.
SIMULATION RESULTS
The results of the simulation experiments
are shown as plots of the change in the value of
TDR and TDF as a function of the VMAG. Each plot
is a composite and shows the change in TDR and TDF
values for three different frequencies of RFI.
The changes in TDR and TDF taken together tend to
cause negativeigoing pulses to become wider and
conversely,
positive-going pulses to become
narrower. In the limit, this is what produces the
stuck-at zero behavior. However, even before the
stuck-at situation occurs, a change in the width
of a pulse can cause an upset to occur in a
digital system.
tDF
-c
10
I--T1
PADllUT4- PADIN
I
>
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lOV,,,
Figure 5.
Figure 7.
tDR
- PADMUX
The behavior of the PADOUT
configuration is shown in Figs. 8 and 9. This
configuration exhibits a slightly lower level of
than do the other two. In
susceptibility
particular, the value of TDF at the high values
of VMAG is noticeably lower than is the case for
the previous two simulations. The PADMUX - PADMUX
simulation results, shown in Figs. 10 and 1'1,
indicate that this configuration is also less'
PADIN
PADOUT
the
than
susceptible
slightly
more
but,
it
is
configuration
susceptible
than
the
PADOUT
PADMUX
configuration in terms of changes in TDF.
tDR
10
T
PADMUX
PADMUX
9
8
7
6
Figure 8.
PADOUT
PADMUX
Figure 10.
A
plot
of
the
change
in
TDR(nsec.)
as a function of
VMAG(volts)
and
f
for
the
PADMUX-PADMUX configuration.
PADMUX
PADMUX
8
7
6
MAC
Figure 9.
Figure. 11.
A
plot
of
the
change
in
TDF(nsec.)
as a functicm
of
VMAG(volts)
and
f
for
the
PADMUX-PADMUX configuration.
349
63~2
PADMUX - PADIN
1.
change
in
plot
of
the
A
TDR(nsec.)
as a function of
for
VMAG(volts)
and
f
the
PADMUX-PADIN configuration.
Figure 12.
2.
3.
"Computer
Weiner;
J.
Alkalay,
D.
D.
Simulation of EM1 Effects in a 7400 TTL NAND
Gaten, Proc. 4th Svmw. Tech. Exibition on
EMC. Zurich, March, 1981.
4.
5.
6.
CONCLUSIONS
This study shows how several standard pairs
of drivers/receivers are more susceptible than
others, giving an indication of the relative
susceptibility of the configuration pairings.
The most susceptible combination is the PADMUX PADIN configuration. When the change in TDR and
10
9
0100 MHz
0150 MHz
A200 MHz
El
Y
I
I
I,
I,,
>
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10VMAc
Figure 13.
w.
Nagel,
D.
0.
Pederson,
"SPICE:
nNonlinear
Circuit
Documentation", Tech.
vols. I-II, Rome Air
Griffiss AFB, NY, 1979.
8.
9.
PADMUX - PADIN
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
L.
A
plot
of
the
change
in
TDF(nsec.)
as a function of
VMAG(volts)
and
f
for
the
PADMUX-PADIN configuration.
Analysis
Program
Rep. RADC-TR-79245,
Development Center,
- 351
64~3
Summary
The paper describes an investigation to
determine statistical variations for RF1 demodulation responses in operational amplifier
(op amp) circuits. Amplitude-Modulated (AM)
RF signals were injected into the op amp
signal input terminals to produce undesired
demodulated responses at the 1 kHz AM-frequency. The RF frequency was varied over the
range 0.1 to 400 MHz. Previously 30 to 35
741 op amps were tested in a non-inv$ing
circuit with voltage gain Av = +l.
same 741 op amps were tested in an inverting
amplifier circuit (Av = -10) without and with
RF1 suppression capacitors (27 pF). Mean
values and standard deviations were determined
for the demodulation RF1 which was characterized by a nonlinear transfer function H2.
When the RF1 suppression capacitors were included, the experimental mean values for H2
were suppressed from 10 to 35 dB over the RF
frequency range 0.1 to 150 MHz except at 0.15
MHz where only 3.5 dB suppression was observed.
A method of comparing values for RF1 demodulation responses (H2) for a non-inverting circuit (Av = +l) and an inverting circuit (Av =
-10) is described; the mean values for H2 for
the two circuits were found to be surprisingly
similar with both sets of data having a 10 dB
peak value. Experimental and NCAP computer
simulation results are compared for a 3-stage
op amp circuit without and with RF1 suppression
capacitors. Macromodels were used for the
741 op amps in the NCAP simulations.
1.
Introduction,
14260, U.S.A.
- 352
I
I
,
T
4
L__--___-_-___--_-__A
Feedback Resistor:
Voltage Gain
RF1 Suppression
Capacitor
Rl (Q)
R2 (@:A,
C4 (F)
10 k
100 k:-10
10 k
100 k:-10
27 P
10 k
1 M:-100
10 k
1 M:-100
27 P
100 k
1 M:-10
100 k
1 M:-10
27 P
Fig.2: W;r;ing
V
*nplifin
undn
Test
Lo*Paw
TmM
wtfnrter
Filter
WOSSiil
-
Gft(600
f&RFemcr
ftRF
f&tF-b
fA@
Modulation: !NMb AM
at fw
fnquUrY
Experimental Procedures
The actual circuit used to measure demodulation RFI effects in inverting op amp
circuits is shown in Fig. 4. The circuit
is called the 3-stage op amp LED circuit.
The circuit was designed to correspond to a
circuit in a system in which a transducer
generates a signal which must be amplified
to turn on a warning light such as an LED
(Light Emitting Diode). A complete description of the circuit is given in [12]. The
RFI is injected into the inverting input of
the first stage. The RF1 signal has an RF
frequency fRF in the range 0.1 to 400 MHz and
is 50% AM-modulated at an audio frequency
= 1 kHz. Because of nonlinearities in
fAF
the 1st op amp, a demodulated RF1 response
at I kHz exists at the output of the 1st op
amp stage. The demodulated RF1 signal generated within the 1st stage is amplified by
the 2nd stage and by the 3rd stage which
drives the LED. The demodulated RF1 signal
at 1 kHz when amplified to 1.1 V (rms) can
light the LED to produce a visual display of
the existence of RFI.
- 353
3-Stage
At the
same time, the meter readings of the RF generator and RF voltmeter were recorded. This procedure was used to verify the square-law response region described in [4] and [lo]. To
understand this, note that the two AF voltages (1.0 V and 0.4 V) at output V3 correspond to a ratio of -8 dB. Therefore, the two
corresponding meter readings of the RF voltmeter or RF generator should give a ratio of
-4 dB. If otherwise, the data taken do not
reflect the characteristics of second-order
nonlinearities. If the data correspond to
the square-law response region, the secondorder nonlinear transfer function H2 can be
used to characterize the demodulation RFI response at 1 kHz. See Cl], 141 or [lo].
AF
The 1 kHz AF rms voltage Vo3 at the output is related to the RF rms voltage Vi' from
the RF generator b the second-order transfer
function H2(fl,-f2Y by the expression
mti
= m(m!F)21H2(fl,-f2)/
64~3
(1)
it was assumed that the lower and upper sidebands contributed equally. The factor &!arises because amplitudes are used in nonlinear
transfer function expressions. From Fig. 4,
we note the voltage relationship between the
RF
RF generator voltage ViF and the voltage V,
indicated on the RF voltmeter is given by
VRF = 4vFF
g
Substitute Eq. (2) into Eq. (1) and solve for
H2(fl,-f2) with m = 0.5. The result is
IH2(f,,-f2)1 = fiV;;/(4V;F)2
AF
RF
where Vo3 and V, are in rms volts.
(3)
Equation
- 4ologlovllfF- 21.0
(4)
$54 -
74 1 Invortlng
Ampllflor
35 Dovlcoa
R, =
10 kfl
R. = 100
f,, RF
FrcqwnC~
In MHS
= (H2(f,,-f2) 11250
or
2010g,0/H;(fl.-f2) ( = 2010q01H2(f,d2)
- 48.0
3.
1
(6)
Experimental Results
Whereas H2
kfl
Statistical Result2
unity gain buffer that relates the audio-frequency voltage at the op amp output to the
RF voltage at the noninverting input terminal.
We must account for the voltage division at
the output which contributes a factor of (2)
and the voltage division at the input which
contributes a factor of (2)2. See Fig. 7 in
Chapter 4 in rl2]. The relationships between
Hi and H2 for the unity gain buffer are given
355
64~3
I$
I
30
2
^.
f
. 1 t*
: .*
.*
0.
.
.
I .l
. lhlty
Buffor
aoht
0 fnr*rtln#
A~llflW
.I
(&I=-10,
,n(
gd w
H&
raw,(*
10
UW.)
I
I
6
20
60
100
200
600
In WI=
RF frequency for two 741 op amp circuits. The H2 values for the unity
gain buffer were obtained by adding
18 dB to the H2 values reported preThe H2 values for
-1.1
lo-
R, = 10 kn
oC.=Cs=O
IPI
R, = 100 WI
nC.=C,=27pF
L,
II
o 6;
4-
2-
5.
by
lttmwtla,t.w In wwlrmt
viously in [13 1.
Stmdudw
C.=O)
Fig.9: Measured mean values of the secondorder transfer function H2(fl, -f2) vs
14-
12-
f,, RF Fr.4Wnc7
.
.
.2
l.
.*
,~fk.tlm
l.
.
I
3
s-
. . . . .
t::
-/
. .
IH;(fl,-f2)( = 81H2(fls-f2)I
(7)
2010g,01H;(fl>-f2) t =
2010g10~H2(fl~-f2)~ + 18
(8)
- 356
&waemtrl
Macromhl
Of lb
3-2tap
lOOh
r----------r
-vvv-I---1
Maker
-
Year
Week
RCA
1981
27
Fairchild
1976
36
10
Fairchilda
1981
38
Fairchilda
1981
35
Fairchildb
1982
49
National
1982
Group
--
Units
_
- 357
to 42 dB. Note that below 1 MHz NCAP Predicts an increase in H2 when the RFI suPPression capacitors are added and that this is
contradictory to what is observed experimentally. Above 1 MHZ NCAP predicts a decrease
in H2 when the RF1 suppression capacitors are
added; this is in agreement with what is observed experimentally. From 2 MHz to 20 MHz
the NCAP values and measured Values agree
quite well with differences in the range 0
to 7 dB. Above 20 MHz the NCAP values decrease much more rapidly than the experimental
values which exceed the NCAP values by 20 to
40 dB. The NCAP predictions leave something
to be desired, and this indicates that additional modeling effort is required. It would
be worthwhile to include in the NCAP simulations the appropriate parasitic elements
associated with all the passive components,
but especially RI, R2 and C4 in the first
stage and the capacitance associated with the
Printed Circuit Board wiring.
5
The data generated for this paper was obtained with a manual measurement system. The
volume of data was large and almost unmanageable. The volume of data that would.be generated by implementing the first recommendation
requires an automatic measurement system.
The automatic measurement system would need
to set the RF frequency and amplitude, turn
on the 1 kHz AM-modulation, measure RF and
AF voltages, store the data, compute secondorder transfer functions such as H2(fl,-f2),
and plot the results for each op amp tested
in each circuit configuration. The data stored
for all op amps of one type could then be used
to calculate mean values, standard deviations,
etc. which also would be plotted.
(3)
It would be desirable to model more completely the external circuit wiring on the
printed circuit board to account for small
capacitances from wire to wire and wire to
64~3
References
111 T. F. Fang, "Nonlinear System Analysis in
Bipolar Integrated Circuits," Ph.D. Dissertation, State Univ. of New York at
Buffalo, Amherst, NY 14226, Feb. 1979.
Also published as Technical Report RADCTR-79-324 by Rome Air Development Center,
Griffiss Air Force Base, NY 13441, USA,
January 1980.
I21
PI
I31
II01
358
K. N. Chen, "Nonlinear Modeling of MetalOxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transsistor with Application to Radio Frequency
Interference Analysis," Ph.D. Dissertation,
State Univ. of New York at Buffalo,
Amherst, NY 14226, Feb. 1982. (Available
from University Microfilms, 300 N. Zeeb
Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106, U.S.A.)
K. N. Chen and J. J. Whalen, "MOSFET
Nonlinear Incremental Model for NCAP,"
1982 IEEE International Electromagnetic
Compatibility Symposium Record, pp. 66-73,
Santa Clara, CA, September 8-10, 1982.
Y. H. Sutu and J. J. Whalen, "A Comparison of RFI in Operational Amplifiers,"
Proceedings of the 5th Symposium and
Technical Exhibition on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, pp. 477-482, Zurich,
Switzerland, March 8-10, 1983.
II21
Cl32
Y. H. Sutu and J. J.
for Demodulation RFI
Amplifiers," 1983~It
ElectromagneticaE
&cord,
pp. 220-225,
_--August 23-25, 1983.
No. 83CH1838-:?).
Whalen, "Statistics
in Operational
International
ibility Symposium
..,L,'..,C. .
WUXIIIIYLO~,
U-L.,
(---lttt catalog
-
TRANSIENT
359
FIELD DISTRIBUTION
65
IN A TRANSMISSION
LI
LINE SIMULATOR
determines
ABSTRACT
The
purpose
theoretically
bution
is
the
in
an
sections
wire
structures.
space-time
The
is
transient
by
electric
the conical
plates
nuniformity
of
of
problem
is
determined
the
field
amplitude,
components
the
rise-time
the
The
between
area.
The
the
with
no-
presence
nonnegligible
variations
are
of the
current
structure
solving
Secondly
field
is
area
a space-
the
deduced
conical
induced
transient
everywhere,
and
in the
working
area.
II - INTEGRAL
EQUATION
The
of radiation
is
the
induced
is
problem
wires
[2]
APPROACH
of transient
conducting
used
these
analyzed.
transient
equation.
in the
equation
techniques.
wire
thin
integral
particularly
thinin
integral
transversal
amplitude,
treated
numerical
field
by
time
the
electromagnetic
transmission
is
an
distri-
simulator
approximated
using
solved
The
flat-plate
are
domain
field
simulator.
witch
on any
is to determine
electric
three
of
line
paper
transient
E.M.P.
composed
which
of this
firstly
time
involves
currents
currents
waveforms
A
[I!.
which
formulated
on
are
from
technique
computation
wires.
obtained
terms
perfectly
domain
the
the
in
of
In free
solving
the
space
integral
[21 :
equation
I - INTRODUCTION
The
purpose
is to provide
ximates
the
at
sion
in the
to
plate
The
of
the
modes.
This
technique
guided
wave
sloping
of
central
or
meshes
wires
to be perfectly
and
are
the
ground
conducting.
this
response
I)
consisting
to opposite
parallel
simulator
are
Our rigourous
s and
c
and
the
are
9
s
J (s-so)*
the
are
wire
+ a2
observation
the
unite
contour,
is the
incident
plane
(x o y on figure
and
tangent
is
the
source
points,
vectors,
wire
radius
c
and
is
O zi
field.
The
parallel-
the
joined
plane
two
space-time
approximated
the
domain
(Fig.
rectangular
because
treated
presents
plates
plates
this
frequency
determine
triangular
conducting
have
simulator
where
to+
of
important
paper
be
explo-
that
between
via
to
from
it is very
authors
of the
to
in a transmission
differencies
in terms
of two
grids
the
Then
(1)
appro-
a nuclear
different
wave.
that
wavefront
The field
quite
simulator
field
from
theoretically
domain
The
is
Most
generally
sides
atmosphere.
determine
problem
E.M.P.
traveling
distance
traveling
fields.
of
plane
some
simulator
a plane
an
an electromagnetic
expected
line
of
plate.
by
is
wire
large.
of
the
wire
image
obstacle
account
the
considerations
used
in
function
rnethod
(the
which
size
effect
(cf.
of the wave
In
the
of a perfectly
I) introduces
is
of
the
III),
our treatment
assumed
approach
presence
following
this
form
conditions
usely
twice)
to
For
the
application
modifies
ground.
to
operator
conducting
the
image
modifie
the
take
into
numerical
method
the
is
Green
[3] [4] .
the
integral
takes
p(s,t)
360
a~ (s,,r)
= +f0
3.&
Z.-d*a1
_-J.& mar (So$)- c R*2
5
(SoJo*) - c*
&e,t)
&
- 4%
aI
R z
(soJo)
+ c $* $-(so,to)
. $0
- using
R*
t*_t_0
so*
Ea(s,t)
of source,
and zo* in
vector
is the
sould
the
be introduced
are
deduced
field
related
For
example
the
magnetic
knowledge
electric
III - NUMERICAL
1)
- reducing
the
scattered
fields
of the
field
is
and
the
effect
by
ters
are analysed.
given
(3).
of
step
is
wires
constitued
into
basis
Similar
is
in
the
segment
in terms
bouring
segments.
representation
choosed
to
(2)
and
and
the
solution
procedure
rical
equation
means.
spatial
time
current
in
and
and
the
thin
for
these
one
for
the
and
the
Finally
is obtained
using
a time
accuracy
how
by
are
equation
account
the
of
presence
(2)
perfeclty
in
the
computer
substantially
to
take
into
conducting
plane.
Morever
allowed
3081
by
IBM)
the
being
the
storage
computer
(5500
limited
line
for
every
user,
on
time
on the
middle
ted
an
some
is
by : T N 2.19/b,
excited
on the
and the
by : A 2 0.69101.
dependance
wire
Figure
of
near
the
2. The
induced
current
generator
shape
is presen-
of the
transient
is conserved.
Figure
the
currents
for different
shows
space
pulses
along
values
- The distribution
along
of the
shape
the
the
Ex(P,t)
are
presented
(x
observed
on
as
(Fig.
the
shown
Ey(P,t)
for
values
middle
6.
wire,
4) observed
m)
metallic
region,
shape
the
current
line
conical
spherical
snapshots
of time.
transverse
typical
I)
parame-
- exp (-I%)]
Current
and
front
has
Figure
EZ(P,t)
P (x = 6 m,
the
[S].
wave
in
has
plates
5 where
components
y = 2 m,
1 m).
- On
the
given
in
Figure
the
sphericity
requirement
Koctets
IV-l.
of
Secondly
of some
(Fig.
conical
is defined
- The
- In
numerical
the
requirement
numeintegral
rates
domains,
stepping
the
sampling
reduced
form
of the
well
approximated
storage
in the
presented.
simulator
at half-height
- The
the
matrix
results
are
voltage
The rise-time
voltage
interpolation
on
neigh-
polynomial
[21.
the
time
in the
take
temporal
to
: A = 1.05 V
with
time.
and
order
Lagrangian
give
matrix
modification
V(t) = A rexp(-at)
width
scheme
space
values
the
segments.
applied
second
of
expressing
equations
to
set
interpolation
used
been
order
of
of current
depends
has
In
division
also
an
[2]. Clearly,
solution
first
of
uses
be
(3)
the
each
[61 is
(1)
(3),
segments.
is
step
-to express
(Z),
defined,
segmentation
second
the
elementary
Ns
current
unknown
is
by
functions
The
equations
typical
The
CONSIDERATION
solve
field
areas
working
currents.
by a transient
To
(x o Z
IV - RESULTS
and
electric
the
the program:
of simulator
to the
voltage.
from
into
symmetryeproperties
Some
The
(3)
& } dso
matrix.
applied
transient
(+
0
, Fig.
plane
is the imagepoint
the unite
$-
(S0 t 0 *) - C* &
modifications
- s *) + a2
(2)
: R* = J(s
(so,) dr 1 dso
as
- GK * ai
at +(S00t *) - C&R
where
O* ar
RS
dt
g0
line
A slight
be
the
electric
longitudinal
of the
can
region
6 the
wave
observed.
wave
inclinaison
is
field
plane
in the
Morever
practically
of the
(x
conical
lines
are
z).
The
transmission
in
the
a
Ev component
working
plane
one.
appears
- 361
65
-2
-1.5
-I
0-z
Simulator
Fig.l-Schematic
diagram
of
Simulator.Wires
radius:lcm.
the
Fig.b-Transverse
current
on
the
LI
10 wires
distribution
transverse
simulator
of
line
x=6m.
10 wires
V(t):z=Sns,A=150nd.
P:x=6m,y=2m,z=lm
Fig.2-Induced
wire
segment
current
near
on one
the
middle
generator.
Fig.5-The
time-dependent
components
in the
E field
conical
region.
(V/m):
Simulator
10 wires
Fig.G-Electric
regionsfor
Fig.3-Current
along
the
space
middle
snapshots
wire.
field
lines
t=190ns.Simulator
V(t):t=lOns,A=200ns.
in
0.0626
c--)
the two
6 wires.
362
pI \ \ \
I I \\\
1 I \\\
j 1 \ \
2m
i *lmI
x=53m
I I 1 \
'
Simulator:...20
Fig.?-Transverse
in the
electric
working
Simulateur
region
for
Fig.lO-Effect
lines
transverse
t=212ns.
the
6 wires.V(t):r=lOns,A=2OOns.
2-r
wires
---22
fields
of
t=46ns
electric
conical
wires I
added
wires
field
on
the
lines
in
region.
IhlW~mFl)
x=6.3m
Simulator:
x=6m
mT$v,m
WY
ground
0734Vfm
-
t=3*.5ns
'f
t
1
-2
-1
y(m) I
Yll,
,....I....1
-2
-1.1
..I...
-I
-.a
cr:constant
Fig.8-Wires
transverse
..I*
.a
current
number
Simulator:(l)with
on
transverses
wires.
(6 wires)
transverses
[(2) without
Fig.ll-Transverses wires
effects
region
effect
current
1.5
the
trically
connected
to
the
wires.
elec-
longitudinal
distribution.
one,on
the
transverse
current
distrib-
ution.
tz
I(&)
Added
Simulator:20
x=6m
22 wires==Fig.9-Effect
the
transverse
of added
current
wires
on
6 wires
wires
wires+++
Simulator
! I ,! 1 \ \
I- I I I
distribution.
with
----
without
Fig.lZ-Transverses
field
homogeneity
transverses
ground
ll.61
I",m
wires
transverses
wires
wires
effects
on
the
in the
conical
region.
363
on the
Figure
tinuity
of the
simulator
_ The
electric
field
vertical
the
6, witch
plane
Figure
observed
(x
7.
near
provides
shape
the
(France)
discon-
prOjeCtiOfls
m)
are
in
presented
inhomogeneities
be
Dl DAFIF
can
dependent
on
on Figure
bution
[8]
the
of
increasing
effect
of
the
is
analysed.
the
as
slight
inhomogeneity
on the
field
- The
near
The
more
can
be
on
seams
is
observed
But
de
a
(Fig.10)
inside
electrically
ones;
in the
Figures
the
the
conical
11
and
is
a field
effects
working
12.
slightly
uniformity
on
the
region
field
remain
V - CONCLUSION
been
in
developed
a
treated
wave
using
application
in
the
of
describe
EM
field
is
results
problem
solved
directely
program
distribution
in
was
and
techniques
Computer
has
propagation
The
formulation
numerical
which
approach
pulse
simulator.
domain.
transient
experimental
domain
a rigorous
time
simulator
time
to
guided
by
the
space
good
gives
inside
agreement
the
with
[7].
REFERENCES
[II
Transient
ed
EM field
: LB FELSEN.
New-York
121 MILLER
G.J.
for
Topics
Vol.
E.K.,
time
[3] DAFIF
POGGIO
domain
Journ.
Verlag.
equation
analysis
filaires
and
A.J.
of
thin
of Camp. Physics
0. and JECKO
des structures
~011. nat.
Physics
(1976).
An integrodifferential
trures
in Applied
10. Springer
B. Diffraction
en presence
sur la Compatibilitk
BURKE
technique
wire
I2-24-48(
struc1973)
dIEM par
du sol 2e
EM.Trigastel
de
dondes
des
presence
de
Aspects
regime
cycle
structures
en
Universite
0.
en
3eme
electromagne-
par
quelconques
DAFIF
Ann.
pp.215-225(1983).
doctorat
(1983)
impulsion-
mitalliques
transitoire
Nationales
des
dIEM
Limoges
numiriques
transitoire
Microondes.
Jour-
Toulouse,
juin
contrat
champs
a
ligne
no413
EM c&s
de
dans
transmission
103
01
un simulaRapport
DGA/DRET/CEG
(1984).
CSI MEIXNER
J. The
fields
edges
Antennas
to be studied.
diffraction
la
teur
quite
9.
distribution
But
B.,
de
[7] Etude
was
modification
effects
the
[61 JECKO
EM
1982.
inter-
wire,
Figure
introduce
large.
homogeneity
the
distribution
the
current
and
region
of
middle
longitudinal
shown
transverse
modified
8),
de
formes
n8-83
sol.
&es
The
on
wires
to the
is
region,
(France).
wires.
transverse
connected
current
shown
du
number.
-These
de
shown
(Fig.
obstacles
de la diffraction
distri-
uniform.
simulator.
transverse
important,
wire
region
modification
to a 20 wires
as
dondes
Vol. 38 n05-6,
en regime
filaires
quite
plates
the
is almost
iS
wires,
current
spacing
added
of
to metallic
constant
field
0.
tiques
distribution
number
with
the electric
wire
the
8, and tends
Within
- The
current
des
Telecomm.
Etude
wires.
transverse
par
des
B. Diffraction
nelles
on
LI
juin 1983.
[41 JECKO
(x = 33 m).
vector
53
Some
the
from
65
of
behavior
I.E.E.E.
and Propagation,
for
elecromagnetic
Transactions
july 1972.
on
- 365
CALCULATION
AND MEASUREMENTS
ELECTROMAGNETIC
FIELDS
66
L2
OF TRANSIENT
IN EMP SIMULATORS
der Bundeswehr
West Germany
Summary
The method of moments was applied
to calculate transient effects-on two
different types of EMP-simulators,
which are located above a plane of
high conductivity. The simulators are
composed of a great number of thin
rods. A computer program was written,
based on an integral equation, which
can be derived from Maxwell's equations. In order to find a numerical
solution triangle functions were used
to approximate the currents along the
wires. A new method has been employed
to treat arbitrary thin wire juncfields
tions. First electromagnetic
were determined in the frequency domain. Then a Fourier transform technique was used to get the desired
transient responses in the time domain.
(I)
where
St,,
field,
region.
is the impressed
only acting
-+S
electric
in the generating
compo-
1.
Introduction
EMP-simulators
nowadays are widespreadly used to test the shielding
effectiveness of electronic equipment.
A complete system can be divided into
several components. In detail we are
able to distinguish an exciting voltage source, an antenna, which, as far
as possible, has a matched termination
and a measuring system to record the
responses of the system under test. To
have a check of the measured results
or to optimize the antenna termination
it sometimes is desirable to calculate
the electromagnetic
fields, currents
and voltages at discrete points below
the simulator arrangement and on the
simulator rods respectively.
Fig. 1: Location
of subdivisions m and
n in Cartesian coordinates
Using equation (I) we are able to derive an expression for the voltage over
segment m due to the current in segment
n of the length AZ':
Um~=E;*h&*"em
lJ
= j,,
366
I(z')$(ro)dz'~~n*~m*ALm+
OAzl
-
,,,
dI(z')
--J,
dz'
with
(r_)dz
6(r) =1/4n*exp(-jkr)/r.
Zmn
In.
jw k",
C A{ X(b')de'
K=l
(7)
(3)
of an impedance
N
c Zmn'In'
n=l
'
(4)
Finally, all mutual couplings are taken into account, giving a set of N
equations, which can be written in matrix form:
[VI
[zl
[II
(5)
J I(zN(p+rz,zWz
AZ'
-J
AZ
I(z)q(p_,z,z)dzl
(6)
Fig.
2: Junction
wires
geometry
of connected
f(t)
1 UC
= y Jo (R(u)cosut
F(W)
= H(W)
- G(O)
- X(W).sinot)dw
= R(W)
+jX(w)
361
(8)
(9)
66
L2
loo+---+-----+&m------
II
4
time (ns)
- 368 -
signal-cables
trigger-cable
*----;Source
firing
Shielded
Enclosure
._
.-.-.
Plotter
Time Base
e
7 B 92
7 A 29
hp
7470
1
.
L
l
R 7912 Transient
Controller
Digitizer
z
)
Memory
Display
hp 9825 A
16 Bit
I
DMA
Unit
Interface
Magnetic
Tape
(100
Signals
Floppy
Fig.
,*
I
Disk 9885
_I-,---
I----
Fig.
\-
320cmM
5: Dimensions of presented
lator arrangements
simu-
369
66
L2
3
z
"0
lo
Fig.
20
30
40
50 60
time
70 80
(ns)
Fig.
.-.
a
(2)
time
(ns)
r=50R
150
120
90
time (ns)
180
- 370 -
5 5..
:'
5
o 'i
'34
68
'204,
CI-1
34
68
Fig. 9: Computed
tric (2)
sition x
type II,
102
136
170 204
time (ns)
magnetic (1) and elecfield strength at po= 438 cm (simulator
source: 1 V, 3 ns)
160
2 0
time (ns)
Fig. 11: Computed (A) and measured (B)
currents in termination resistors at outer (I), middle (2)
and inner (3) conductor (simulator type II, source: 1 V,
4 ns (A)/ 50 V, 250 ps (B))
0
20
40 60 80 100120
6. Conclusion
The method of moments combined with
triangular functions of currents and a
new method of wire junctions treatment
was used for the computational analysis
of EMP-simulator arrangements. Two
types of field probes were simulated in
the computer program and manufactured.
Using a fast transient pulse measuring
and processing system, the magnetic and
electric field strength and their time
derivatives and the current in the
termination resistors were determined.
Control of measurements by computation
and vice versa proved to be a helpful
tool for the interpretation of the true
transient behavior of a system under
test. This will ease the design of simulator arrangements, impulse voltage
sources, termination resistor values
and positions as well as the construction of simple field probes.
7. References
111 Harrington, R.F.: Field Computation
by Moment Methods. The Macmillan
Company, New York 1968
-'O
10 2Ov 30 40 50 6@ 70 80
time
(ns)
90
100
- 371
EMP SIMULATION
67~3
BY PULSE
INJECTION
bY
Torbjijrn Karlsson,
GiSran Und&
FOA
Box 1165, S-581 11 Linkgping,
Abstract
In order to meet the demand for EMP
,hardness validation, FOA have within a
low
budget program developed a number
of test methods and test facilities.
With relevant analytical support simple
pulse injection technique have proved
to be an effective instrument for validation tests. In the paper a number of
illustrative experiments are presented.
Tests on feed-thru capacitors, filters
and a power plant have been carried out
to demonstrate the applicability of the
pulse injection equipment.
The presentation of each experiment
is concluded by a detailed discussion
of the results.
Introduction
Current injection in order to simulate EMP effects is important as part
of the EMP validation process. While
being the predominant test method during the development phase or the construction period of a system, pulse injection has not been considered useful
for hardening verification tests. However, if it is used in conjunction with
free field simulation and well designed
supporting analyses, pulse injection
techniques promise to emerge as suitable tools for system testing during the
production and the deployment phases as
well.
With the objective of attaining a
useful technique for pulse injection
into buried structures and other large
objects not suited for tests in EMP
simulators, FOA have developed a number
of test methods. It is important to
remember that the assessment of EMP
hardness generically always include
analysis, even if only to scope the
test. We want to show how an integration of simple empirical and analytical
approaches emerges as a really useful
technique for EMP hardness validation.
Test of cable entries
The hardening of electronic equipment is preferably accomplished by the
method of controlled EM topology. Long
lines and cables need penetration
Sweden
cabinet
Steel
cabinet
Fig.1:
Pulse
Measurements
injection
facility.
acquired:
"g
I
"r
tests of hardening
components
Boundary--D:
372
Fig.4:
Incident
current
I.
Fig.2:
Coaxial
f eed-thru
capacitor.
X .
Calculated
values
Microseconds
---------7
R.3
Ir---k-T
Fig.3:
r-!---l
circuit.
Fig.5:
Residual
only).
voltage
V,. (Capacitors
Fig.6:
Residual voltage
value 0.5 vF).
373
67~3
V, (Capacitor
Eig.7:
Filter module
pairs.
Fig.8:
Residual
voltage
V,.
- 314 -
Pulse
injection
on a power plant
Pulse
injection
on a power
plant .
The power switch gear and distribution conduits which in the building run
all the way down to the power transformer have the same effect on the propagated pulse as a low pass filter.
Registrations
of the current on both
sides of the transformer are presented
in figure 10.
Incidentcurrentil
r;~
Transferred
currenti,
~~~
0 12
3 4 s 6 7 8 910
Microseconds
Fig.10:
Conclusions
The integration of analysis and
simple test methods utilizing basic
experimental equipment has turned out
to be a highly valuable resource for
EMP simulation.
Simple laboratory models built up
within a low budget program constitute
the necessary foundation for the test
program. Fairly accurate results have
been obtained using a skilled staff
familiar with the special technique
pertaining to theese non-standarized
procedures which altogether appear as a
Cost effective way of EMP-hardening
validation.
station
Fig.9:
The short incident pulse gives a direct response seen as a spike at the
very beginning of the transferred
current before the low frequency oscillation becomes dominating.
For early times the transformer obviously attenuates the pulse one order of
magnitude which demonstrates the mainly
capacitive, high frequency coupling
thru the transformer.
The dominating current in the response
consists of a natural frequency oscillation built up by energy translated to
the internal distribution
system by several coupling mechanisms.
Being the first one of a series of
tests, this experiment has given valuable insight in the special properties
of large systems. It has also indicated
ways of procedure for analysing the EMP
vulnerability
of power systems.
012345678910
Microseconds
Reference
[ll Vance, Ed.: Coupling to Shielded
cables, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1978, ISBN o-471-04107-6
375
68L4
Traditionally,
there have been two major
deterof direct-drive
testing:
applications
mination of damage level and susceptibility
to
in the
majority
of
These
tests,
upset.
have been conducted in a laboratory
programs,
environment on individual
system
modules,
or
In such a test
line
replaceable
units (LRU).
simulate
the
it is necessary
to
environment,
object
at least to the extent that
host
test
the unit under test is effectively
interfaced
This can be
in a proper operational
manner.
and time
a very costly
task both in material
Further,
in
each
LRU is quite unique.
since
many direct-drive
tests,
as
in verification
the
data
required
is
testing
for
example,
Detailed
limited
to the peak signal
levels.
waveform information
provided with traditional
requires
data
acquisition
systems
data
reduction
procedures
to reduce
the
acquired
information
to
that
desired.
This
often
causes a serious
delay in the availability
of
reduced
test data and further
increases
cost.
The application
of the
Portable
Programmable
allows
Pulser
the
direct-drive
source to be
taken to the test
object
where the
various
LRUs may be tested
in-situ
in their ideal
environments.
The
additional
operational
the
application
of
Peak-Level
Recorder
the
provides
immediate
real-time
data
on
waveform
peaks
allowing
rapid assessment of
accurate
response
and
instrumentation
adjustment
to optimum test
and acquisition
parameters.
The Portable
Programmable
Pulser
Traditional
direct-drive
testing
is genand often
reerally
a laboratory
procedure
special
power conditioning,
generation
quires
of very specific
signals
and responses,
total
environmental
control
(cooling,
etc.),
and in
mechanical
environments.
some cases specific
It is quite difficult
to provide these special
requirements
using
conventional
laboratory
test
equipment
for
any but
the
simplest
Test fixtures
are therefore
utilized
devices.
provide
the
critical
elements
of
into
terfacing
to the test unit.
Each unit
of
a
test
object
that is to be tested is
typical
generally
quite unique and requires
its unique
This requires
a special
support environment.
test
fixture
for
each
unit
to
be tested.
Since there can be, and very often is, a large
test
number of units to test
in a typical
the
fabrication
of the required
test
object,
fixtures
can represent
a major expense in the
test program as well as a major time consuming
element in the schedule.
Once the
data
have been successfully
collected
in a typical
laboratory-type
test
environment,
the question
of
correlation
of
the
measured
response to the response
in the
actual
test
object
arises.
test
The
environment
is
obviously
much different
from
that of the actual host environment
in which
the
test
unit
normally
operate.
would
Therefore,
some type of extrapolation
must be
used
to
predict,
from the test results,
the
actual response
to
be expected
in a real
operational
environment.
This is relatively
simple
in some cases,
but
quite
of ten
significant
controversy
arises
as to
the
actual best method of correlation
of the test
data to actual
in-system
response.
Another method of direct-drive
testing
is
the testing
of the various
units
in-situ
in
their
actual
operational
environment.
With
in-situ
testing,
all
the operational
requirements
of
the
individual
units
to be
tested are satisfied
without the need
of
any
special
test
fixtures.
Further,
there is no
question
as to the
correlation
of
the
test
response
of
a unit
to
that
in the actual
operational
environment of
the host
system.
However,
the
question
still
remains
as to
perturbation
caused
by
the
test
system
encroachment
and the overall
validity
of the
test in general.
Those questions
will
always
be present.
It
is
the purpose of the test
system designers
to
develop
instrumentation
that
is
as cost effective
as possible
and as
closely
satisfies
the needs
of
the
various
tests as possible.
The unique
operational
requirements
of
the
individual
elements of a test object
are
perfectly
satisfied
with
in-situ
operation,
but
the
requirements
of the test system must
also be considered.
If the test
system
must
be
significantly
more complex
than that
required
for laboratory
testing,
the overall
impact on the test could be negative.
This is
not
the case in the majority
of applications.
In direct-drive
testing,
it is the
intent
to
effect
testing
by means of
either
direct
injection
of current or direct
application
of
potential
to
the
various
identified
test
points.
Certain special
apparatus,
such
as
break-out
boxes,
are
of ten needed to allow
access to
the
test
points,
but
these
are
relatively
inexpensive
compared to the special
376
test fixtures
needed in laboratory
testing
and
be fabricated
as needed.
can often
Some
method of
driving
the
test points and some
method of data collection
is needed.
A great
many data
collection
systems,
such
as the
Peak-Level
Recorder
presented
below,
are
available.
from various
sources
typically
including
EG&G. The Portable
Programmable
Pulser
(PPP) system was developed by EG&Gto
address the test point driving
problem.
Since
the various drive requirements
are
generally
similar
from one test object
to another,
very
a relatively
universal
drive
system
can be
configured.
The basic limitation
on the drive
its drive capability.
system
is
This sets a
maximum limit
on the
peak current,
peak
potential
and total
output power available.
If the drive system
is
made too
large,
it
to be convenient
and cost effective
to
ceases
convey to the test object.
However, for total
drive
powers
on
the
order
of
several
a reasonably
convenient,
portable
kilowatts,
system can be configured
that
can provi.de
a
very
cost
effective
approach
to
in-situ
direct-drive
test.ing.
The development of
the
Portable
Programmable
Pulser
system at EC&G
was directed
specifically
to
the
needs
of
in-situ
direct-drive
testing.
System _l_Elements
_The EG&GPPP system, model number PPP-2,
consists
of
a Programmable
Pulse Generator
unit,
PPG-1, two 1 kW power amplifier
units,
APA-3A, and an optional
Sequencer,
SCU-2.
The
the system is approximately
total
weight
of
1500 lbs.:
600 lbs.
each
for
the
power
amplifiers,
250 lbs.
for
the
Sequencer.
Protective
covers
are
included
to
provide
adequate
protection
for
shipment via padded
van or other
similar
The basic
carrier.
system is shown in Figure 1.
Portable
Pulse
Generator.
The
Pro---II
-Pulse
Generatorunit,
PPC-1 , congrammable
sists
of a commercial
frequency
synthesizer,
Figure
1.
Portable
Programmable
Pulse
Table 1
Generator
Major
Features
Programmable
Pulser
System
Table
1 (continued)
*Repetition
rate
- 0.02 Hz to 200 kHz
- Accuracy of +/- 2%
*Psuedo random repetition
rate average repetition
rate -0.6 x selected
reoetition
rate
*Pulse count - 1 to 65,536
*Polarity
reversal
*External
trigger
*Pulse delay
*Cain - -60 dB
*Cain control
- -80 dB range
The PPP-2 system
is
Power Amp1if ier .
designed
to support two APA- power amplifier
The APA- power amplifier
Unit
iS a
units.
1 kW unit designed to deliver
1
conservative
The output
impedance,
kW to a 50-ohm load.
is 100 ohms to allow very convenient
however,
parallel
or push-pull
operation
into 50 ohms.
is
designed to drive any VSWR load
The unit
the
full
Also,
without damage to the unit.
of one APA- may be reverse applied
to
output
the output of another without
damage simplifying combined power amplifier
configurations.
The maximum current
available
into a short
circuit
is 7A peak and the maximum potential
available
to an open circuit
is approximately
Either of these values may be roughly
7oov.
parallel
or series
operation
doubled
by
depending on the drive desired.
The push-pull
provides
the
best
distortion
operation
performance
for
a given
output
power and
provides
a total output power of 2 kW into
50
ohms.
The APAmay also
be used as a
stand-alone
unit and may be operated
manually
from
its
front
panel
controls
or,
with
suitable
interfacing,
remotely
from a user
supplied
system.
Sequencer.
The SCU-2 Sequencer
is
a
comme~-computer
repackaged
for portable
use.
It includes
the
general
software
for
basic
system control
and monitoring,
but does
not include any application
software.
This
unit
allows total control
of the entire PPP-2
system, except for
mains
power,
and allows
interrogation
of
the
various programmed parameters for accurate
logging
of
front
panel
entries.
Accessories
Various
accessories
are
generally
required
for the use of the PPP-2 system.
As
mentioned earlier,
such devices
as break-out
boxes
and other similar
units are test object
dependent
and must be identified
for
the
particular
test
object
and test
points
concerned.
Current drivers
are convenient
for
direct
injection
of
current
into
conductors
without
the need of breaking the conductor.
Often, only the harness
restraints
need
be
removed
to install
current drivers.
However,
the physical
size of the driver increases
with
the lower limit
of drive frequency
and maximum
power desired,
and for
frequencies
near
10
kHz ,
the
size
required
may be too great for
convenient
installation.
Other Applications
A general
purpose
system
such
as
the
PPP-2
is
not
limited
to
applications
in
direct-drive
testing.
It can essentially
be
used
in any application
requiring
a versatile
programmable RF source.
One such
application
377
68L4
Peak-Level
--
Recorder
is
probably
the most
testing
Pulse
popular method of
performing
elecwomametic
the response of various
characterization
of
test objects
and systems.
However, the actual
the desired
information
data collection
of
environments
has always
been a
from these
Countless
data
acquisition
systems
problem.
and data links have been developed - each with
The majority
of
merits and shortcomings.
its
these systems have addressed
the
problem
of
the
desired
data
and
sensing
of
accurate
faithfully
communicating it out of the hostile
In this
respect,
the major
EM environment.
concern
has been with
data quality
and not
particularly
with data throughput.
Obviously
the primary importance.
data
quality
is
of
However, data
throughput
can be a serious
concern
due
to
of
testing,
the
cost
availability
of the test object,
and simulator
scheduling . Further,
in many types of testing
such as
verification
direct-drive
applications,
only
peak information
is needed and
that information
must normally be reduced from
the collected
data.
The Peak-Level
Recorder
was developed
to
provide rapid and accurate
peak-level
information.
In
applications
requiring
only peak data, no further reduction
is
required
for
access
to needed data.
In
conventional
data
acquisition
systems,
the
peak-level
information
allows accurate
setup
of the acquisition
equipment with a minimum of
trials
thereby improving data throughput.
Each data
collection
environment
is
unique
in
its
operation
and associated
problems.
However,
there
are
classically
several
things
that
limit
the overall
data
collection
rate
that
many tests
have
in
common. One major contributing
factor
to test
duration
is
the time required
to reconfigure
the test object
after each test
shot.
There
are
a number of
instrumentation
techniques
which could be applied here that could improve
the data rate.
A typical
example would
be a
single
data
link
with
multiple
multiplexed
inputs such as the EC&GODS optical
data links
which provide eight such inputs.
Since
only
one input at a time can be active,
one pulser
shot (at least)
is
required
for
each
input
instrumented
as for
any single
channel data
link.
The real advantage is in the capability
of instrumenting
a number of data points
with
a single
entry
into
the test object.
This
eliminates
the need to open the
test
object
for each data point that a specific
link is to
access.
This
can be a significant
advantage
with
test
objects
in which
a significant
amount of
time is required
for reconfiguring
the
data
links.
For example,
the ODS-68
system
can access 64 data points in a single
intrusion
into the test object.
The
reconfiguration
time,
although
somewhat equipment
dependent,
is also highly
a function
of test management and the type
of
test
object.
A
generally
more serious
limitation
on the data rate is the number of
each
test
needed
to
acquire
shots
pulser
This not only affects
the
data
rate
point.
site
cost since the pulser is
but al so the
lifetime
device
or at
general ,ly a limited
one with
a capability
of
a limited
least
service
major
between
pulses
number of
the
Reduction
of
procedures
or failures.
each
data
number of pulser shots to acquire
reduces
test
time
and
significantly
point
pulser degradation
during a given test.
There
result
in
are
two
basic
problems
which
shots
being needed for each
multiple
pulser
variability
and limited
pul ser
test point:
of the data collection
system.
dynamic
range
With contemporary pulsers,
the
PUlSer output
variability
is
low enough that it is within
tolerable
limits
for
good
data
collection.
Limited
dynamic
range
of the data system is
The range
almost always a limiting
factor.
which
typical
data
can vary, from the
over
test point least excited
to that most excited,
magnitude
is
generally
several
orders
of
greater
than
the
dynamic range available
in
Therefore,
typical
data collection
systems.
the
signal
level
must be adjusted
to fall
the
data
system.
within the usable range of
This
is
generally
accomplished
with
input
either
manual
or
attenuators,
remote
Some limited
success
has been
controlled.
obtained with logarithmic
amplifiers
but the
and the dynamic range is
stability
is
poor
generally
below the data range so attenuators
are
still
required.
It is not unusual to use
several
pulser
shots
to
get
an attenuator
properly
adjusted,
and if it is necessary
to
collect
several
data points in the
same shot
for
correlation
purposes,
a reasonably
large
number of shots,
perhaps five to ten, could be
used.
It would be ideal
if
the number of
shots
needed
to set the attenuators
could be
reduced to zero.
That would require
that
the
peak value
of
the
data be known reasonably
accurately.
Indeed, if the
data
were known
that
accurately,
many tests need not be done.
Another approach is to use one pulser shot
to
assess
the
data
peak of
each instrumented
point.
That peak information
can then be used
to set the corresponding
attenuators
allowing
good
data
quality
on a second pulser shot.
This
is
possible
due to
the
good
pulseto-pulse
performance
of
modern pulses,
as
mentioned
earlier.
This
then reduces
the
number of
pulser shots required
to acquire a
set of simultaneous
data points
to
two,
and
almost
all
sets
of
data
in a single
instrumentation
session
can be simultaneous.
There
are
of
course
anomalies
which on
occasion
require more than two shots
to
get
all
the
desired
data,
but
this peak level
technique
has proven to
be a very
valuable
tool in improving data throughput.
Peak Level Detecting
-There
are several
methods that
could
be
considered
for peak-level
detection
but first,
a brief
review
of
the actual
performance
needed would be valuable.
A key parameter
is
the
dynamic
range.
A value
of 40 dB is a
reasonable
minimum value since only
the
peak
value
is
of
interest
and not
waveform
structure.
Also,
both
polarities
must be
sensed although the sign generally
need not be
preserved.
Sign
of
a peak, however, is one
additional
piece of information
that may have
some value
and could easily
be obtained
from
378
Speed
is
a
a peak detecting
instrument.
very
and
a
parameter
critical
second
A nominal 100 MHz capability
subjective
one.
adequate
for
the range
Of
generally
is
interest
in the
larger
experimental
Sites.
The resolution
needed
is
a function
of the
A resolution
of 1 dB to
specific
data system.
3 dB will generally
satisfy
most requirements.
Finally,
the question of linear
or logarithmic
Almost without
response should be considered.
exception,
the data system scaling
is in some
way keyed to the dB parameter,
the attenuator
settings
for example, so it seems only logical
done
on
a
that
the
peak detection
be
Some reference
level must
logarithmic
basis.
logarithmic
chosen
for
the
then
be
An initial
value of 10 mV was
measurement.
chosen to compliment the data links with which
These
the prototype
was to
first
be used.
values are certainly
subjective
and subject
to
discussion,
but they do represent
a reasonable
starting
point
for
a peak detection
system.
These parameters are tabulated
in Table 2.
Initial
Table 2
Peak-Level Recorder
Design
Goals
and
level
Traditional
means
of
peak
capture
are
generally
based
on some form of analog peak
capture or some type of A/D flash
converter.
The analog
methods
suffer
from
both speed
limitations
and poor
response
flatness
with
frequency.
The conventional
flash converter
is less than desirable
due to its
need
of
a
trigger
to
capture the desired
data.
A high
speed memory could be used to
store
a large
amount of data from some trigger
point and the
peak extracted
after
the
shot.
However, a
reasonably
large memory would be required
as
well
as a high
sample
rate,
perhaps
500
megasamples per second for reasonable
100 MHz
information.
There
is
quite
a bit of work
being done in the industry on such A/D systems
and at
present
they
are
not
available
commercially.
In the development of the PLR system,
we
chose
to
use a variation
of
the
flash
converter.
A conventional
flash
converter
generally
incorporates
a single
comparator for
each
discrete
bit
value
in
its
operating
range,
a 4
bit
converter
requires
16
comparators,
a 12 bit 4096.
The desired
40 dB
dynamic
range
with
1 dB resolution
would
require
512 comparators
for each polarity,
or
a total
of 1024 comparators.
If the divider
were logarithmically
weighted only 80 comparators would be required.
However,
the
ladder
structure
of the conventional
flash converter
is not one consistent
with good high frequency
performance.
A transmission
line
conf iguration
provides
superior
performance.
A better
high
frequency
configuration
of
the
flash
converter
is
the
distribution
of
the
comparators
along
a terminated
transmission
line
separating
each
comparator
from
the
preceding
one with
a
163.
pad.
This
configuration
can provide
very
good
high
379
frequency
performance
as
well
as
good
accuracy.
One problem
encountered
was that
the
input
impedance
of
the
comparators
selected
was poorly
behaved with frequency.
This
required
a
reasonably
complex
compensation
network
and even then the upper
response was somewhat less than
that
desired
Each comparator
but
still
quite functional.
is arranged in a latching
configuration.
This
makes maximum use of the comparator speed
and
minimizes
the
total
number of
high
speed
With this
configuration,
components needed.
comparator
is
tripped,
in order, such
each
that all those below the highest tripped
will
Thus,
only
the
highest
also
be tripped.
determine
comparator tripped need be found to
This configuration
will retain
the
the
peak.
highest
peak applied
since
the last
reset
higher
occur
successively
peaks
whether
nanoseconds
or hours apart.
The 80 comparators are arranged
on four
individual
flash
converter
PC boards
each
containing
10 positive
sensing and 10 negative
An RF amplifier
is
also
sensing devices.
included
to
provide
a convenient
means of
frequency
compensation
on each flash converter
These are then
series
connected
with
card.
lengths
of
coaxial
cable
to form a dual 40
comparator long converter.
signals
from
output
the
80
The
are
applied
to an interface
card
comparators
where a dedicated
microcomputer
is
used
to
format the data to drive a front panel display
and for
transmission
to
a dedicated
host
computer in the system chassis.
The four flask converter
cards
and the
interface
card
are
housed
in a subchassis
Figure
7.
Peak-Level
68~4
which results
in a convenient
complete
flask
converter
module.
Each module
has a front
panel with
displays
for
both
positive
and
negative
peaks and a control
for manual reset.
Eight of the flash converter
modules
a.re
housed
in a chassis
unit, four in a master
chassis,
four in a slave chassis,
to
provide
an
eight
channel
system
capability.
The
individual
module
front
panels
form
the
individual
channel data dispiays.
A dedicated
computer
in
the
master
chassis
handles
communication
protocol
to both a front
panel
display
and
to
external
data
collection
equipment.
Either
RS-232
or
IEEE-488
communications
are
available
for external
data
transfer . The system may be controlled
either
from front panel controls
or remotely via
the
communication channel.
The dedicated
computer
contains
a
software
module which
also
calculates
the
attenuation
needed
in each
channel
for a given channel compression
level
and detected
peak.
That
information
is
provided
at
the
chassis
front panel display
for
immediate
use
and
to
the
remote
communication
link
for
automatic control
or
logging.
The complete PLR system is shown in
Figure 2.
Recorder
System
380
except
for
speed.
The speed of response is
limited
by the comparators.
A 70 MHz half sine
pulse is detected
3 dB low which
corresponds
to
a. 70 MHz, 3 dB band-pass.
The 70 MHz
limitation
did
not
present
any noticeable
limitations.
the
dynamic
range,
Also,
resolution,
and reference
level proved
to
be
very
good
choices
for
the particular
first
application.
The concept
of
logarithmic
response
interfaced
excellently
with
the
setting
of the attenuators.
In all
respects,
the
concept
of Peak-Level Recording provided
the performance expected and the prototype
was
considered
to be a complete success.
Other Applications
described
here
The PLR system
was
basically
developed as an aid to conventional
data acquisition.
However, in many cases
the
final
quantity
of interest
at the various data
points
is
only the absolute
peak signal.
In
those applications,
a PLR system and data link
would
be the only
data
acquisition
tools
needed
for
complete
peak data
recording.
Further,
in those
applications
where total
waveform
structure
is
desired,
a PLR system
could be used
in a pretest
evaluation
to
prioritize
the
data points in order of their
response peaks.
This information
could
then
be used both to rank the data points in or.der
of importance as well as to set the attenuator
values for the specific
data
points
as they
are instrumented
for test.
Conclusion
A very cost effective
solution
to directin-situ
testing
where the
drive
testing
is
unique operational
requirements
of the various
Further,
system units can easily
be provided.
remains
as to
the
little
or no question
correlation
between
the
test
response of a
response
in
its
actual
unit
and
its
operational
environment
since
the
two
This
environments
are
virtually
the
same.
type
of
a versatile
drive
testing
requires
unit which is both portable
and flexible
in
its
We feel
that
the PPP-2
capabilities.
system as outlined
here
satisfies
these
requirements
and offers
significant
advantages
to direct-drive
testing
in
terms
of
cost,
flexibility,
and test time.
Similar1 y,
a peak-level
recording
instrument
can prove an effective
addition
to a
This type
typical
EM data acquisition
system.
of
instrument,
when effectively
used,
can
provide
the
information
necessary
to collect
high quality
data with the minimum of
pulser
firings.
This improves both data quality
and
throughput reducing test time and subsequently
test cost.
Also, since a minimum of
pulser
firings
are
needed to acquire a given set of
data, pulser lifetime
is
extended.
Furthermore, in applications
where only the peak data
are desired,
a PLR system with a suitable
data
link is all that is required
for complete data
acquisition
further
reducing
test
cost and
complexity.
- 381
69L5
Carl E. Baum
Air Force Weapons Laboratory
Albuquerque, New Mexico USA
This paper applies time-domain norm concepts to bound the failure of a black box to
multiport excitation in terms of the failure
responses to single port excitation. Appropriate assumptions concerning the nature of
black
box
response
made
and
the
are
discussed.
1.
Introduction
2.
Black-Box Characteristics
(input ports)
m = 1,2,...,M
(failure ports)
(2.1)
F,(t) = a,f,(t)
(2.2)
G,(t) =
(2.3)
,5, angm,n(t)
(G,(t)) = (g,,,(t))
(a,,)
(2.4)
- 382
input
port
t- 5
1
"1
failure ports
2
1
0
--
I1
t
2
. . . . . .
"2
0
-I2
.
.
.
.
.
I3
"2
-I3
Fig. 2.1.
fnH
= s(t - tn)
(2.5)
system
state
T.
Wave-
fokms are not "allowed" to cross state boundaries (particular times). This can be stated
by (for causal functions)
gl\A(tj
,
(I$) (t))
= T,!,',!,(t)
0 fn(t)
,
(4(1)(t))
m,n
l
(an 1
x(t)
- 383
Table 2.1.
Input-Port Waveform
fn(t)
voltage V
short circuit
current I
open circuit
combined voltage
V + ZI (incoming
wave) (measure both
V and I at nth input
port)
I__
impedance Z taken
as a frequencyindependent resistance (assures only
outgoing waves)
uGm(t)n
L< 'rn=>
II
G (t )II
b
0 otherwise
llG(t)Itl E j-
-cQ
fG(t)\dt
(3.4)
llG(t)
Ila, 5 max G(t)(
t'
Failure Norms
--
' rm
(3.3)
= 0 iff G(t) s or has zero
"measure" per the particular norm
one will
unnecessary. However, for the f,.,(t)
eventually have to choose some form to perform the experiments involving sequential
single-port excitation.
The remaining input
ports will then have to be properly terminated as indicated in table 2.1.
3.
69m
llG(t)up= [ i_,
)W)lP
1I/P
dt 1
(3.5)
(3.6)
384
PJf
1 I__
(G(t))P
dt I
max
Z monotone non-decreasing
function of tf
(3.7)
which also applies to (3.4) by restricting
-w<t<t
If we have a failure at the mth
failure poF'
t we can define a time of failure
by
uGm(Wpt
= rm
(3.8)
fm
since
sGm(t)llp > r,
(3.9)
can
m
be interpreted as a failure time for the mth
failure port.
In section 2 transfer convolution functions were defined relating Gm(t) to the
This
involves fundamentally the
fn(t)*
For our failure
assumption of linearity.
norms to apply it is only necessary for a
failure port (and the signal transport to it)
to be linear for times up to tf . After this
m
time the failure port will have failed, which
by assumption is detected as a box failure.
is irrelevant and
Stated another way t > tf
m
linearity for such times is not needed to
Even more generally
insure the result.
define
tf
Thus tf
min tf
1tmcM
m
Single-Port Tests
F,.,(t) = a,f,(t)
(4.1)
F,,(t) cz0
for n' f n
min
(4.2)
(4.5)
Furthermore
(3.10)
,-an
IanI < A,
(4.6)
gives
IIG,(t)ll
< rm for all m = 1,2,...,Y
which
is
failure.
5.
the
requirement
for
no
system
(G,(t)) = (g,,,(t))
with failure norms
(a,)
(5.1)
385
IiGm(t)H=
&$A11
1"4, gm,n(t)anl
also
<
69Ls
I1 IanI g, , (t)l
(5.2)
(5.3)
with
(F,(t)) = (a,f,(t))
(5.4)
assures
(5.5)
(5.6)
(section
A,,llg,
,(t)s < rm for all m = 1,2,...,M with
,
equality for at least one m
and for all n = 1,2,...,N
(5.7)
non-failure.
Consider
the
Then
an
< 1 => box non-failure
(A;;)1
II I
(5.11)
(5.10)
this
bound.
Note
that i(;
(5.12)
Ian-l
-A,,l
(5.13)
which is exactly the result from an experiment concerning non-failure for single-port
excitation at the n'th input port.
A looser but simpler bound can also be
obtained. Write
an
(5 1 = (k ln,mj (a,)
l
(5.14)
rg,,,(t)w by
(5.8)
(5.9)
or
(a,,) = (Anln,m)
(2)
n
Il(a,)u< ll(A,l,m
(5.15)
(5.16)
(5.17)
Also we have
fO,)fl
@I <II(k ln,ml[
(5.18)
with
I(k l,rn)I
= m;x k
= [minnAn]-1
(5.19)
an
1( a(a,.,)H( [myA,,] //(:)I
[min
AnI 1(~1
n
(5.20)
This result holds for all norms and all possible sets {a,}.
"n
Replacing U(~)II
the
Cl1
r-21
c31
[41
[S]
Ccl
iI71
C81
(5.21)
N
,zl peak signal magnitudes
6.
References
looser
u(an)fll =
n-11
r(a,)u gives
quantity [min A,]
n
condition
then
386
(5.22)
(5.23)
Summary
- 387
EMP
RESPONSE
OF AIRCRAFT
STRUCTURES
USING
70
TRANSMISSION-LINE
L6
MODELLING
P. B. Johns
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Nottingham,
Nottingham, NC7 2RD, UK.
and
A. Mallik,
Kimberley Communications Consultants,
Minerva House, Spaniel Row, Nottingham, NC1 6EP, UK.
Diakoptics
Diakoptics is an extension and generalisation
of the TLM procedure which allows a large network structure to be broken down into smaller
and more manageable substructures [5,6]. One
of the additional advantages is that the mesh in
one substructure can be of a different coarseness from the mesh in another. Another
advantage is that problems that change only
part of their geometry from one problem to
another, require a new solution only of the substructure containing that change. The use of
space aaproximation [6] and time approximation
[7] in diakoptics allows the solutions of
substructures to be carried out efficiently.
2. The 3-D TLM Condensed Node
Originally the TLM method used 3 series and
3 shunt modes separated by a distance AR/2 to
provide a complete solution of Maxwell's
equations in 3 dimensions. This expanded node
model (as in finite different methods) has
various disadvantages due to the complicated
topology of the model. For example, accurately
modelling boundaries presents some difficulty
as does the spatial separation of the computed
fields.
The complexities described above may be
overcome by using a 3-D TLM condensed node
model. In such a model the distance AR/2
between series and shunt nodes is reduced to
zero. Hence the 6 field components converge at
the node in the centre of a cube with sides AR.
Such a condensed node was introduced by Amer
[8], but has the disadvantage of being
asymmetric, which results in a slight difference in computed fields for waves travelling
in opposite directions.
Recently Johns has developed a 3-D condensed
node which is symmetrical and the form of this
is shown in Figure 1.
The nodes can be considered as the junction
of 12 two-wire transmission-lines which are
imagined to be on the faces of the box-like
structure shown in Figure 1. The scattering
matrix for the node is
4. Results
100001000-101
10010001000-1
001010-100010
0001010-10100
01001010-1000
000-101010100
0010-10100010
10000-1000101
0-10010101
-10
010
01-1000001
0 0 0
0
01
010
I
010
0110000010-10
-s=;
388
=
=
svl
-cvr
--
Y2
v,
5
Fig.1: The 3-D symmetric condensed TLM
scattering node
3. Pre-processor for the 3-D TLM solver
Before the introduction of the 3-D TLM
condensed node, data input to the TLM solver
was difficult, as in the case of finite difference and finite element methods. However with
the introduction of the condensed TLM node,
data preparation consists mainly of defining
2-D planes, midway between nodes, to describe a
3-D geometry. This ease of data preparation is
particularly important in the diakoptic
solution of structures. The input data graphics
for a helicopter with a plane of symmetry is
shown in Figure 2.
I-
rJ
L.-.-.-.-.-.-
-------_-_._.__-__.-._~~_.~
L7
-.---.---.-._._.4
/./
:.,
l_l.i
-
389
70
L6
5. Acknowledgements
.1
Ii j1I.
;
__--_
[II
t6
RADIATION
_(
391
DAMPING
71
IN FINITE
L7
CYLINDERS
ILGALUJN
AJmE,
ALDERWASTON,
Singularity
the
version
of
simplified
A
Expansion
Method is applied to cylinders
in free
the
the
parameters
of
to
determine
space
The
theory
is
principal
complex
resonance.
extended
to take account
of finite conductivity
and the results
are compared
with
a full SEM
an
analytical
WOM
calculations,
calculation,
approximation
and experiment.
ENGLAND
We now eiiG.iIate
al3
2-i
= C*VyA
Alternatively
space
Q and
t CV x
obtain
v x
it can be shown
3%
ati
that
. . (4)
in free
(5)
Introduction
Currents
induced
within
infinite
cylinders
in
free
space
by
electromagnetic
waves
can
be
calculated
by the approach
developed
in (1) and
the process
can be
modified
to apply to finite
cylinders
for the early
time behaviour.
The
method
does
not extend
to late times
because
energy losses due to radiation
clamping have not
account.
This
paper
is
taken
into
been
concerned
with applying
a simplified
version
of
the
Singularity
Expansion
Wethod
(2).
The
the
time
process
is
ignored,
interaction
history
being
taken
to be that appropriate
to
complex
The
the
principal
resonance.
parameters
of the resonance
are then determined
by requiring
them to be consistent
with Waxwells
Equations.
The
results
both
numerical
and
are
compared
with
a
full
SEW
analytical
calculation
(3,
5),
a
MOW
calculation,
an
analytical
approximation
with
(4)
and
experiments
in a bounded wave simulator,
The Problem
The Vector
An arbitrary
the form
Potential
field
expressed
The
Vector
in
a*
6E z-v
--
at
at
a*
this
Inteqral
t-D/c)
r6n
DZ = (z-z
ds'
. .. (2)
at2
. . . (8)
.,,
)' t ax
of
the
surface,
expression
Potential
-Q
. . . (1)
now differentiate
(6)
We
can
express the vector
potential
as
an
integral
over the current
distribution
and at
the surface
of a thin cylinder
it assumes
the
form
where
at
.**
A.=
.*
can be
field 1s
near the
vxvxA=o
Equation
electric
@=_%yqJ_@A
and we may
Close to a perfect
conductor
the
iGentical.ly zero, and so we have
cyli.nBer
surface
z being
the
z coordinate
observation
on the cylinder
radius of the cylinder.
The observed
late time spatio-temporal
excited
shock
..distributions
in
approximates
closely to
(9)
point
of
and a the
current
antennas
in
I = IO sinwt
equt
cos
"
*.. (10)
2Q
and
so we consider
a current
**. (3)
I = IO e(i*c)t
.*. (11)
2Q
392
at
lTC2
-(iw-a)DoQ/c
Do'
A = ll~Io e(i~-a)t
f g(io-o)D/c)
4n
I _.Q
CO19
dz'
A Differentio-Integral
-_
*
that
and
--
et i*a)t
. . . (21)
wDoQ
COB _--
Do
Do
. . . (22)
i-Q
G,
by parts
twice
lrz
aDo
aDo/c
~0s __ ,__co9 _
e
dz
2P
. . . (15)
kI0
-
dz'
. . . (24)
Do
we ultimately
obtain
Qiw-a)t
llzt
Q
co9
G, =
._-
+ 2@@,
WD
sin _ o eeDo/C
I
-jj
dz'
28
. . . (25)
-I
Do
4rr
DoQ
. . . (16)
Eliminating
the
terms
IGO
at
48
_-
. . .
X
while
nc2
eliminating
a2
@Z = ,,,o~+
the
terms
2woc
F&i
in a
-.
GA2 t
An initial approximation
assuming
that
F&2
Gz2
. . .
may be obtained
to
determine
(a,
w)
to
satisfy
?Tc
-
2Q
the
(29)
estimates
a, = c
we consider
a perfect
conductor
and so
that the electric
field at the antenna
is
identically
zero.
Taking
the
to be open ended we put
and we obtain
. . .
have
Solution
Conductivity
=wo
. . . (28)
w-w,
and we then
The
by
..* (17)
The problem
is
this equation.
(27)
:Q < 1
Intially
we have
surface
cylinder
(26)
(if+-a)t
Infinite
(20)
6.. (23)
,, e-(iw-a)DoQ/c
Ez2
. . .
pm2
and
introduced
e@oQ/c
of D
. . . (14)
-_(iw-a)D/c
TTZ' a2
e
cos IQ
2a
az12
we have
PC =
function
4~
Integrating
writs
lroI0
az2
a2A
= (wo2--w2ta2)GI
2'%cFc
az'2
so we may
@A
for an arbitrary
= azf(D)
_-
azz
21
Separatinq
this
equation
into
its
real
imaginary-parts
we find that we can write
where
note
. ..(19)
*.. (13)
ata
aaf(D)
-
nz'
_
dz'
Do
If&,cFs = (~2-wz+a2)G2
aaA
= (io-a)LA
-
now
I
-E
COs
Equation
we now substitute
eq (12) into the differential
equation
for
the
vector
potential.
Differentiating
with respect to time -
We
0
e-(iw-a)Do/c
--
21
. . . (12)
= (eo2-ozta2-2iea)x
. . . (18)
0%2=
where
wo2 1
..* (30)
4 fc*G,*
i fs*G,*
ff Gle2
+ al2
we have put
fc,s = Q Fc,s
G2*2
1
6.. (31)
. . . (32)
and
the
starred
functions
are
obtained
by
setting
a
=
0.
w
=
w,
in
the
function
definitions.
A simple
numerical
integration
routine then allows a rapid determination
of
we can make an immediate
improvement
in
a,, wl.
this
estimate
in
the
following
way.
Diferentiating
G, with respect to a and to w we
obtain.
393
71 L7
ace)
= 0
a(l)
woB,(O,wo)
aG, = aG2 = 2
_
aa
aw
-_-
aa
a% ~-
COB
cos -UDOe*O
2Q
I0
aw
IlZ
COB
ADO ecDdcdx
sin _-
.*.
(34)
the approxi-
-l-1--I
*_
l-1I 1
aG,
aa
aw
a% *_-
aG,
,.I (35)
2%
SOme
w,
. . .
(44)
a/f
. . . (36)
ANALYTIGAL,APPRDXINATIONS
for the Gi as
_ _a1
under
Approximation
1 t
W,
a,
+ -n -.-
terminated
approximations
~0
Approximation
. . . (37)
Writing
of the
G,"
G, * =
. . . (36)
Internals
explicity,
w,
*I+"%-""
Gz - Gz *+
Cylinder
%I
as
- G, *
closed
2%
-.
aa
the
iteration
being
suitable
criterion.
j+l)W( j
We
2P
obtain
Y j+i ) = Wa(
The
a% *_
thus
= P(a,,q,)
*.. (43)
dx
*.. (33)
We
ylf
lr %I
nz
Q
=2
-3
i-f
e
.-
w,
W(O) =
COB
%2%
we have
lm
_
COB
zQ
es%
dz
--
. . . (45)
Do
-B.
be substituted,
into equations
together
with
(30) and (31).
the
introducing
. . . (46)
u=_ "'P=?
An
Iterative
Scheme
-
We
can
improve
further
on
the
solving
for a and w iteratively.
We rewrite (26) as
a = f
accuracy
_!Y!?
fh(a,u)
lr
...
by
the
integral
G,'
= 2
For
p not too
v'uz+flz] du
IGGF
large
we
.** (47)
write
5 (a e) = fs(at~)Gl(anu)
r
....
GIZ(at~)
G,
fc(a,w)G,(a,~)
I
*"2
rrfi
--
cosr
du
. . . (48)
fluatp=
+ G,'(a,w)
*.. (90)
and
becomes
(39)
where
1
I!
Expanding
the
cosine
term
(27)
w2 = wz
B,(u,w)
B,(u,w: 1 t a2 = P(a,w)
1-z
f&r
G12
...
(49)
1
. . . (41)
fs%
We then
make
the
further
approximation
. . . (50)
.., (42)
t Gz2
we may set
Which
becomes,
on evaluating
the
integrals
394
Further
G,
Xo(rr~) +
which
f0r
G,
*=
For
ln
1/p
+
d
G,*
2
G2
redUCeS
<<
Writing
In
t0
. . . (52)
0.452
explicity,
G,
a - 4f ea/4f
GA2
dfi
,.,'ua+pa
. . . (53)
which
combined
becomes
2 In l/p
a"4f
with
= 1.85
(58)
. . . (64)
+ G,'
and
(52)
gives
d 1.
x,
Wore accurate
though still manageable
aPProxiAs an example we
mations
may be obtained.
determine
a further approximation
for a.
From (26) we can obtain
we have
sin rIlu2+pr
2
co9 "
2
P << 1, this
G2
Approximations
. . . (51)
l/2
- 0.452
e
2 In l/p - 0.452
. . . (54)
(2 In I/p
We note
. . . (65)
-1
. . . (55)
pS*
a
* FC
A simple
. . . (56)
Approximation
We observe
that
so we obtain
(55),
2f
a"
,.. (57)
from
(30)
making
. . . (66)
In I/P
use of
FINITE
(56)
a,
. . .
(58)
QG,*
which
The numerical
results show that a very good
approximatiion
for fat cylinders
that is Only
a few percent
in error for thin cylinders
is
obtained
by combining
(58) with (52) modified
by dropping
the constant,
ie
for S << 1
G, * >> G,*
and
- 0.452)2t1.852
in passing
we may write
as
C
a," _
0.5
Q -1nS
J=uE-
. . . (67)
.*. (59)
2na6
- 0.168
where
which compares
directly
with and is more
accurate
than the result of Lee and Leung
the
skin
depth
[4].
We can virtually
recover the result of Lee and
Leung by ignoring the logarithmic
term in (61),
when the estimate
for a becomes
by
/- (+o=
We then
have
0.5
that
)I=
. . . (60)
Q -1np
is given
6=
a-"
CONDUCTIVITY
the
I0
field
at z = 0 is
e(i*a)t
. . . (69)
2naSu
- 1.03
Differentiating
with respect to time and
introducing
the result into (17) we obtain
after cancelling
colmaon factors
iw-a
-_
= u.
2na6u
;(i@-a)Do'/c
4~
"0'
I
[[;]2t
_ n q-J-&l
_002%
a
vc2
(i*a)2]i';'i~)Do~ccosv~
dn'
. . . (61)
or
-R
(70)
Introducing
f/fo"l-
This
compares
with
Or
vafo
Lee and
. . . (62)
.*. (71)
a6uh
Leung's result
Separating
into real and imaginary
Parts and
approximating
as before we have the estimate
... (63)
Sfo
Both these results can be converted
cylinder
approximationeby dividing
to closed
by (1 + 0)
a16 C
*G+
*b%
Fc*G2*
*' + G2"2
IG,
+ s/Zc
GI*
I
+ 9/2w
G,*
I
. . . (72)
Writing
e explicity
and noting that
region where the correction
becomes
395
71
L7
in the
significant
*.. (77)
we
G,
>>G,
find
that
. . . (73)
we can write
_EXPERIWEWTAL
oI6"+
This approximation
will cease
the skin depth approaches
the
ie when
to be valid when
cylinder
radius,
lX&-$l
a > __
aa
. . . (75)
4
when
this
obtains,
J=
we write
I
. . . (76)
rraL
and
PRGGRAWME
[1+2+&l
the estimate
The
experimental
procedure
was
to illuminate
2 m dipoles
in a bounded wave IMP simulator
and
monitor
the
centre
current
using
broad-band
current
probes.
The signals
were
led into a
microwave
transmitter
coupled
into a wave guide
with a dielectric
break and thence to a remote
screened
recording
room.
The current
pulses
were recorded
on film and analyaed
graphically
to obtain
the attenuation
constant
and w was
determinea
directly
from
the
late-time
response.
Two conductors,
copper
and nichrome
were
used,
the
nichrome
to
enhance
the
resistance
effect and so make it observable
with
the
short
lengths
of
antenna
used
in
the
experiment.
1-o
EXPERIMENT
0.9
(NICHROME
?
:
SSEM
0.8
MOM
(ROBERTS)
SEM
ITESCHE
MOM
0.7
---
APPROXIMATION
(771
USING
166)
O-6
0.5
u = 1~1.1065/m
0.L
o-3
(T = 6.25.107
-
0.2
*
o=oo
0.1
0.8
EXPERIMENT
SSEM
0.7
0.6
MOM
MOM
(ROBERTS 1
Fig
l/3 -----e
slm
r\
396
CONCLUSIONS
Fig 3
4-.-
G/f
been
singularity
expansion
method
has
The
applied
to the determination
of the resonance
cylinder.
The
parameters
of
a
resistive
estimates
refines
reproduces
and
approach
obtained
by other
techniques
leading
to close
agreement
with the results
obtained
by a more
sophisticated
application
of numerical
methods
together
with
an
encouraging
agreement
with
results.
The
analytical
experimental
approximations
are useful
for aspect
ratios
as
low as 5 where the geometric
assumptions
become
questionable
out
to values
beyond
lo5 where
resistivity
dominates
even for good conductors.
Combining
these
results
with
the
early
time
enable
presented
in
predictions
Cl1 will
accurate
predictions
of antenna
currents
over
the entire time scale.
extreme
simplicity
of
The
adequate
approximations
indicates
their
utility
in
threat assessments
of larger scale systems.
WoM
PREDICTIONS
to Long Cables
EMC'79
Expansion
Method
the solution
of Electromagnetic
Interaction
Problems
CE
Baum
IN 98 AFWL.
for
Expansion
Method as
c31 On the Singularity
applied to Electromagnetic
Scattering
from thin wires
IN 102 AFWL.
F M Tesche
Frequency
of a
c41 The Natural Resonance
thin Cylinder
and its Application
to
EMI7 Studies.
SWLeeandBLeung
IN96AFWL.
[S]f&,&ularity
scattering
Expansion
from thin
of Electromagnetic
and thick closed
cylinders.
J L Roberts
L W Pearson
IN 431 AFWL
V&l_II)&TION
USING
THE
OF
EMP
RESPONSE
LXGHTNING
397
72
CALCUL&TION
6JN
CIEFtIf%L
OF
STROKE
METHODG
CABLE
TO
ricr emr7
of
t.he
14 pairs
The
that tishield
of
the
two
buried
connrcted
at
each
end
to
r-resi~.tivc;
ground.
L8
FI
cable
cablfzli
a 30
and
are
ohms
On the!
14
pairs
overhead
cable,
the
the
di+fcrential
modes
arm
c*mmo17
and
600
matched
at
the
far
end
through
a
a
120
ohms
resistances,
ohms
and
Resi st i vE3
val tag!2
rccspmcti
vrl y*
arc
conn~~tad
at
the
near
end
dividers
in
order
to
match
the
and
the
common
dif+crrsn.tial
circuits
and
give
398
WREGISTREMENT
DU 23mva3
StPRIVOT
MESURE HF
-Voie: 6
-Amplitude: 250
Seuil: 300 Gamma -Pente: 2500 Gamma/ms
Date seuil: 3 h. 30 mn. 19 sec. 365 ms.
U(P) = J$",(P,x)us(x)dx
/eG (P,x)Ie(x)dx
0 v2
.(P) = fiII(P,x)Us(x)dx
P G12(P,x)Is(x)dx
0
399
72
The
f 01 :I.owi ng
(fig.
is
-* The height
is
neglicJibIc
length.
pcrfextly
of
the
c:abIs
i(t-F/c)
+ 7
the
the
(35)
di(t-r/c)
dt
whmre
c:urrcnt
(6)
is
l.(t)
, c:
the
df kstanco
thr
measured
speed
of
1 ightning
t hI
light,
be?tw~en
the
1 ightning
fal 1 point
and
the
dititt-ibutsd
on
the gable,
and h the height
return
stt-ok@
channel.
stroke
source
af thr
both
ground
dipole
above;?
to
1
;5 Jti(t-r/c)dt
2h
= 4nEo
3
One
of
made
were
c:onductivE).
compared
H(t)
on9
4).
I*. T h w ciai1
E(t)
a3sumpti
L8
problem
is
h
R Thi%
to
can
1.n j exted
the
dextermine
br
done+ by
cxrrent
the
value
mcasuriny
and
the
magnetic
field
at a particular
point
af
the
the
line.
If
mceasur- i ng
point
is
near
rnuugh
from the
injection
paint,
the
field
icsr
al most
magnetic
proportioncirl
find
h z 2nr
to
the
2 H(t)
i(t)
currtz+nt
and
one
can
(7)
(5)
and
(6)
we
tranepaserd
in
frequency
domain
and
ueed
to
czompute
the
va3 tage
and
current
distributed
swurC:es
CEil
whi rh
are
nfwded
for
the
integrals
(3)
and
(4).
Equations
the
E(w) = &
H(U)
= g
(8)
0
1
[ F2
+ $]W)
(9)
-10
measurement
-20/
CHARACTERISTICS
401
OF UNUSUAL
73Ml
POWER
MAIN
TRANSIENTS
William T. Rhoades
Xerox Corporation
El Segundo, California
90245
INTRODUCTION
For nearly thirty years, researchers
in the field
of Electromagnetic
Compatibility
(EMC) have been
puzzling
over a multipartite
question
about power
main
susceptibility:
what
amplitude
value,
waveshape or frequency
spectrum
and time duration
must
equipment
be designed
for? The propagation
modes,
classes
and stress
levels
for transients
have been
defined
(1).
A large number
of common
occurring
transients
have been characterized
for each class of
transient
( 2 ). These transients
include
the classical
contact
arc having an inductive
load, lightning
and
the inrush current
from tungsten
lamps and motors.
However,
in order to have error free operation
and
avoid
any serious
detrimental
effects,
the manufacturer
must design and test products
for all, not
just the common,
power main transients,
This paper
will describe
the characteristics
and measurement
techniques
for three of the many unusual power main
transients.
with no AC/DC/AC
conversions.
The load is connected
to the secondary
winding of the CVT.
With a
power
failure,
a battery
supplied
AC waveform
is
applied
to a primary
winding of the CVT.
This low
power UPS design is called an off-line
UPS whereas
the UPS in Figure 1 is called an on-line UPS.) Manufacturers
of UPS have defined
the output tran-sient,
output
harmonic
distortion
and,
sometimes,
the
Electra-Magnetic
Interference
conduction
output
(EMI). Unlike
many power main transients
( 2)) online UPS transients
are continuous
and vary in characteristics.
These power main transients
are a strong
function
of the design of the UPS and the load on the
UPS.
UPS
The
main
use
of
an Uninterruptible
Power
System (UPS) is for protection
against power failures
lasting
more
than a few power
main cycles
up to
When protection
is needed
for
outages
minutes.
approaching
a half hour or longer, usually an auxiliary
power source
is used or the computer/office
equipment is placed in a non-operating,
low-power
standby
mode.
Because
more
and more
computers/office
equipments
are being used in critical
or real-time
applications,
the use of UPS equipment
is steadily
growing.
It has been estimated
that 5% of business
sites
have
UPS and 30%
of all large
mainframe
computer
sites have UPS back-up
equipment.
The use
of UPS is a function
of the application,
not the
quantity
of power used.
Nearly
all UPS designs
work on the principle
shown in Figure 1. In the normal
continuous
operation, the AC voltage
is converted
to a DC voltage
which supplies the necessary
battery
charging
current
and the inverter
current
as shown in Figure la. The
inverter
converts
the DC voltage
back
to an AC
source.
When a power
outage
occurs,
the battery
supplies
the inverter
as depicted
in Figure lb.
If an
overload
occurs or the UPS fails, an automatic
transfer switch
(like thyristors
or FETs at low power
levels)
usually
phase synchronized
to the input AC
mains; connects
the load directly
to the AC mains as
illustrated
in Figure lc.
(Another
UPS design
conthe
utility
power
to
the
primary
of
a
nects
ferroresonant
Constant
Voltage
Transformer
(CVT)
(b)
Figure
1:
BANK
Designs
402
403
73Ml
Effects
of UPS Transients
Figure
Input power main transients from a 12step UPS at full load. Note that the steps
are not exactly 30 apart.
2:
10 DBIDIV
t
AC MAINS
CURRENT
I
I I I
Figure
3:
HARMONIC
NUMBER
AC MAINS
VOLTAGE
IZOV (RMS)
Figure
5:
Observe
occurred
that
near
10 DSlDlV
CRT FLASHOVER
5 KHZ/W!
i-
Figure 4:
Many products
need high voltage
for their
operation: copiers, illuminators, Cathode Ray Tubes
(CRT) in TV sets and monitors, etc. One theory that
explains the CRT internal flashover is that the high
potential on the inside of the neckglass creates field
emissions
from the metal structure of the CRT
gun (5 ). Then there is an electron avalanche along
the neckglass that makes gas accumulated
on the
glass surfaces due to electron stimulated desorption.
The ionization
in the desorbed
gas and ion feedback
causes a run away condition.
This condition
forms a
plasma that creates
breakdown,
followed
by a cleanup that restores
normal conditions.
The occurrence
of high voltage
flashovers
in CRT has been known for
despite
rigid
quality
control
many
years
yet,
procedures
and new inventive
designs,
the flashover
has a finite
probability.
The flashovers
occur
at
random intervals
well separated
in time.
Because
the
intervals
between
flashovers
become
larger
as the
life of the CRT increases,
the flashovers
are rarely
noticed
by the viewer
until the repeated
flashovers
create
a failure.
With almost a billion of CRT equipservice
with
other
sharing
the
power
ments
electronic
equipment,
a major concern
is the power
mains transients
induced by CRT flashover
which can
There
can also be
be as high as 2500 volts (1).
radiated
and conducted
interference
to equipment
interfacing
with the CRT
circuitry,
for example,
computers
interfacing
with CRT monitors.
Even with
arc protection
in the CRT circuitry,
there can be
castastrophic
failures in the interfacing
equipment.
Model of Main Arc Current
Path
The positive
high voltage
is connected
by the
picture
tube ultar or anode button
to the internal
coating as shown in Figure 6. The high voltage
return
is connected
to an external
tube
coating
called
AQUADAG.
The capacitance
(Cl)
formed
between
the internal
and external
coatings
on the funnel with
the glass serving
as the dielectric,
is about
1 to
2.5 mF.
The
distributed
capacitance
between
the
yoke
mounted
on the tube neck
and the internal
coating
(C,)
is about
10% of Cl.
With the yoke
return common
to the AQUADAG,
the total capacitance increases
with the size of the CRT.
The high
voltage
(15 to 20 kV for monochrome
and 25 to 35 kV
for color)
creates
a charge
Q=CV between
20 to
63 PC and an energy (J = l/2 CQ) as high as 65 joules.
The distributed
resistance
of the internal
coating
is
about
20 ohms over the entire
length
so one can
assume
the effective
resistance
in the arc model is
10 ohms. Many newer designs
add a 400 ohm series
resistance
(discrete
or distributed
in the coating)
to
limit the peak and rate of the rise of the current
in
the arc.
404
60 AMPSlDlV
Figure
7:
at
YOKE
ANODE
ANODE
BUTTON
H.V.
SOURCE
Figure
6:
Dispersion
BUTTON
ELECTRON
GUN
R
Circuit
model of the
during CRT flashover.
main
current
path
405
Reducing
The Escaping
Current
Since the main problem is flow of current, rerouting or the placement of cables has little effect.
Furthermore, a single point system ground does not
block the multiple shared arc current loops.
The
escape path impedance is complex with typical values
between 20 to 100 ohms at the ringing period near
AQUADAG
73Ml
AC FRpME
CONNECTION
FILTER
/
\
~,-j+-
B
ISH f
I,@
f-1'""'""";"
CRT
STRAY CAPACITANCE
IN POWER SUPPLY
+---
4-v
i
I
SPARK GAP,
DRIVE
CIRCUITS
IEX
*
I
I lls
(
--
LOGIC GROUND
*
1
CRT MONITOR
Figure
8:
f-DC
The complex
arc current
escape path.
Blockage of each path requires different
solutions.
CONTROLLER
BYPASS
current.
Changing
the
layout
by
impedance
between
the arc current
critical
circuitry
is very helpful.
creating
more
path
and the
406
REFERENCES
W.T. Rhoades,
mercial
Power
Standard,
pp.
posium.
2.
W.T. Rhoades,
Development
of
Power
Main
Transient
Protection
for
Commercial
Equipment, pp. 235-244,
1980 IEEE EMC Symposium.
3.
The Propagation
and AttenuaF.D. Martzoff,
tion of Surge Voltages
and Surge Currents
in Low
Voltage
AC Circuits,
pp. 1163-1170,
May 1983
IEEE
Transactions
on Power
Apparatus
and
Systems,
Vol PAS-102,
No. 5.
4.
A.C. Franklin
and D.P. Franklin,
The
Book,
pp.
Transformer
548-562,
Butterworth,
Boston, Mass.
CONCLUSIONS
The characteristics
of three unusual power main
transients
have been given.
On-line
UPS transients
are continous;
can occur
at any phase angle of the
power
main waveform,
have up to 100 V amplitude,
last up to 600~s
and have spectrum
up to 35 kHz.
The inrush current
of CVTs is only limited
by the
power service;
and has /,& rise/fall
times at 10 to 100
times
the
normal
current.
The
final
transient
described
was the CRT flashover;
not only can a 2500
volt transient
be injected
in the power mains, there
can be major
transients
from the arc in the CRT
How
the
arc
current
is
interfacing
equipment.
dispersed
and some
unique
ways
to
reduce
the
escaping
arc current are given.
The
Ratiocination
of a ComMain
Conducted
Susceptibility
269-276,
1981 IEEE EMC Sym-
1.
5.
J and
1983,
K.G. Hernquist,
Studies
of Flashovers
and Preventive
Measures
for Kinescope
Guns, pp.
117128, IEEE Transactions
on Consumer
Electronics,
May 1981, Vol. CE-27, No. 2.
407
7h2
Fraqois D. Martzloff
Corporate Research and Development
General Electric Company
Schenectady, NY 12345
INTRODUCTION
IEEE Std 587-1980, Guide on Surge Voltages in LowVoltage AC Power Circuits, now designated ANSI/IEEE
Std C62.41-1980, was published after several years of
preparation by a Working Group of the Surge Protective Devices Committee of the IEEE [1,2]. The same
Working Group is now preparing a new Guide on Surge
Testing. This document has been refined and is now
close to achieving consensus; only a few items remain
to be finalized. However, final approval and publication
by IEEE are not expected for some time.
Since the Guide on Surge Testing is based on
information contained in IEEE Std 587-1980 and IEC
Report 664-1980 131, familiarity with these two documents is almost a prerequisite to complete appreciation
of the issues discussed in this paper. However, the
overview of the issues presented here will be useful to
individuals concerned with the various aspects of surge
protection and surge testing.
BACKGROUND
Standards published before IEEE Std 587-1980 were
generally influenced by traditional dielectric test concepts or special equipment requirements.
For instance,
some military standards [4,5] required voltage tests
without specifying source impedance; the widely overused SWC test [61 specified realistic test conditions and
procedures, but only for the limited field of solid-state
relays in high-voltage substations; IEC Report 664-1980
addressed only the voltage aspects of surge occurrences
because it is primarily concerned
with insulation
coordination.
The publication of IEEE Std 587-1980 introduced
several new concepts in the field of surge occurrences
in low-voltage ac power circuits. The development and
wide acceptance of silicon avalanche diodes and metal
oxide varistors as low-voltage surge protective devices
had made the surge current an important new factor in
the design of surge protection schemes. Their increasing use motivated the writers of IEEE Std 587-1980 to
describe in a systematic way current surges in the
environment
of ac power systems. Hence, two circuit
conditions were defined in IEEE Std 587-1980: for lowimpedance circuits, a current surge is the relevant
parameter; for high-impedance circuits, a voltage surge
is the relevant parameter. Furthermore,
IEEE Std 5871980 introduced
the definition
of three location
categories. In these categories, the amplitudes of current surges decrease from the outdoor environment
toward the interior points of the wiring system within a
building, in contrast to the amplitudes
of voltage
surges, which do not decrease in the case of a low load
on the system.
The primary purpose of IEEE Std 587-1980 is to
provide a description of the environment,
including the
statistical and exposure-dependent
nature of surge
occurrences. Warnings are provided on the pitfalls of
worst case approaches in defining the environment.
Furthermore,
a specification for any required level of
withstand capability of hardware is carefully avoided.
Nevertheless, equipment specifications are appearing in
the trade, where such statements are made as . . .
meets the requirements of IEEE Std 587 (italics added).
Such misuse of IEEE Std 587-1980 was one of the factors that motivated the writing of a guide on surge testing, in anticipation
of publication
by IEEE of a
comprehensive
document on low-voltage surge protective devices and their application, in the late 1980s.
CONTROVERSIAL
ISSUES
,.
THE ANS,,,EEE
STD C62.41-1960
CONCEPT
OF LOCATION
CATEGORIES
.
.
LOCATlON CATEGORY
C
Ou,s,de and Service Entrance
:
: wa,or Feeders and Short Branch Clrouits .
IN UNPROTECTED
:
.
.
LOCATlON;ATEGORY
408
CIRCUITS
LOCATION CATEGORY
A
Outlets Bd Lang Branch Cl,CIW
:
VOLTAGES
3 kA
CURRENTS
2.
TYPICAL
B kV lmplS* 0, fling
10 kA 0, more
EXAMPLES
OF INDUSTRIAL
Impulse500 A Ring
OR RESIDENTIAL
6 k Ring
CIRCUITS
Alternate:
dergraund
cable S*riC*
LEGEND:
M: Watt-ho, mete,
FA: Fixedappliance
IO:
fv:
MB:
t?
SE:
(secondary rating)
surge a,,es,8,
(secondary rating,
Wl3,:
3. THE
IEC REPORT
664-1960
CONCEPT
industrial
drive system
D,iB motor
Main breaker
Transbent p,otec.to,
Service entrance (may take many forms
depending on specific ca2.B Of syste?)
VW receptacle WithoUt atteatio
OF CONTROLLED
Hi=:Cosme,&C1,0iC9
P4. surge p,otector
PC: PerSOnal compute,
TV: T,asfo,me,-isolated
&%t,OiCS
VOLT+GES
Ilnmntmlld
Independently from the location of a device or equipment in the above figure, it should remain safe (no fires, no personnel hazard) over the full range of available surges at any point within the installation.
It may also be desirable, under particular circumstances and for specific devices, to proscribe damage as a result of testing at higher levels than might be suggested by its
typical location.
Notes:
(1)The Controlled Voltage Situation of IEC Report 664 requires the presence of interfaces; these can be surge protective devices
such as PI, P2, P3 or P4, or the existence of well-defined impedance networks such as Z and C shown in the circuit diagram
upstream of WR2.
(2)Voltage levels following the designation of Installation Category (IV, III, II or I) are shown in parentheses for a system with
300 V phase-to-ground
voltage, and next for 150 V phase-to-ground
voltage. The voltages shown are implied as 1.2/50 p.s
impulses.
(3)This diagram makes no allowance for the possibility of surges associated with ground potential differences that may occur, for
instance, with a sensor connection to the KS control system, a cable TV connection to the line-isolated TV set, etc., or the flow
of ground current in the impedance of the grounding conductors.
Figure 1.
Similarities
C62.41-1980
and differences
and Installation
Categories
in ANSI/IEEE
to define. The controversy was as much the question of whether or not guidance is desirable at all
as the question of what format would discourage
such guidance from being lifted out of context and
considered to be specifications. In the final draft, a
table showing examples of withstand levels was
deleted because of the concern for misapplication
of the table. Concern was also expressed that
specific reference to ANSI/IEEE C62.41 (formerly
IEEE Std 587) and IEC 664 documents
might
imply a restriction of the Guides applicability to
a limited set of surge waveforms. The final version
of the Guide
is expected to include sufficient
information to avoid this limitation. The first two
of these issues are discussed below in more detail.
1. IEEE 587-1980 and IEC 664-1980
IEEE Std 587-1980 defines Location Categories to
acknowledge different current, voltage, and energy levels in a low-voltage system, while IEC 664-1980 defines
Installation
Categories*
to acknowledge
different
voltage levels in such a system, since its prime concern
is insulation coordination.
There are both similarities and differences between
the IEEE Std 587-1980 concept and the IEC 664-1980
concept. Both recognize the decreasing severity of the
surge environment
from outdoors to the inner recesses
of a building. The differences originate from the fact
that IEEE Std 587-1980 describes a condition where
existing, uncoordinated
clearances and solid insulation
determine the maximum overvoltages that can occur
but where the voltage breakdown levels of these clearances and solid insulation are unknown and uncontrolled. IEC Report 664-1980 addresses primarily a
coordinated insulation system where the voltage breakdown levels of clearances and solid insulation
are
known and controlled. Figure 1, excerpted from the
Guide on Surge Testing, provides a graphic illustration of the similarities and differences.
2. Current/Voltage
409
74~2
410
r
Purpose of Test
Nature of EUT
l
l
l
,
l
l
l
l
Surge AC Interface
Surge Other Points
Surge Component Terminals
Environment Selected
Failure Criterion
Powered
I
/I
Figure 2.
I
I
Type of
Surge Generator
Relationships between the Equipment Under Test (EUT) requirements and the selection
of the test equipment
For instance, a surge of large amplitude and long duration might deposit enough energy in a varistor to heat it
up to the point of initiating thermal runaway if the
steady-state voltage rating of the varistor had been
selected too low. An unpowered test cannot disclose
that condition.
Back Filters
Superimposition
of the test surge to the normal
power supply can be accomplished by a series connection or a shunt connection of the surge generator (Figure 3). Because the design of the transformer used in
series coupling limits flexibility in specifying the test
surges, the shunt connection is generally preferred.
However, in a typical laboratory application, two limitations are imposed on the application of a surge in shunt
to the power system:
1. The surge must not affect other equipment connected to the same power supply.
Decoupling is required between the test circuit and the
industrial-frequency
power source.
2. The generator cannot be connected directly in shunt
across the power supply.
Because the industrial-frequency
power source has a
low impedance, this low impedance would load the
surge generator to the point that it could not deliver the
specified voltage at the terminals of the test piece.
Both of these conditions can be achieved by the insertion of a filter between the industrial-frequency
power
source and the test circuit. This filter is referred to as
411
74~2
-T
:yi=JEuT
T = Surge Coupling
BP = Bypass Filter
(A)
Transformer
Series Coupling
Example
C = Surge Coupling
BF = Back Filter
(B)
Figure 3.
Capacitor
Grounding
conductor
of generator
Figure 4.
Isolate or
disconnect All
other connections
to EUT
of oscilloscope
*Or suitable
differential
probe/amplifier
412
Table 1
SELECTED COUPLING MODES FOR SINGLE-PHASE
(One line and neutral with grounding conductor)
Test
( Connection
Type
Ground
of Generator
Normal
L
HG
HN
HH
=
=
=
=
Common
Common
Common
HG
Common
HG
Common
connection
connection
connection
connection
to
to
to
to
surge
surge
surge
surge
generator
generator
generator
generator
Diagram
Mode
Basic
Diagnostic
Example of Connection
Coupling
Line
Mode
.n/
low (Lo)
high (Hi) by coupling capacitor CG
high (Hi) by coupling capacitor CN
high (Hi) by coupling capacitor CL
For each test type shown horizontally in the table, the surge generator is to be connected as indicated in the
three Connection
of Generator
columns. The connection diagram in the table shows as an example the
jumpers required to obtain the normal coupling mode.
When several Hs appear on one horizontal row of the table, the coupling requires several coupling capacitors,
shown as CG, CN, CL, between each of the conductors indicated and the surge generator high, in order to apply the surge simultaneously
to the conductors shown.
CONCLUSION
2. ANSI/IEEE
Report
664-1980,
Insulation
Coordination
Within Low- Voltage Systems, Including Clearances
and Creepage Distances for Equipment.
3. IEC
Standard
C37.90a-1974,
stand Capability
@WC)
Guide for
for
Shipboard
Surge
With-
Tests.
- 413
75 M3
414 -
SIMPLIFIED
POWER-LINE
SURGE BACK-FILTER
I
HIGH
LF
AC
LINE
nci
CF
Fig. 1:
TYPICAL SURGECOUPLING
CAPACITOR
CF-
I
BACK-FILTER
INDUCTORS
1
1
EUT
SURGE
GENERATOR
75
415 -
M3
Fig. 3a:
---
Fig. 3c:
With suitably-rated single clamps -metal-oxide varistors (MOV's) or appropriate strings of avalanche devices for
example -- there may be no problem with
even fairly large undershoots in opencircuit voltage. Coupler/filters 0r
the kind shown in Fig. 1 yield acceptable short-circuit currents.
The Combination V/I wave test surge
generator that supplied the open-circuit voltage wave of Figs. 3a and 3b,
and the short-circuit current wave of
Fig. 3c, was used to test a 13OV MOV
clamping arrester's performance with
undershoots. The resulting approxi-
- 416
Fig. 4a:
Fig. 4b: Current wave into the Protector of Fig. 4a. OCV=6kV
500A/.5cm, 5 ys/.5cm
Fig. 4~: Current Wave into the Protector of Fig. 4a. OCV=6kV
500A/.5cm, 50 us/.5cm
- 417
75M3
Fig. 5b: Output Voltage from the FourTerminal Protector of Fig. 5a,
Using the same Conventional
Surge Coupler/Filter. OpenCircuit Set Voltage=1.5kV
lOOV/.5cm, 50us/.5cm
Fig. 6b: Current Wave into the Protector of Fig. 6a. NOTE: USES
NEW COUPLER/FILTER DESIGN. OCV
=6kV
500V/.5cm, 50ps/.5cm
Fig. 7b: Output Voltage from the Protector of Fig. 7a. NOTE: USES
NEW COUPLER/FILTER DESIGN
oCv=GkV
lOOV/.5cm, 50us/.5cm
Guidean
Surge Voltages in Low-Voltage AC
Power Circuits, p. 23.
c21
c31
c41
c51
- 419
76~4
V. Scuka
Institute of High Voltage Research
Uppsala, Sweden
Summary
The conduction mechanisms of MOvs are
Still not fully understood. A new mechanism (I) may be responsible for formation of potential barriers in ZnO grain
interfase. This, if so, may influence
future composition of additives in MOV
and give an improved aging characteristics. The experimental results obtained
by the present author suggest a modified
physical design of varistor discs for
high duty performance applications. Referring to the experimental results it
is also stressed the importance of adoption of varistor parameters to the
actual operational and environmental
conditions.
Introduction
The surge limiting efficience of MOV
is superiortothe efficienceofthe conventional gap arrestors primarily due
to a well defined threshold level, high
power dissipation ability and fast surge
pulse response. These characteristics
of the MOV are well known and make MOV
very suitable for applications in sensitive electronic systems which may be exposed to sub microsecond surges (which
may be) generated in the system itself
or those entering the system through
its power supply network.
Often it is not stressed enough that
the surge limiting performance of MOV
is in some extent a matter of their exposure to electric surges, working temperature, physical construction and the
bulk material microstructure and a matter of some other environmental conditions. It is therefore of primary importance to select carefully the elements to obtain an optimized performance
in a particular application. In this
paper are discussed some characteristical features and parameters which influence electrical characteristics of
MOV and their useful life time. The intention of this discussion is to make
everybody aware of the performance limits of MOV and to help the engineer to
avoid unproper design of surge protective circuits. To understand the complex mutual relationsofdifferent phys-
- 420 -
kua
Observations
An ideal component should consist of
grains of equal shape and size with uniform intergranular space. This is, however, in practice not the case. The
grain size may vary throughout the bulk
and the grain size distribution may be
inhomogeneous. The same is valid for
the intergranular space. In some materials the cavity formation in the intergranular space or/and the porosity of
the grains may be observed. Measuring
the size of the grains the following
general observations have been made:
. ..(2)
fabrication
and construction
Fig.
Fig. 2:
Some observations
Microcracks and flaws below the metallized electrode layer may cause irregular current density loading of the
disc. Similar effects may develop at irregular current outlines of the electrode surface or at centric displacement of electrode surfaces. The resistance of the electrodes must be low and
the thickness of the electrode layers
must be large to prevent radial current
tracking on the electrode layers caused
by high current pulse loading. The interface area between the terminal and
,the electrode surface must be as large
as possible, without any flaws. The
mechanical assembly of the component
must fit the environmental conditions
and the physical circuit layout. The
mechanical assembly is in large extent
responsible for the failure mode when
the component is overloaded.
A non-destructive mechanical inspection of a component may be done by sonic waves at about 5 MHz. During this
procedure the components are dopped into the water. A flaw of about 1 mm size
in the bulk may be discovered by this
method.
The effect of elevated
working temperature
The useful life of MOV is strongly
influenced by the working temperature.
This is due to the electrochemical processes in the varistor bulk, the'atomic
migration of additives and the positive
electric temperature coefficient of the
component. Higher temperature causes
resistance decrease and higher power
421
76 M4
...(4)
. ..(5)
JHs = TX/ [UBDfHS
with parameters as follows:
the thermal conductivity of the
x
Zn-grain ,-I W/mK
the melting temperature of the
T
Bi203 intergranular layer z 820C
UBD the breakdown voltage of the intergranular barrier M 3 V
rHS the equivalent radius of a hot
Spot rHSL 1 I.lm.
A contact area of an equivalent radius Of 'HS = 1 urnwill cause melting
at a junction current density of 270
MA/m2 which is about 10 times higher
than the average maximum allowed impulse
current loading of the component, when
a 10 pulses life of the component is assumed. It should also be remembe ed that
at a current density of 200 MA/m 5 electromigration of metalls in semiconductors is very pronounced.
terminals
varistor disc
+
electrodes
Fig.3:
...(6)
ti/MTBF(Ti)
...
i=l
Index i in the equation (7) is related to the time intervals with particular working temperature or time intervals with particular type with an other
environmental condition, e.g. environment with high energy current surges.
By loading the component with current surges the MTBF(T) is shortened by
a factor
Nmaxmn
Nmax
where n is the number of applied pulses
and Nmax is the maximum number of specified pulses of a certain magnitude
which can be applied during the useful
life of the component:
N
-n
(8)
MTBF(t, Tn) = MTBF(t, T) F...
max
Selecting a suitable MOV-disc
When selecting a MOV-disc the recommendations given by the manufacturer
have to be followed.
In addition to what is stated above,
the following has to be carefully considered:
The disc diameter has to fitthetechnical design requirements related to
the maximum expected surge currents of
8/20 1~spulse shape. Itiswell known
that the nonlinearity exponent a decreases dramaticallyathigher current
densities. To preserve the surge limiting efficience of the component, the
maximum surge current loading should
not exceed 0.1 MA/m2. The disc diameter
and physical design has also to fit the
requirements related to the unhomogeneous
loading of the bulk material during
sub-microsecond current surges.
References
(I)
423 -
77 M5
CHARACTERIZATION
OF DISTURBING TRANSIENT WAVEFORMS
ON COMPUTER DATA COMMUNICATION
LINES
Maurice Tetreault
Digital Equipent Corporation
Stow, Massachusetts
c)1775
Franc;ois D. Martzloff
General Electric Company
Schenectady, New York 12345
SUMMARY
CIRCUITIYPES
IMJKXXJCTION
Increasing use of computer corrmunication
techniques for J,ocal Area Networgks (LAN) and
Distrelbuted Computer*Systems (DCS) requlr,es
rAelIable er*r*or-fr*ee data transmission in
hostile enviraonments. Many such systems have
experaienced damage f r*omenvir*onmentally induced
In addition to the cost
voltage transients.
aspects, this prIoblem also diminishes the va.lue
of the J,ANand JXX installation.
Inter*fer#ence irmnunity of these systems may be
achieved by the application
of praotective
devices at the data cable point of entry, by
the propera install.ation
of cable shielding,
by
utilization
of inherently lrtmune pr*otocols - 01
by application
of all of these remedies.
Hardware pr*otectlon against major threats can
only be achieved by diver%ing the unwanted
energy away from sensitive
components/devices.
In or*der*to apply pr*otection devices or*
techniques cordrectly and economically,
more
knowledge about the char*acter*lstlcs of the
distur%ances is required.
The present paper*
reporats the results of mea.surements and
analyses frlom a distr*ibuted computing site In
The
centrsal Floral da dur*lng l.ightnlng storms.
data is offeraed her*e as a contr+bution to
establishing
a better. charaacter,lzatlon of the
environment and as an invitation
to other*
wor*ker+sIn this field to come forward and shar*e
Information. *
fi The Sur*ge Pr*otective Devices Comnlttee of the
Im
is curerently sponsor*lng such an effore at
character*lzlng the envlr*onment . Additional
inputs to the data base are invited;
contact
the pr*lncipal author* of this paper, M.
Tetr-ault,
Digital Fqulpment Corpor*atlon, 40
Old Bolton Road, Stow, Massachusetts 01775.
L
Fig.
_ .
46 m at a depth of about 1 m, aluminum conduit
for 380 m al.ong va.t*ious metallic racks, and
pipes 2 to 5 m above graound, the taest of the
ca.ble being strung overhead on utility
poles.
3 shows a si.mpl.ifi ed l_ogic drawing of a.n
Fig.
RS-232 cormunieation circuit.
The line dt*lvets
ate 1488 devices: the receivers are 1489
that is, they
devkes . !They arae single-ended;
operate in t*efet~ence to signal common rather
than in a dlfferaential
mode. These signal
commons are then bonded to the chassis of each
equipment cabinet, which in turn are bonded to
their respective ac power grounding conductor.
This type of arrangement may result in a
dlfferdence In the potential
of the signal
In an
conmon at the two ends of the cable.
attempt to tdemedythis situation by equalizing
the potential,
signal refetdence wires (pin 7,
EIA RS-232 Standard) are run along and twisted
with the respective tt*ansmi.t and receive signal
of equalizing the
wi tss . The effectiveness
potential of two chassis, each bonded to a
local. ac gt*ounding conductor,, can be expected
to decraease as the ohysical dktance and/or the
difference
between the two chassis
p.otential
i: ncrease.
Fig.
200
3A example of field
recorded waveform
160
120
s
--T_-J
I__-
--
2
6
80
40
>
Fig.
Simplified
circuit
logic
drawing of a RS-232
I~WlJHJMF~ATION
AhID RECORDING
MFTHCECJ~~Y
A Nicolet Model 2090 digital
oscilloscope
was
used for monitoring and recording tra.nsi.ent
voltage waveforms appearaing on the the data
Compensated pt*obes with 1.0:1
cable.
attenuation wet&eused; the shl.elds of these
pteohes we1.e not grounded to the c-lrcuit signal
common, but only to the oscl lloscope chass-i s,
the latter* being t?.eA to the ac grmmtllng
ii
g
40
;1
E 80
::
2120
160
200
3R exist@
77M5
42.5 -
3P
illustr*ates that a norinal. mode voltage can
exist between between the conductors of a
twisted pair,. This normal mode voltage is in
fact the vol.tage that till
he 1mpraessedacross
the output pins of the line dr*iver*/r*eceiver*
circuits
and their, rdespectlve signal commons.
Note the offset exceeding -12 V and the
transient voltage exceedj.ng -4o V, with a
dur*atlon extending beyond the tj.me window of
the recording (102.4 JW). The diffenence
tn
voltage between simultaneous traansients
occur*rlng on the twisted pair. consisting of the
signal and r*eferance conductor*s is due to the
differdent terminating impedances of the
conductors, as illustr.ated
in Fig.
4.
RFmT,Ts
1BOVOLTS
250KHz
Fig.
Fig.
(1488) and
from
TABLE1
4 is a partial circuit
schematic of a
Fig.
RS-232 dr*iver*/r*eceiver~ pair*. Note that the
draiverahas a 300 ohm output impedance and the
r*ecelver* has a 4000 ohm input Impedance. !IWS
differaence in terminating impedance means th.at
a balanced syrrmetr~ical transient tr*aveling
along the twisted pair* (signal and reefer*ence
wirees) will cr*eate a diffenent voltage dr*op
across the diffenent terminating impedances, in
other, words a difference
of potential between
the signal and common pl.ns of the terminating
That differaence, which is only caused
devices.
by the unbalanced devices input/output
Impedances, converts an Impinging commonmode
tr*ansj.ent into a normal mode traansient at the
termlrmting devices.
Over* the period of observation at this site,
r*ecordings such as that of Fig. 3 were
These r*awdata were subsequently
obtained.
analyzed by statistical
methods in order to
obtain a typical
descr*iption of the effect
the envkonment on the cable.
64
of
DURATION
(note 3)
total events
4.8 ).s to
graeater than
102.4 us
single events
0.1 ns to 75 E.ls
52.6 pa
4.5 ps
Note 1
Upper, frequency
instrzunentatlon
appendix.
Note 2
Lower* limit of Cl.1 ,us was arhitr*ar4ily imposed
due to Instrumentation limits.
Refer, to
append1x .
Note 3
Two ranges are pr,esentad since natuna.1
transient events tend to occur in bursts of
related voltage excursions (fig. 3).
Values
listed as total event raeprdesentthe duration
of the entir*e event as rdecorded. Values listed
as %ingle event represent the dunatlons of
the individual voltage excursions occur*r*lng
durWg the entir*e event.
- 426 -
INSTALI,ATION
EF'JXCTS
ON TRANSIFW CRARAcTeRISTICS
The field raecorded
waveformsIn this study
repreesent
the effectsof transientsgenereated
by lightningdischangeson a specificcable
plantand its terminating
impedances.That Is
the electricalchar*acteristlcs
of the complex
circuitmade up of the data cable,CPU,
terminals,the variousac power*
feeds,and the
earth r*eferaences
for*both power and cable
shields,etc., will determinethe responseto
a given transientstimulus. The specific
re;ponseto a hypothetical
impingingtransient
of knownDatameterswould not likelybe the
same for,any two LlANand/or*
DCS Installations.
To further.
complicatethe effortto
char*acterize
the electricalenvir*onment
of LAN
and DCS installations
thereare a varietyof
possiblesourcesfrom which the initial
transientsimpingingupon the systemsmay be
generated.
The transientgener*atlng
sourcesto whichL#AN
and DCS systemsar'eexposedincludeFSD,
lightning,trdansients
enteringthe systemsvia
the power'
mains,transientscoupledover*from
near*by
conductorssuch as power OL* contrIo
lines (evenstnmturs.1steel),and transients
gener*ated
due to likelyearthpotential
differ*ences
momentarily
existingbetweenthe
variousearth referaences
of the system. The
char*acteristlcs
of the Initialimpinging
transientsonto thesesystemswill of course
exhibita varietyof waveformsexisting
individually
and in combination,
consistingof
both oscillatory
wavesvaryingover,a wide
r*ange
of possiblefrequencies
and
unidinectional
impulseshavinga wide
rangeof possibleratesof rise and dunations.
The Snhenentcircuitchar~acteristlcs
of the
particular*
installation
on which r*ecor*ding
ar*e
beingmade will have a gneat effecton the
electricalchar*acteristics
of any transient
tnavelingalong the installation.The
existenceof voltageand cunrentstandingwaves
and reflections
can be expected,whichwill
certainlycontributeto the char+acter*istics
of
any observedtrsnsientwaveformson the cable.
The physicallengthand the velocityof.
pr*opagation
of any cablewill Influencethe
r*ates
of rise that can be expected.
Typicalwith&and levelsof data cable
Insulation
are in the rangeof 5 kV. Any
transientinducedon the cableabove that value
would be limitedby insulationfailur*e,
so that
an upper*
limitcan be expected. Damaging
levelsof the terminating
equipmentis nnuch
lower*,
so that the rangeof interestincludes
all voltagesbetweenthe withstandlevelof
terminalequlpm&t and the upper'limit,should
it be reached,set by the cable insulation.
The highestvoltagemagnitudesrecor*ded
during
the measurement
peniodexceeded200 V. The
peak magnitudesof this eventwas estimated,
basedon the observableportionof .ltswaveform
char+acter&rtics
of dunation,rise and fall
times,to have been in the neighborhood
of
3oov.
l- BernardRicker,,
PrincipalFngineer',
Corporaate
ComponentEvaluation
Laboratory,
DigitalFquipment
Corpor*ation,
Northbor*o,
MA.
2- DonaldGauss, PrMiuctSupportRngineer*,
DistrictField ServiceSupport,nfgital
EquipmentCorporation,
Onlando,FL.
APPENDIX- NUMERICALMFTRODS
All data were analyzedusing DigitalFqUipment
Corponationsoftwarae.
The pr*lmary
pr*ogrems
used are containedin Y'he Laboratory
SubroutinePackage"r11,
other,
utilitypr*ograms
were writtenas requir*ed.
The specific
subroutines
used were the Fast Fourier
Transform@!?I?)
and the PowerSpectrum
on the Nicolet
(PCWRSP).Each waveformstoraed
disk was changedto ASCII formatand storedas
an individual.
file on a VAX 11/780.
Since the fielddata were digitizedcertain
limitations
in pr*ecision
will occur'
duningthe
necor*ding
pr*ocess.The Nicolet2090 stonesthe
r*ecor$ed
data in a digitizedformatof up to
4096points,sampledat up to a 20 MHZ rate
with 8 bit precision.Each of the waveformsin
this studywas recordedusing 2048 sampling
pointsat a 20 MHz samplingr*ate(50
nanoseconds
per+point).
Voltagemeasunementaccuraacy
is a functionof
verticalamplifier@
linearityand bit
0.4%
resolution.8 bit nesolutionpr*ovldes
That is, the value of the Least
rdesolution.
Significant
Bit as a functionof the total
numberof bits determinesthe smallestpossible
subdivision
of the measunement
unit. So for,a
8 bit r*esolution
devicethe ISR Is l/256of the
unit of measunement.
Resolutioncapability
combinedwith the amplifierslineanlyaccuracy
rendersa statedspecification
forathe Nicolet
2090 r2i of 0.5% full scaleaccunacy.
'Ihefrequencyrecor*ding
limitIs determinedby
both the samplingraate
and ampl.lfier~
bandwidth.
Samplingat 20 MHz can accunatelyrecord
frequencies
up to slightlyless than 10 MHz.
Samplingtheoryindicatesthat a given
fr*equency
(F) must be sampledat more than 2F
in order*
to be accurgtelyreconded,any
frequencyequalor'greeaten
than l/2 the
samplingrate will not be accuratelyrecorded.
The amplifier1
bandwidthimposesan overall7
MHz limit. Any frequencyinputto the device
above 7 MHz will be recordedwith enrotsin
amplitude.
FlguneAl is an exampleof the outputof the
analysisprogrem,usinga 100 kHz sine wave.
AlA Is simplya graaphic
of the waveformbeing
analyzed. AlB 1s the outputof the power*
spectrumroutine. !l'his
describesthe
proportional
relationship
of power.
magnitudes
betweenthe varies frequencycomponentsof the
waveformbeinganalyzed.
77M5
- 421 -
..,
I-
12.
?d 4.
;r
d
>
-4.
-12.
_*o.;: : j
i
I
44
88
132
MICRO
: ::
176
220
SECONDS
:001
.Ol
.l
FREQUENCY
100
IO
,I
: :
ii
: :
: :
8 :
12.
(MHz)
4.
2
d
>
-4.
Figurde
A2 Is pr*ovided
for*compar*ison,
it
depictsthe resultsof the analysisusinga 100
-12.
is a
kHz squar'e
wave input. As expectedther*e
significant
differencebetweenthe pr*opor*tional.m
power.
magnitudesof the fundamental.
and the
0
the
subsequentharmonics. Fig. A3 lllustrlates
rdesults
of the analysisroutineon one of the
field r*ecorded
waveforms. 'Phlsexample
1
indicatesthe gneatestpower'contentin the
raange
of 30 kHz to 80 kHz;. Then two other,
pr4cxninent
peaks occur*
at appnoximately
110 kHz
to 180 kHz and the other.
at appr*oximately
240
kHz to 260 kHz.
_.
_20,;,
i4:
j i8
:,A2:
:,&
72
MICRO
:001
Pig.
48
24
: ,:,
.Ol
l:,
96
120
SECONDS
.l
FREQUENCY
:>t,
1
(MHzl
10
::
100
220
MICRO
A2A
Fig.
1 ,,
SECONDS
100
: :
: :_,
Fig. A4
Typicalrecordingsof normaland
c0mMlr-r
mode voltages.
( FOLLOWING
PAGE )
.8 +
.S ._
5
I!
::
4:
.2 f
o
:,
,001
.Ol
.i,
/
.l
FREQUECNY
.,:,:.,
:
1
,/
10
ir
100
(MHzl
Suh*outinePr*ogrammer*'s
1. Labor*atory
ReferenceManual,DigitalFquipment
Corpor*ation,
Manlboro,Massachusetts,
1980.
2090 Digital
2. ServiceManualforeSerlies
Oscilloscopes,
NicoletInstrument
CorporAatlon,
Madison,Wisconsin,1981.
-MICiiO
10
20
30M.&O
428
MICRO SECONDS
SECONDS
!&O~DS
70
80
YU
10
20
30
MI$O
80
90
100
S%O;DSz
200
160
120
10
20
30
M&l
!&O~D
10
20
3Mlci?0
&Q&t
70
80
90
100
78
- 429 -
THRESHOLD
IN NON-GAUSSIAN
Nl
ESTIMATION
EMC ENVIRONMENTS*
David Middleton**
New York, N.Y.,
Abstract
Based on the author's recently developed results for canonical optimum
and suboptimum threshold detection
theory in nongaussian noise and interference [ll-[3], the present paper provides a concise summary of the extension of these concepts and methods to
the parallel problem of the canonical
threshold estimation of signal waveforms and parameters in nonqaussian
electromagnetic
interference
(EMI)
environments.
The critical problem of terminating
properly the resultant (weak-signal)
series approximations
for the canonical
estimator algorithms is solved, preserving the required locally optimum
Bayes estimator (LOBE) structure and
insuring asymptotic optimality
(AO) of
performance.
As in the corresponding
detection situations [l]-141, it is essential to include a proper bias term
in the estimator.
It is shown that the
desired LOBE's are linear or nonlinear
func,tionals of an associated locally
optimum Bayes detector (LOBD) and A0
structure, with proper bias.
A sufficient condition for this LOB and A0
property is that the associated LOBD's
are asymptotically
normal, with appropriate means and variances under the
particular hypothesis states involved.
General examples are based on: (i)
the "simple cost function (SCF)," [5],
[61, from which are generated unconditional maximum likelihood estimators
(UMLE's), which, in turn, are simple
linear (i.e., derivative) functionals
of the associated LOBD's; (ii) the
USA
- 431
Summary
[51,
[61.
2 = &($j&I,X)= g&),
or
e=
I, a@_
or
lJ, ~,(~(~:(g..W($j_or
Q)&
(or
i,-yo)dz
a)
(2.2)
(1-A)
; Wl(y,
G (l+h)el
(8) )dy,,
=
(2.4)
78
Nl
(2.6)
with A$, o(Q)+cr(s),a-+@ in the case
of estimating signal waveforms. Note
that 1% is generally a nonlinear operator on the received data, 8.
Another cost function of considerable interest is the simple (or rectangular) cost function (SCF) given by
M"
(2.7)
C(~,~c)=Co mil [Am'G(Ym-em)l
with appropriate choices of Co, Am to
ensure meaningful results (e.g., positive errors, etc.). Minimization of
average risk here leads directly to
(cf. Sec. 21.2-1 of [6]) the following
relations determining yg SCF:
I
log
ae
c4
0,)
w, (4 I.e,) 1
em=eg=y*
all m=l,...,M,
where WJ&l
0,
m
(2.8)
~,=e,)"
, and
)>p,=,_,_ sn /a(v,=e,)
a(Y,=f3,)=<a(Y,,Q_')>,, with Q'=all Q
except 8
The con& ition (2.8) deter92.
mining x={y&]
is precisely that determining the unconditional maximum like<Fn(~l~(~mt$)
- 432 -
with
g;21)
{hi
where
now
(m)+ag&_ScF
0;
aem a0m1em=r;=
all m
QCF:LMSE
3.1 Equivalent LOBE's for LOBD's
We consider first the SCF case, cf.
(2.7), with the optimizing rule (2.8)
for generating the UMLE's, 2.
Since
the (linear) operation of differentiation in (2.8) is unaffected if we subtract log Fn(&lO), we see that (2.8)
becomes
+
(log U(0m) +
m
!$l) (2 10,)
SCF
18
{y;I =(jn
l(3.3).
O,al(Bm)e ':-QCFdOmI,
em
..
(3.4?
where the g* are given explicitly in
the next se&ion.
A sufficient condition that g$ is A0 is that gA be asymptotically normal, with means
T[vargg~_SCF~Varlg$-QCFl,
THOtH1;
or
=y*=o
(3.1)
f~r~~~c:b!~,~lo~foE1~~~~~,P~~~~e~b~~~']
mm
m=l,...M
Hlr
H2r
78
- 433 -
Reception
2
g;-coh=- Lo*
2 on-cob
(2). Incoherent
++-
(SCF)
=- $
- y <a
i
Reception
gi_inc=-+'gi-inc
ojSj>$_lRj
I
(SCF)
8,
(3.6)
Reception
(SCF)
(3.7)
fCaojsj>i
=B*
B*
n-cob +"A-inc;
n-camp
2
B;: inc:- 1,*
2 on-inc=-8
l
f l(L(4)-2L(2)2)
6ij+2L(2)2iARij,
:-:
'J
(3.12)
2
2
where AR..-<a .a
-<a .a
01 oj'i'j'g
01 ojsisj'&
(#('~)ij~'
(3.5)
ij
(3). Composite
Nl
2
<a .a
. . 01 ojsisj)g_l
[(L(4)-2L(2)2t;ij+2L(2)2]
(3.8)
(2). Incoherent
Reception
(QCF)
(QCF)
JZ
;"=l).
(Laplace);
(3.13)
- 434 -
waveform detection/estimation,
but not
phase parameter extraction, for example.
_ 4. An Example: Amplitude
with the SCF: Coherent
Estimation
Reception
(3.5) reduces
j=l
this to
o1
laoI
i('4.1)
gives
R(xi)
: (5)
= - i 9,j/nfiL(2), z<<l
j
(4.3)
1
The optimum threshold estimate of signal
intensitv is accordinulv
2
z;=($;)2=(C !?,j)2/2n2L(2) .
(4.4)
cob
SCF
uniform
I
2
Here $* and .*-g*
are UMLE for the assumed ELiform paf of a
and simultaneously CMLE for an
(me%ingful)
pdf of
Moreover, 7%a* &:a, because <R>H
aO*
1
(=<fi>l)=-JZTL(2P,1an8
we can show
that
G&l)
(4.5)
(ifj); &R2+7Lw)
0
(>O).
-(4.6)
Here, from al(a )=l/Aa, we have a$
(Aao)2/%in
(4.5) to establish an-upper
bound (a )max( <<l) for which q<(az)max
As a
and a.*(~? is then LOBE and AC.
numerPc21 example, consider a Class A
noise for which r'=10-4, AA=O.5, so
that x,=1.7*10 -4 Sf rom Fig. (5.6) of
[3])::.xodB=37.7dB,
with the result
that 3<<&-38dB
or (Aa0)2<<-37.7+4.8=
Typically, we might choose
-32.9dB.
(q)max=-43
or -48dB here.
This means
that sample size n should be -farge
enough to ensure (4.5), n=0(102 Or more)
appears sufficient here.
5. Concluding
Remarks
(4.2)
whose solution yields the desired estiTo proceed further, we
mator i&(E).
need to know the a priori pdf of el(=a,),
Let us assume, then, that
e.g.,
0 (a,).
al(a,)= i /Aa,, a uniform pdf on (0-<aoG
ConsequentAa,+), and zero elsewhere.
lY# Ui(a,)=O, O<a,<Aa, (the contribution of the &-functions at 0, Aa,, proSolving
duce no meaningful solutions).
(4.2) gives
I
4
L(2),[L(2~2)_2L(2)2]=,o;
L(2r2)Z<(Wi/Wl)4>2
7 1a
0=&*
0=o,
(3.3), 8m=81=ao,
- L(2)ain-aoJzz
2
a <<_1 varOR
_=
0
2
2
varOR
directly
Applying
al(
like
(4.2), if a(~)=m&lul(6m);
- 435 -
78
Nl
- 431
79N2
1.
2.
o$T
oct<T .
.
(1)
In (l), X(t) is our received waveform in detection time T and this waveform contains either
the completely known signal S (t) plus Z(t) or
the complete known, equi probable, signal S2(t)
plus Z(t)'. The LOBD procedure uses sampled data
- 438
forms of the waveforms and, when Z(t) in nonGaussian, we operate so as to generate independent noise samples, zi, i = 1, N in time T, so
that only first order pdf's are required.
For binary symmetric CPSK, and independent
noise samples, the well-known LOBD receiver
structure shown in Fig.1 is obtained. This receiver is the standard memoryless Gaussian
(i.e., degenerate matched filter) linear receiver preceded by the particular nonlinearity
given by
a(x) = -
&
kn p,(x)
i=l,
Figure
1.
p;(z)dz 3
(6)
pZ(z)dz .
"1
eff
= 4P$O)
(7)
&?=o
xi
also gives us a means of determining the limiting performance of any ad-hoc nonlinearity when
used in place of the LOBD nonlinearity. The
result for all of this is that L is replaced
[in (3), for example] by the parameter Leff,
for "L effective" where Leff=L;/L2,
(2)
S,i -S2i
&
purely
NOISE MODELS
Since s(t) is small and N is large, the
limiting performance of the receiver (Fig.1)
can be obtained via the Central Limit Theorem.
This means that only the mean and variance of
the detection variable 6 needs to be computed.
The result is the probability of bit error P,
is given by
P, = 3 erfc
{$$$$I$:
Cm cPpH2
L=
5
em
-q-r-
dz -
(4)
a(x) = - g
fin P,(X)
(5)
,-z2/n
P,(Z) = -
m
c
m=D
rr&
(8)
XIF1
+;
) -m<z<m
--
-E,2/,
P(E>Eo) = e
l-
(9)
XI'lt~
(
> 1
OiE<
-
03,
439
79N2
Am
co
P,(z) = e-A
e-z2/2oi
c
m=O
m!
P,(Z) =
(10)
F(.!$)j
L2
+ Y"]
e'2
(13)
2~ru~
and
where
P[E>E,] =
m/A t I"
ltr'
(1)
c
m=O
Am
fie
-E2/02
om
(12)
ForA=l,I-'=K)-?
L=3299
Figure 2.
(14)
y= J&10-".
For both the Middleton model (cl=l)
and the Hall model (f3=2)the 2nd moment does
not exist, so the normalizing parameters R and
y and set to match measured data. For f3=4,
however, the first 3 moments exist. For the
Hall model, the required nonlinearity is simply
given by (Fig.l),
BXi
(15)
yi=r.
xi + Y2
E =Y
-2
UT=_,
l/2
(6)
440
PIE>Eo] = -&
l+A
where
where,
2 2
2 2
-EB/oo + A e-EBIol
-E;/of + A e-Ez/";
(17)
o: = r'/ltr' ,
The parameter EB must be determined "experimentally." For our Class A case above
and
I
t\
HALL. B = 4
-Ll
uF
-20
0 - SIMULATION
10,000 POINTS
-40
-60
.,
10-l
(37 dB)
Figure 4.
_40LliI
I IIll
10-6 10-4 .Ol
.1
.2
.4
P&[E
Figure 3.
.6
.8
.9
.95
I,
.98
.2
.4
.6
II
.a
.9
.95
.9G
.99
.99
> EJ
P,(X) =
71 d+
p(E)dE
(19)
I
E=
owl1
--
(18)
(-o:,,
The
and
E =
[$
(l-U)l)l/2S
U1<U<l ,
-x2/u2
0
tLe
-X2/U2
< Tru1
I
(20)
- 441
I,,,
,,(,
,,,,(
,,,
/(,,
/,/,
,,
79 N2
loz
10
5.
The LOBD
nonlinearities.
Figure
6.
Simulation
8=2, CPSK
- ,442
c21
[31
c41
L-61Middleton,
D.: Statistical-physical
models of electromagnetic interference.
IEEE Trans. EMC-19, 106-127 (Aug. 1977)
c71
C81 Spaulding,
'Figure 8.
REFERENCES
Cl1
cg1
443
80~3
where
X=
X,)...
x,
T is a.eymbol of transposition.
(t,r)
A standard test stimulus
% uted
has a form of normally diertri
white noise with a(Bfffe;tf+8matrix
of
g-pulses with a flux intensity 3
and pulse-Vamplitudefq
distribution
P(A). When fixation of spatial coordinates is effected, it follows form
(1) that
(2)
444
because a theory of control of spatially distributed stochastic systems is developed insufficiently [4] .
Here u(t) is a,dsterminate controlVo, i.e. a control is
vector and u
limited. While directinally varying
the EXE, a control u(t) should be selected on the basis of optimization
according to some criterion.
Let us establish criteria, accordfng to which a control in SDE (3)
should be optimized.
When solving the EMC problems, it
seems expedient to prescrib.e
the following criteria for optimality
of control:
- a minimum of a variance of interference for all the statest
1, = m2
62&J,g,u,t)
(4a)
P (t(),lL,t
,x XJ
I, =fkn
u
(4c)
X)With G
(w)wO; if this is not the
case th@ eatisfying the criterion
(4a) means only evaluation from be[4, 6] and majorises'criterion I in
contrast to criterion I which 2s
not quadratic in a genei:
al case.
80~3
Here
Sign Z I
1 when Z>O
-1 when Z,LO
i
In order to obtain simple analytical results let us confine ourselves to a case when nml because taking a multidimensional case will
not change anythQng in principle
but will require more complicated
calculations and designatieyq.
) in
Let us search for S(t,x
the form
,...x )
S(t A'))
Here x(l)
ctionnwh!.chs&ves
is a BelTman*;
for determination of a vector of optimum control 14 6)
Equations (5a) and*(gb) should be
solved with a pre@)ermined finite
condition S(t , &
>.
From now 0k we shall assume that
the control is'terminal [4,6] and,
just as in [1,2], we shall accept
that 'tf&t, &ccI. From a phys cal
point of view, the latter assuJtion
means that a change of states occurs
relatively seldom in comparison with
a "life time" of each EME state.
In order to solve the Bellman's
equations constructively it is expedient to use a method of statistical
linearization 163 or a solution procedure which was described for the
first time in [7] . In so doing it
should be taken into account that it
is sufficient to confine oneself to
solution of (5a) because a vector of
optimum control practtfqlly depends
only on the type of f
(z, u1,i.e.
depend on the character
can be shown that a minimization of the right-hand part of (5a)
leads to obtaining an expression for
optimum control, which has the following form:
- 446 -
Suppose we have that the 1-th component is a normally distributed lowfrequency process which is described
by an SDE of type (3) when n-1
d,
0)
&l,then
U(t), cos c,+,t
and &
that a correlation
::n:~;o~eo$F!) (t) will have a form
eosO$,i.e. close to a
close to &-.({)
correlation function of a sinusoid
with a random phase. This example
demonstrates great possibilities of
changing an interference spectrum
by means of control and indicates
that it is expedient to continue to
work at solution of problems of an
optimum control according to a criterion (4b).
If
References
1.
N.Buga, V.Kontorovich,Y.Polozok
"A theory of systems with random
structure as a constructive method
of description of electromagnetic
environmental models.-International Symposium on EMC, Tokyo, October 16-18, 1984.
H,H.Eiyra,~.ii.~onTopoBTnu,~.~.~~0~030K
2.
&'sviCtWls 3lIeKTpOMarHvlTHHX
BOM3X
Ha OCHO30 TQOKMM CMCT(SBdCJ'fYYatiHoa
3. A.~,~p~ce~~o3,~,H.~oHTopoaMY,B.3.
~~HJJpeC,3.~,~OJIO3OK
npOrpaMMHOMO 3JIMpOBaHvlfi
yI'IpaBJIf@MHR
KOMlXI0KC
pyJiH HMM
ClHAyCT kll&JIbHHX
nOMdX.- 5!
Pqao,!982,
W5,c.37-41
4. I'.E.I~OJIOCOBCMHTe3 OnTMMaJIbHHX
aBTOMTMWcKMX
CMCTBM npM CJIqaf4HHX
803 BWCTBMAX. -M. ,HayKa, 1954,
5.
c.2 8 5.
3.~.~onosoa,~.~.~asec~~~,~.~.~o~-
441
8101
pgigq.J
Lpjijq
Inc.
- 440
(Bs/Bd)
(1)
SIR = (Ps/Pi)
(2)
P.G.
(3)
0-~iu~Yk-0s
0 s
I s
449
this translation, the total power of the interfering signal within the data bandwidth about
f is reduced to approximately Pi(Bd/Bs).
TRus, equations (1) and (3) again apply.
The effect of interference on OSSS system
performance using coherent binary phase shift
keying (BPSK) modulation is shown in figure 6.
8101
+ l/SIR))**0.5)
(4)
P, = ((N-K)(N-K-I)/~~N(N-~)~)
EXP~-SNR/ZI
+
IK(N-K)/IN(N-~)II
ExpI-(z/sNR+l/sIR)-'I
+ [K(K-~)/[zN(N-~)~~
Ex~~-(Z/SNR+Z/SIR)-~]
(5)
450
Bd = Ps/P.G.
(6)
SIR = Pc/Pi,d
= (Pc/Ps)
P-G.
(7)
Thus, a conventional communications channel, separated from the center of the SS channel by 10 times the chip rate will experience
interference (splatter) from the SS channel at
a level of -30 dB relative to the center of
the band. The resulting SIR depends on the
relati,vepower levels of the desired and
interfering signals at the receiver experiencing the interference. One scenario which is
affected by splatter is shown in figure 10
_ ~~- 451
81 OI
(8)
SIR = CP3/P2(fd)l(d12/d,3)2
x P.G.
(9)
- 452
(II)
r.21Pickholz,
r.71 Spellman, M.: A Comparison Between Frequency Hopping and Direct Spread PN>as
Antijam Techniques. IEEE Commun. Mag.,
vol. 21, no. 3, Mar. 1983.
c93 Viterbi, A. J.: Spread Spectrum Communications - Myths and Realities. IEEE
Commun. Mag., May 1979, pp. 11-18.
453
8202
Lehrstuhl
Postfach
K.Dostert,
Member
Universitat
Kaiserslautern
fi.ir Grundlagen
3049, D-6750
Summary
Practicallv
every building contains
an electrical- power distribution
network,
which
can
additionally
be a valuable communications
medium for data and control
signals.
AS indoor
power lines are heavily stressed
with electrocommunications
special
interference,
magnetic
techniques
will be needed to provide secure information
transmission.
Furthermore
electromagnetic compatibility
with equal or similar communications
systems operating
at the same network is paramount.
The use of spread spectrum
techniques,
which are generally applied in the range of high
frequencies,
can help to meet the mentioned
requirements
/I/. With spread spectrum
techniques
some interesting
features
become
additionally
available,
such as multiple
access and selective
calling /3,4/. This paper shows, that EMC prowhich are involved by application
of
blems,
spread spectrum techniques
for data transmission
over indoor power lines, can be overcome
by
careful system design. Especially
using the line
voltage as
global reference
will help to solve
EMC problems and at the same time significantly reduces
receiver
costs. Measurements
with
an experimental
set-up show negligible
synchronization errors and confirm the feasibility
of the
global reference
concept.
Introduction
Numerous measurement,
control and supervision tasks in private and commercial
buildings
can advantageously
be performed
autamatically,
e.g. by a personal computer or a microcomputer
installed anywhere:
Control and supervision of central
heating,
or remote
and illumination
air conditioning
control and supervision of various consumers
of
proelectrical
energy, e.g. by clock-controlled
grams or supervision
of fire and burglar
alarm
systems.
For performing
those tasks,
it will be
necessary to transmit
and receive control signals,
time information
as well as temperature
and
consumer data to and from many different
places. So realizing such systems will first of all
call for large scale wiring to connect
the devices which are involved. In existing buildings additional wiring is almost impracticable.
A data
network
which
was
planned
communications
during the construction
phase of a building often
turns out to be inflexible
afterwards.
The electrical
power
distribution
network
however
IEEE
der Elektrotechnik
Kaiserslautern,
W.Germany
reaches almost
every place in a building
and
existing
thus
represents
a val uabl e, already
medium for communication
purposes.
The power
line channel
lO_OkHz
Horiz.scale:
Fig. 1: FnFstra
20kHz
recorded
at mdoor power
concepts
Receiver
synchronization
in spread spectrum
systems
generally
causes
high
effort
/2,3,4/.
As
in
the
proposed
applications
numerous receivers will be needed, many of the
known synchrornzation
concepts /4/ are ruled out
by their costs. Merely concepts with transmitted
reference
promise
acceptable
solutions:
A reference signal could be fed into the power distribution
network being globally present at each
454
&
= 40450
concepts
This paragraph
gives a short review of
basic spread spectrum
system
concepts,
which
are applicable
to data transmission
over indoor
power lines. The concepts will not be discussed
in detail, but only some characteristic
features,
which concern
the topics
of this paper
are
pointed out.
Phase hopping systems
Phase hopping direct
sequencing
spread
spectrum
systems
are easy to construct
when
using the power line voltage as global reference.
Some expense however is necessary
to fulfil the
the
longwave
EMC requirements
concerning
broadcast band: A low pass filter must be provided at the transmitter
output
to achieve a
sharp cut-off
of the transmitted
spectrum
at
455
8202
hopping systems do
bandwidth
of the
REtElm
Fig. 2:
Experiments
An experimental
phase hopping spread
spectrum
system was built and tested
in onefamily houses. In Table 1 the salient features
of
the system are given.
:
spread spectrum
modulation
O/180 pseudonoise
phase
shift
keying
(PN-PSK)
PN-code
carrier
frequency
length
PN clock
frequency
PN-code
selectable
according to
PN-code
length:
(8)
400 Hz, ( 16) 800 Hz,
(32) 1.6 kHz, (64) 3.2
kHz, (128)
6.4 kHz,
(256) 12.8 kHz
period
20 ms
sync.
reference
sync.
intervals
Tab.
1: Salient features
tal set-up
System
selectable:
8, 16, 32,
64, 128, 256 chips
20 ms
of the experimen-
of the experimental
chronization
is performed.
If synchronism
has
already existed, the set-impulses
have no effect.
The PN-generators
in transmitter
and receiver
are equal and constructed
with programmable
memories
(PROM)
and settabfe
read
only
address
counters,
according
to the principle
described in 161. Up to this point the functional
blocks of the transmitter
and the receiver
are
equal; the following
blocks will perform
different tasks. In the transmitter
the carrier
frequency is fed to a biphase modulator
performing
the spread spectrum modulation
corresponding
to
the PN-code.
The spread transmission
signal is
now appropriately
amplified
and fed to the
power line by means of a coupler.
At the receiver the spread spectrum signal
from the power line passes a coupler
and a
bandpass filter and is fed to a biphase modulator, which is supplied with a synchronized
version of the PN-code contained
in the received
spread spectrum
signal. At the output
of the
biphase modulator
we have the despread
signal
which is now filtered
by the interference
suppression bandpass. At the output of this bandpass a power meter is provided for the measurements which are discussed now.
Measurements
Measurements
were made in three different one-family
houses with a PN-code length
of 256 chips and a PN clock frequency
of 12.8
kHz, giving a chip duration of about 78 us. The
measured quantities
were:
The synchronization
error without load at
the receiver wall-plug
and with a load of
2 kW
description
Block diagram
set-up
signal attenuation
due to cable
without load and with 2 kW load
receiver wall-plug
interference
switched off.
ments
within
power
with
length
at the
transmitter
Synchronization
error. During all measurethe synchronization
time
error
stayed
the limits of 2 2.5us. There was no signi-
456
Conclusion
Applying spread spectrum
techniques
for
communication
purposes over indoor power lines
can be effective
against
electromagnetic
interference, which heavily stresses that transmission
channel.
So a new promising
access
to using
power distribution
networks
as communications
media is opened.
This paper shows that using the power line
voltage as a global reference
for synchronization
of spread spectrum transmitters
and receivers is
a feasible approach to solve EMC problems
and
significantly
reduces system costs. Measurements
with an experimental
set-up
have shown, that
attenuation
and interference
problems
can be
overcome, and that the global reference
concept
using the power line voltage exhibits
excellent
synchronization
performance.
For further
applications
to data
transmission,
frequency hopping systems can be recommended,
especially
because of their excellent
EMC properties, together
with the proposed synchronization concept.
References
0,
0
Fig.
10
20
CABLELENjTH
Ill
T. Dvo%k,
H. Ochsner,
Low Tension
Power Line as a Fast Digital Data Transmission Channel,
Proc. of the 4th EMC
Symposium, Zirich (1981)
/2/
Spread
Spectrum
Communications,
edited by CE. Cook, F.W. Ellersick,
L.B.
Milstein,
D.L. Schilling,
IEEE Press and
John Wiley & Sons (1983)
131
141
151
J. Gabel,
Elektro-1nstallationsnetz
Informationsnetztt,
etz
Bd.104,
(1983)
30 me
3: Attenuation
of a PN-PSK spread
spectrum signal transmitted
over
indoor power lines
Interference
power. The interference
power,
measured
at the output
of the interference
suppression
bandpass
with
the
transmitter
switched off, is generally
39dB below the power
measured
with the transmitter
on. A dimmer
decreases
the ratio to 38dB.
/6/
Systems,
Heft
wird
1
457
83
03
458
(4)
The less the cell radiusR,the greater L and henoe the higher the efficiency of the oellularmobile communioationsystem (CMCS). As the minimum
Hence, the efficiencyof FMRT is
number of frequenoychannels c grows
(9)
+ FM = L/CF, .
(i.e. as the tolerable interference
decreases)or as BBS grows the effioiNumerous experiments showed that
ency deoreaaee. Since the dependence
of q on R is,quadratioit is reaeona- UHF attenuationindex within large cities is approximately
n =3,5 with Vs 9
ble to use small radius cells of the
Let
F,=25
kH5,
Roe30 km, R=l
[9, lOI*
order of R~0,5..~1 km for CMCS with a
km. Table 1 shows the valuesof the
large numberof users,
minimumnumber of frequencychannelsC
When the principle "a signalchanand the efficiencyr FM for different
nel to a s9gnal user" is used, mutual
qualityof informationreceptionwhich
interference
in CMGS is determinedby
is characterized
by signal-to-interfethe signal-to-interference
ratio for
rence ratio q&.
powerc9, IO, 111
Table 1. FMRT efficiency
-1
,
(5)
= (D/a)9* =Ps/Px
where PS, PI - signaland interferenoe
power at the-BS (or MS)receiverinput*
13.
- UEF attenuationindex, V=V(Q,n)radiationfunctionof the web network
of interferingstations, Q=R,/D- the
number of ahords.
Aaoordingly, the minimumnumber of
frequencychannelsis
c = (s2V)*'n/3 .
(6)
(7)
3. CellularFM radiotelenhone
Under conditionsof UHF multipath
trensmiseionFM has no advantagein
interference
immunity. Thereforesignal-to-interference
ratio q& at the
outputof PM receiveris approximately
equal to signal-to-interference
ratio
9* at its input [I], i.e.
(8)
4. Cellularspreadspectrum
radiotelephone
Since PNSs allow to providecode
division of signals overlapping in
spectrum,it is not neoessaryto use
the princriple"a singleohannelto a
singleuse+ in SSRT when spreadspeotrum PNSs are used. Thereforewe asaume PRS speotrumwidth to be equal to
459
*s- aPt,/Rn
-4
Pt
*xl-Rn
l-l )+1(3c)
01)
-11.
(12)
With PNS it is to have C=4. For n=3,5, V=9 the second term in (12) is
signifioently less than the first one.
Therefore, approtimately
g2 = 2/l .
033
83
03
460
0
I ?ig.2. Time
diagram in a circuit
with post-detector integrator
(14)
where E=P,T - PNS energy, Ps and T ita power and duration, W. - noise
power spectral density. Distribution
of voltage at the output of the envelope detector obeys the Rayleigh-Rice
=m-,(~}=&'2G,
@%2 - s(4--3~) G*/*.
22
q, ;
05)
- 461
c131
40
(16)
With
(131,
B * FBs/4W
(161,
we @;et
2
40
(17)
Q&w
83
(17)
(18)
%sx qz r2/J?-8WaS
(22)
From (22) it follows that the gxeater q: and r, the higher the quality
of the reception of telephone messages.
Substituting (18) into (223, caloulating FBS and substituting PBS into
(4),we find the efficiency of the cellular radiotelephone with PNS and PTM:
.
03
(23)
trailing edge
6,~ tiA/q'
2 I 21 I 33 I 40 I
1 4 1 271 39 1 46
34000
544000
17000
272000 1
8 1 331 45 1 52 1
8500
136000
(20)
References
shifting
(21)
11 1 Microwave
PI
Mobile
Communications.
Ed. by W.C.Jakes
Jr., A Wiley-Interscience Publication. Tr. from
Eg. Ed. by M,S.Jarlykov,M,V.Tcherniakhov. M., Sviaz, (1979).
Varakin L.E. Rural radiocommunioation and code division of chennels.
- Electroaviaz. No 10, (1973).
462
[I4
[I5
No 7, (1984).
6
Cl
Cl
c3
p. 537-542.
IllVarakin L.E.
II
[I21
c131
043
Spread-spectrum digital cellular mobile communicatfon system. - "4 World Telecommunication Forum", p. 2; Geneva,
(1983).
Varakin L,E. Theory of signal
systems. - M.: "Sovetskoje radio';
(1978).
Turin G,L.Introduotion of SpreadSpectrum Antimultipath Techniques
and Their Applioation to Urban
Digital Radio. - "Proceedings of
IEEE", No 3, (1980).
Tikhonov V.I. Statistical radioteohnology. - lH.t"Sovetskoje radie", (19663.
8404
- 463 -
INTRODUCTION
In a multiple access communication system,
the subscribers use signals that are elements
of a signal space. If W is the bandwidth that
all signals have to share, and T is the
duration of one signalling element, e.g.
one
bit, then the number of dimensions of the
signal space is
D = 2-W-T
THE EFFICIENCYMEASURE
(1)
The number of dimensions is the number of
orthogonal, i.e. perfectly distinguishable
signals that exist in the signal space. Thus,
in an ideal multiple access system, the signals
of each subscriber occupy exactly one single
dimension.
There are many ways to divide the signal
space among the users. Two common schemes are
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA),
where each signal occupies the whole signalling
interval T, but just one slot of the available
bandwidth W, and Time Division Multiple Access,
where one signal occupies the whole bandwidth,
but just a narrow slot of the signalling interval.
A third technique is called Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA). It uses special
signals, so-called codes, which occupy the
total available bandwidth W, as well as the
464
(3)
The throughput, however, can easily be
to the CCIR efficiency measure.
adapted
P
?
-.=_I_ ml
(4)
CONSIDERING "COMMUNICATION"
The communication achieved may either be the
mean information quantity (in bits) or the mean
traffic quantity (in Callseconds), carried by
the whole communication system. Combining it
with the time (one dimension of the spectrum
space), one gets either the mean information
rate (in bits per second) or the mean traffic
(in Erlangs) which is conveyed by the whole
network.
Any potential subscriber of the network
expects to find a communication channel with
certain properties, e.g
-
since
he
- 465
8404
Twelve frequencies
are labeled
A through L
propagation
concerning
specified
must be
characteri.stics, required communication bandwidth and quality, channel availability, as
The necessary
well as the user's profile.
overall bandwidth and receiver sensitivity can
then be calculated.
(6)
(7)
For a specific link, all
users are interferers.
but
one
of
the
pi
The reason why narrowband signals "contaminate" such a large area compared with
broadband codes is due to the fact that two
narrowband signals of the same frequency are
highly correlated, whereas broadband codes in
same
frequency
the
band are practically
uncorrelated. Hence, the protection distance
is much smaller for broadband codes than for
narrowband signals.
N:
reuse
- 466
This results in
users per cell.
an
average of x = 12 active
REQUIRED NUMBER OF CHIPS AND MINIMUM SIGNALTO-NOISE RATIO - Equation 7 can now be used to
combine the mean number of interfering users K
with the mean error probability rj-,-on
the one
side, and the maximum number of interfering
users N,ax with the maximum tolerable error
probability P,, denoting congestion on the
Solving these two expressions
other side.
yields the result
na=$--&--{~(h+)-l + ;}
(10)
Note that in many cases the second term is
much smaller then the first. This leads to the
efficiency
available
the
conclusion that
depends only slight?3 on the number of chips
and M = 127 it becomes
per bit. For ";E = IO
1
= 3.89 Erl/MHz/Cell
m
mRK
(8)
The resulting spectral efficiency is
then
defined as the average number of active users
per cell divided by the bandwidth
m
n=2.M.R
(11)
CONCLUSION
(9)
and becomes
n = 2.86 Erl/MHz/Cell.
AVAILABLE EFFICIENCY - If
enough
transmitting
power is available such that the
thermal noise may be disregarded, an available
maximum efficiency may be determined. Starting
with a given number of chips per bit and the
mean error probability (and implicating an
infinite signal-to-noise ratio) the mean number
about
- 467
8404
1 System Using
1 Av. Effiency
I
I
Suboptimal System
Optimal
System
m=
PPE
specified
Parameters
12
I m= 12
-3
= 1.0~10_3
= 5.0.10
j PEC = 5.0.10-3
m = 12
P
Resulting
Parameter.5
I
-*
R=16000bps,K
dB
= 2.5.10~~
/ iT = 16.31
/
-3
P
= 5.7.10
EC
( IJ= 3.89
I
/ q = 1.47
I
Chips/Bit
dB
Chips/Bit
Erl/MHz/Cell
-t
=2.0
CDMA (FH-1
3)
CDS-CLS )
[41
[cl
7.87
/ ~~z.~~~
/ 6.88
3.29
Cellular
With Fading
::::
I
CDMA
FDMA
[31
9.90
10.9
3. 13.10-2
i ... 1.37
3.89
[71
1
+
Sel.
Areas
July 84.
Table II.
Spectral efficiencies
in Erl/MHz/Cell.
SAC-2,
pp.
482-6;
R.N.
Lane,
"Spectral
and
Economic
Efficiencies
of
Land
Mobile
Radio
Systems," IEEE Trans.
on Comm., vol.
COM-21, pp. 1177-87;
November 1973.
[61:
r71:
[81:
[91:
[lo]:
J.
Oetting,
Cellular
Mobile Radio - An
Emerging
Technology,
IEEE
Comm.
Magazine, vol.
21, No.
8,
pp.
to-5;
November 1983.
[II]:
c21: J.L.
Comm.,
[53:
REFERENCES
J.Y.N.
Hui, "Throughput Analysis
Code Division Multiple Access of
Spread Spectrum Channel," IEEE J.
I
+
1.56
. . . 3.13 /
[41:
/ Eb/No + m
] M = 131
131:
[II:
1 M = 255
I Eb'No = 14*1
/ II= 2.95
I
Table I.
-3
Eb/No = 8.9
Eb/NO = 13.6
M = 131
17= 2.86
General Specifications:
= 5.0.10
1 M = 127
9.4-10
-3
= 1.0~10
EC
EC
INTERFERENCE
ANALYSIS
469
85 05
OF A LAND MOBILE
CELLULAR RADIO
SYSTEM
G. K. Chan
Department
of Communications
Canada
Ottawa,
the
A detailed
analysis
of
and
transmitter
channel,
adjacent
receiver
intermodulation
interference
in a cellular
system
is conducted.
The
inter-cell
and
considers
analysis
situations
for
interference
intra-cell
on both
the
uplink
voice
transmissions
and downlink
channels.
Results
of the
show
that
inter-cell
adjacent
analysis
channel
and intermodulation
interference
may be ignored
but not
the
intraWorst
situations.
cell
interference
case
assumptions
are
used
such
as the
allocation
of consecutive
channels
to a
location
cell
site
in some
situations,
of desired
mobile
station
being
on the
edge of the cell
coverage
area,
etc.
moduction
Land
Mobile
Cellular
Radio
Systems
have
been
proposed
in a number
of countries
over
the past
few
years.
These
systems
are
generally
recognized
spectrum-efficient
for
radio
comas
munications
mainly
because
of
their
frequency
reuse
capability.
Similar
to
other
land
mobile
radio
systems,
cellular
radio
systems
are
affected
by
the
three
most
common
types
of
interference:
co-channel,
adjacent
channel
and intermodulation
interference.
In this
paper,
the
effects
of
adjacent
channel
and intermodulation
interference
on a cellular
system
are
discussed.
The
intra-cell
and
inter-cell
interference
situations
for
both
types
of
interference
are
analysed.
In the
first
situation,
the
base
station
at
the
centre
of
the
cell
is
assigned
n
consecutive
channels
for
communications
with
the mobile
stations.
In the second
situation,
the
base
stations
in
under
the blocked-calls-cleared
situation
(i.e.
Erlang
B) with
the appropriate
number
of channels,
U, allocated
to any
one cell.
Adjacent
Channel
Interference
Analysis
Intra-cell
Adjacent
Channel
Interference
Analysis
Adjacent
channel
interference
in
the
intra-cell
situation
arises
from
the possibility
that
the desired
signal
path may be longer
than
the interfering
signal
path.
Adjacent
channel
interference
would
occur
if:
P adj
pd
. ..(l)
the
adjacent
channel
P,dj
is
where
interfering
signal
power
level,
Fd is
the
desired
signal
power
level,
Q is
the
protection
ratio
and
J is
the
amount
of attenuation
that
the
interfering
adjacent
channel
signal
would
suffer
at the
carrier
frequency
of
the
desired
signal.
All
parameters
are
in
dBs.
On the downlink
channels,
same as Pd and adjacent
channel
ference
would
occur
if:
Q,J
Pad
is
in t!er(2)
. . .
The value
of
J varies
from
one
transmitter
to another.
If J is chosen
to be equal
to 26 dB [ll
and Q to be 20
dB, (2) will
not be satisfied
even with
both
adjacent
channel
signals
on at the
same
time.
It
can therefore
be deduced
that
adjacent
channel
interference
would
not
occur
on the downlink
channel.
On the
uplink
channels,
assuming
that
received
power
is
inversely
proportional
to
the
4th
power
of
distance,
the desired
mobile
is on the
edge
of
the
cell
at a distance
r from
the
base
station
and
the
interfering
mobile
is at a distance
d smaller
than
r from
the base
station,
d
padj
401og
d -
401og
For
adjacent
occur,
channel
P adj
d
or
interference
pd
to
.1O(Q-J)/40
IE
total
traffic
in
total
number
of
interference
area
available
values
different
Table
increases
With
for
1.
(3)
. . .
Given
that
the
desired
mobile
is
the probability,
Pa, that
transmitting,
one of the (n-l)
remaining
channels
is
area
within
the
interference
active
with
radius
d may be found
and is given
by:
Pa
=
470
channels
Inter-cell
Adjacent
Channel
Interference
Analysis
The worst
case
situation
is
for
the mobile
station
to be located
at the
intersection
of
three
cell
sites,
point
M in Fig.
1. Since
the
namely,
signal
paths
from
D to M, 11 to M and
I2 to M and vice
versa
are
about
the
channe
1 interference
same,
adjacent
would
not occur
on both
the downlink
as
well
as the uplink
channel.
Intermodulation
77d*Vt/(n-1)
. . .
where
V is
the
number
of
mobiles
per
sq.
km.,
t is
the
traffic
in
Erlangs
generated
by a mobile
station
and the
mobiles
are
uniformly
distributed
in
Note
that
Pa would
the cell.
not exceed
unity
under
a grade
of service
of
0.02.
Considering
that
the desired
mobile
may
be operating
in any one of the n consethe
probability
of
cutive
channels,
PAD, is:
adjacent
channel
interference,
AD
* 1 (n-*)(*-P,)
pa
+ 2
I/n
. . .
(5)
It should
be pointed
out that
the
value
of
d obtained
is
based
on the
assumption
that
only
one
adjacent
channel
is
on.
With
both
adjacent
channels
on,
the value
of d is slightly
larger.
Hence
PAD should
be slightly
higher
than
the value
predicted
in (5).
Analysis
In this
section,
only
two-signal
third-order
transmitter
intermodulation
and
receiver
intermodulation
(TIM)
(RIM)
interference
is
considered.
Three-signal
third-order
intermodulation
is
less
likely
to occur
since
all
three
signals
have
to
be
on
simultaneously
before
it
would
cause
a
Higher-order
problem.
intermodulations
are
of less
significance
due to their
lower
power
levels
of interference.
Intra-Cell
TIM
Interference
-The
Bownlink
Channel
Referring
to Fig.
2, transmitter
emits
a
signal
at
frequency
fA
TX4
which
mixes
in transmitter
TX
with
its
The tntermodusignal
st
frequency
fglation
product
is a signal
at frequency
2fg
- f
equal
to
frequency,
fC,
emitted
6 y transmitter
TXC. The output
power
Pti
of
the
TIM product
at 2fB fA is
then
given
by:
Pti
Interference
(4)
Pt
B -
C + Ct
. . .
*AD
(km)
~~
0.16
0.36
0.49
0.56
0.60
0.2
0.4
0.36
10
0.49
14
0.59
26
0.68
0.53
IS
0.61
24
0.66
TABLE
PRoaABILItY
or
1NTERFERENCE
INTRA-CELL
ON
THE
FIGURE
*nJ*.CENT
eLINix
CHbNNEL
CHANNEL
Inter-cellAdjacent
Chance!
Interference
(6)
- 471
fA
TXA:
A:
Pt I
The probability
of TIM interfermay
be
calculated
as
follows:
ence
Assuming
that
the
amount
of
traffic
generated
by the
base
station
on the
that
same
as
downlink
channel
is
generated
by the
mobile
station
on the
then
given
that
the
channel,
uplink
the
transmission
is
on,
desired
probability
that
both
the
interfering
and victim
transmitters
are
on is:
(_
Ce
85 05
P ti
fA
vt.
3 fi
X
r2/2(n-1)
3 JY . r2/2(n-21
Vt:
Vt.3fi.r2
.ri
(n-l)(n-2)
. ..(9)
Since
there
is an average
of Tav
IM products
per
channel
in the
given
frequency
band of n channels,
where
Tav
= (n-2)/2
when
n is even
and T,,
= (n1j2/2n
when n is odd as derived
in [41,
one or more IM products
in considering
the
to
be
on
at
the
same
time,
interference
=
probability
of TIM
'ti
FIGURE
Ptim
FORMATION OF TX IM PRODUCT
the
transmitter
antenna
where
Gt is
gain
in excess
of the circuit
losses
in
C is
the
conversion
loss
in
dB,
dB,
defined
as the
difference
between
the
levels
of
the
interfering
signal
power
from
an external
source
and the
intermodulation
product,
both
measured
at
the output
of the transmitter
and B is
the coupling
loss
in dB from
the output
of TXA to the output
of TXB. The value
of C is estimated
in [21 to be about
11
dB for
a frequency
separation
of 30 to
500 kllz between
fA and
fB*
According
to [31,
if
the antenna
gain
is 12 dB, carrier
frequency
is 460
MHz and
the
distance
of
separation
between
the
antennae
is
0.5 metre,
B
ranges
from
0.2 dB to 7.5 dB depending
on the orientation
of the
two antennae.
Hence,
=
B+C
(Pt + Gt) -Pti
= 11.2
dB
. ..(7)
if
the
separated,
antennae
are
= 1 -
(1
Pti)
Tav
It should
be noted
that
this
expression
since
some
is
only
an approximation
frequencies
are
shared
between
a number
of
IM
products,
hence
the
actual
probability
of interference
is higher
than
that
predicted
in (10).
The values
of
Ptim
for
various
values
of
r are
graphically
depicted
in
Fig.
3.
o-
I-
horizontally
TIM interference
occurs
when
the
interfering
TIM product
power
level
exceeds
the
desired
signal
power
level
less
the
protection
ratio.
Since
the
transmission
characteristics
from
the
co-located
transmitters
to the
mobile
station
are
the
same,
interference
occur0
when
B+C
. . .
(8)
dB to
reception,
be ignored.
be
If
we
consider
required
for
TIM interference
Q of
good
quality
must
not
20
CELL
FIGWE
RADIUS
PRCWBlLfTY
THE taMLINK
,N
I
KM
OF INIRA-CELL
CWWEL
VS
TIM INIERFERENCE
CELL RADIUS
ON
- 472
Intra-Cell
TIM Interference
-- The
Uplink
Channel
In the intra-cell
uplink
channel
the coupling
loss B from one
situation,
another
is
transmitter
to
mobile
Therefore,
for
all
usually
high.
practical
purposes,
the probability
of
TIM interference
on the uplink
channel
is not considered
to be significant.
Jnter-Cell
TIM Interference
the
On
the
downlink
channel,
interfering
and victim
transmitters
are
separated
by a distance
almost
equal to
the
coupling
twice
the cell
radius,
is high
enough
to dismiss
any
loss
possibility
of TIM interference.
On the uplink
channel,
similar
to
uplink
channel
intra
-cell
the
the interfering
mobiles
from
situation,
different
cells
have
to
stay
close
together
before
any TIM
interference
would
occur.
No TIM interference
would
be encountered
here as well.
Intra-Cell
RIM Interference
-- The
Uplink
Channel
In the intra-cell
uplink
channel
situation,
the desired
mobile
station
is assumed
to be located
on the edge of
the cell.
The two
interfering
mobile
stations
are referred
to as the near
transmitter
(with frequency
fN) and the
far
transmitter
(with
frequency
fF)
closer
to
the
victim
since
fN
is
receiver
frequency
fV than fF in the IM
product:
2fN - fP = fV.
The interfering
received
level Pri is given in [5j
power
P ri
2PN
PF
- K
signal
by:
dF .dN2
. . . (14)
KSim
RIM
interference
Kim
is the
where
criterion
and is equal to:
40
where
CT is the
10 log
Pf and
'fd"
standard
deviation
of the power
level
of the received
signal.
This means
that RIM
interference
occur
if
mobile
with
the
would
frequency
fN transmits
at distance
d
from
the
base
station
and
a secon !
mobile
with
frequency
fF
transmits
within
distance
dp
from
the
base
station.
Assuming
that the desired
is transmitting
on the
edge
Cell,
the
probability
that
product
is on is,
. Vt
* ndP
. d(dP)
XnVt
mobile
of
the
a RIM
/ (n-l)
* Kim
dF.(n-2)
Figure 4 shows
the relationship
between
dN and
dF. Note
that
both
dP and
d
would
not exceed
the cell radius
r an 9
that dP = Kim / r2 when dN = r.
For
probability
(7TVt)2
2
P
rl
Kim/r2
<
dF
of interTerence
(
r:, the
rs:
. Kim
E
(n-l)(n-2)
. . . (11)
60
where df is the
MHz between
the
er frequencies.
occur
if:
Pd
where
power
- pri
Pd is the
level.
log
...
df
(12)
frequency
separation
in
near and far transmittRIM interference
would
_i
. . . (13)
desired
signal
received
Using
the
transmitter
output
power
model
outlined
in
I41
which
predicts
the
amount
of
transmitter
output power required
in order
that the
received
signal
power
level
is above a
certain
threshold
power
level
Xtd (dR)
for
Pf
percent
of
the
time
under
Rayleigh
fading and lognormal
shadowing
conditions,
it can be derived
as shown
in /41 and 161 that for RIM
interference to occur,
FIGURE
RfLATlONSHfP
BETWEEN
dN AND
dF
dF
For
<
probability
of
dF
( 1T Vt)2
Pr2
~~~~~
inter?erence
473
85 05
the
is:
Kim2
. r2
(n-l)(n-2)
Hence
for
0 (
of interference
Pri(S)
dP
(
is,
r,
0.1
the
0.04
probability
0.2
Prl
pr2
0.4
(nvt)2
(n-l)(n-2)
2 Kim*
K.im 2
r2
0.1
where
S is
the
frequency
separation
in
channel
spacings
between
f
and fP in
Hence
an IM product.
Pri Y S)
is
the
probability
of RIM interference
due to
one IM product
and
df = S x fs where
fs
is
the
channel
bandwidth.
For
a
there
are
on
given
S,
the
average
P(Sl/n
IM products
falling
on
the
desired
channel
where
P(S)
= (2n - 4s)
according
to
[41.
The probability
of
Pi,(S),
for
a given
S
RIM interference,
is
therefore,
Pim(S)
1 -
1 -
P(S)/n
Pri(S)
1
. . . (16)
and
if
Pim(S)
Pim(S)
i.S
Small
P(S)
P,i(S)/n
.a.
(17)
This
probability
takes
into
account
the
possibility
that
more
than
one RIM product
may be active
at one
time.
However,
as in the TIM interference
analysis,
this
is only
an approximation
since
some
frequencies
are
shared
between
a number
of IM products
and the actual
probability
of interference
is higher
than
that
predicted
in
(17).
The
interference,
total
probability
is then,
Prims
of
rim
Pim(S)
(18)
S=l
where
Smax
is
the
maximum
frequency
separation
in channel
spacings
between
fN and fP in any P-signal
third
order
IM product
formed
in
the
band
of
n
frequencies.
According
to
[41,
S,,,
=
(n-1)/2
for
odd
n,
and
= (n-2112
for
even
n.
and
The values
tabulated
of
in
P .
THk?e
are
obtained
2.
In
the
u -
,.0004
0.0017
).0018
0.0016
0.0035
0.0146
0.005,
0.0121
o.oo*s
0.00?9
O.OOSL
o.o*?.o
0.0080
0.0344
O.OOS5
O.OISl
0.0071
0.0305
0.0100
0.0417
0.0009
o.oo,*
0.0040
0.0169
0.0017
Cl.0351
O.OLL9
0.0507
O.OO4L
0.0176
O.OLL5
0.0490
0.0180
0.0769
0.0079
0.0337
0.0159
0.0671
0.0122
0.0955
0.4
IZ
calculation,
it
is assumed
that
f,
=
0.03
MHz,
Ktd = - 132 dBN,
Q = 20 dR
and
Pf
= 0.1
and
0.02
separately.
It
can be seen
that
the probability
of RIM
interference
increases
when
the
cell
radi.us
increases
or when
Q
increases.
But
in general,
RIM interference
is
insignificant
in
almost
all
of
the
situations.
Intra-Cell
RIM Interference
-The
Downlink
Channel
In
this
situation,
different
signals
from
the
base
station
are
received
at a mobile
station
in which
an IM product
may be formed.
However,
since
the
interfering
signals
travel
the same distance
as the desired
signal
from
the
base
station
to
the
mobile
receiver,
Hence,
..a
0.04
0.2
RIM
S max
r-6
km . 1
l9.
Prim
Yt
.?.r,. per
PN
Pd -
zri
for
all
practical
and d . So no
occur.
pF
RIM
>>
pd
values
of K,
interference
Xtd
:oUf%
Inter-Cell
RIM Interference
Referring
to
Fig.
1
on both
the
uplink
and downlink
cha)nnels
the
worst
situation
would
be for
the i6terfering
mobiles
from
I1 and
I2
to be
located
at M, the
intersection
of the
three
cells.
However,
since
the
interfering
mobiles
are at approximately
the
same
distance
from
base
station
D as
the
desired
mobile
no RIM
station,
interference
would
occur.
Cone lusion
In
adjacent
this
the
paper,
channel,
transmitter
receiver
and
intermodulation
interference
situations
in a cellular
system
are analysed.
The
intra-cell
and
inter-cell
cases
are
considered
with
the downlink
and uplink
channel
operations
discussed
separateThe results
of
the
analysis
show
ly.
that
inter-cell
interference
situations
may be ignored
but
not
the
intra-cell
interference
situation.
Even though
the
RIM and TIM interference
analysis
is
performed
for
the
low UHF band
due to
the lack
of empirical
data
for
equipment
in the upper
UHF band,
the interference
characteristics
are expected
to
show
similar
behaviour
at the 800 MHz
band.
consecutive
Normally,
channels
are not assigned
to the same cell.
This
is partly
because
of the difficulties
and
limitations
in
coupling
the
equipment
and also
because
of the fact
that
interference
normally
be
can
reduced
using
frequency
larger
In practice,
separations.
filtering,
isolation
techniques
and
variable
mobile
power
features
have been
used
to
minimize
interference
problems.
The
assumptions
used
in
this
analysis
represent
the
worst
case
474
The effect
of this
on our
analysis
is
that
the
uplink
interference
situation
may be
slightly
worse
than
what
the
results
have
indicated
as the
desired
and
interfering
signals
not
be
may
fully
correlated.
References
[ll
Department
of
Communications,
Canada.
Radio
Standards
Specification
RSS-118,
Issue
1, Oct.
1983.
[21
McMahon,
J.H. Interference
and
Propagation
Formulas
and Tables
Used
in the
Federal
Communications
Commission
Spectrum
Management
Task
Force
Land Mobile
Frequency
Assignment
Model.
IEEE Transactions
on Vehicular
Technology,
Vol.
VT-23,
No.
4,
pp 129-134,
November
1974.
[31
International
Committee
524-1,
pp
I.
[41
Chan,
G.K. Design
and Analysis
of a Land Mobile
Cellular
Radio
System
Under
the
Effects
of
Interference.
Ph.D.
Dissertation,
Carleton
University,
Ottawa,
Canada,
Department
of
Systems
and Computer
Engineer1984.
ing,
[51
International
Committee
pp 217-224,
[61
Approach
Chan,
G., A Practical
to
Determine
Culling
the
Mechanism
in Electromagnetic
Interference
Analysis
Models.
Fifth
Symposium
and Exhibition
on Electromagnetic
Compatibility
pp 503-507,
March
1983.
situations.
It should
also
be noted
that
our
analysis
has
considered
only
long
term
median
power
levels
and the
effects
of
fading
and shadowing
on the desired
and
interfering
signals
are not
differentiated.
In other
words,
the desired
and
interfering
signals
are
assumed
to be
fully
correlated
and suffer
the
fading
and
shadowing
losses
in
exactly
the
same fashion.
This
is not usually
true
for
transmissions
on
the
uplink
channels
since
the
mobile
stations
transmit
signals
from
different
locations
in the cell.
But for
downlink
transmissions
from
the base
to a mobile
station,
this
assumption
is
correct.
Radio
(CCIR)
118-131,
Consultative
Report
No.
Study
Group
Radio
Consultative
(CCIR)
Report
No. 522,
Study
Group
I.
86.06
475 -
Fisher
f. NTROIXJCTION
In ths United Kingdom the demand for land mobile
radio is growing at an annual rate of 5-l&
and
this increase
has continued
right through a
period of recession
and shows no immediate Signs
of abating.
In 198~ a study was made of the spectrum
requirements
and availability
of the land
mobile radio service
to the end of the century.
The report noted that 730 dual-frequency
channels were then available
for 17,000 private
users having in excess of 20,000 base stations
The report also
6nd more than m,OOO mobiles.
calculated
that by 1~85 conventional
land mobile
services
would require
a total of 1142 dualfrequency channels,
and by 1990 a total of 1784
would be needed.
Additional
spectrum would also
be required
for other land mobile needs such as
radiotelephones,cordless
telephones
and services
in operational
support of broadcasting.
The
report recommended, inter alia,
that negotiations
designed to clarify
the amount of spectrum that
could become available
for land mobile radio
should be pressed to a conclusion
as quickly
as
possible.
The Government responded to this recommendation
by setting
up an Independent Review of the Radio
Spectrum (jo-96~
MHz),
with this task as part of
its work.
The Review reported
in two stages.
In September 1~82 it reported on the future use
of television
Bands I and III and recommended
that these bands be withdrawn from broadcasting
use and re-used
for a combination
of land
mobile services
and services
in operation61
support of broadcasting;
with priority
where
It further
necessary for land mobile cervices.
recommended that the obsolete
405-line
television
system be closed down by the end of 1984.
These recommendations
were subsequently
In July 1983 the
accepted by the Government.
Review presented
its final report in which it
noted that while. the situation
in the land
mobile bands is likely
to be manageable until
the late 198Os, the problems thereafter
are
likely
to become acute unless significant
use
can be made of other bands and/or new technaIt noted also
that there was no prospect
logy.
of any significant
reservea of unused or underused spectrum being identified
in the 30-960
URz range and xc-allocated,
and that long timcscales w6re involved
in bringing
about major
change6 in the pattern of use.
Sharing
with Broadcasting
the signal
to interference
protection
ratio
required
by the mobile services
is much less
than that for tha talcvision
service
(typically
10 dB a8 opposed to !50 dB);
the sarvice
areas in the mobile service
are
smaller;
antenna height6 ara lower th6.n
broadcasting
antenna height8 and the height
gain corre6pondingJ.y
less;
the television
service
amploys a much wider
bandwidth than the mobile service
(typically
d MHz against
IL.5 kHz) se the full power of
the television
signal will not bc present in
any one mobile channel;
the telavision
pslarisation.
Land Mobile
servica
Protaction
- 476 -
0
0
HI
100
200
sxl.C
Mobile
Station
Station
VP
dB(uV/m)
),
(1)
hg + b
,TALY
BORmwX
E
.=E
-amax
min
Ii
.LIONS
JIMOFES
BP
VP
BP
22
22
Emin dB (uV/m)
22
22
dB
10
IU
hg
dB
dB
18
dB (uV/m)
24
16.5
24.5
%lax
10
10
- 4.5 - 4.5
477
86.06
..-.
.
SYSTEM
,.,& ,F
,p
FREQUENCY (MHZ 1
,y ,y ,p ,p 199 200 zoz
2Jo 2!2
U. K.
405 lines
IRELAND
625 lines
IBaseTxlIlMobilefxlIIMobileTx2jI
Fig 3:
Use of
Band III
the obsolete
819-line
system has been closed dovn
but a new system has been introduced.
This
employs 6 MHz channel spacing,
as does the Irish
system, but has the vi&en
carriers
offset
from
the Irish carriers
by 0.75 MHz. In fact in
France there is aleo mobile operatien
and the
sharing is being achieved by restricting
the
mobile service
to the main mctrepolitan
areas,
i.c Parish and Lyon, and to no more than four
of the available
six television
channels.
interference
contour from television
carriexm
are shown on Figure 4 from which it can be seen
that the potential
interference
is now very
severe and mobile operation
ipi impractical
over
meat of the country.
No area ef the country is
however affected
by more than two e&s of
carriere
and there is a small corridor
around
The
*WlltS
FRANCE
Fig 4:
Centourls of acceptable
from vision
carriers
SWKER
/LAN@
interference
478
Television Protection
The minimum median usable field strength for
which protection may be sought in planning
televisionservices is given by CCIR Recommendation 417 as 55 dB (uV/n) Band III. The
percentage of time for which protection should
be sought is recommendedto lie between m
A figure of 95% is often used if a
and!@.
sea path is involved between the interfering
station and the television service area.
The signal to interferencepratection ratio
for television is given in CCIR Report 306
and Recommendation418. For the case of
narrow band interferenceunder fading conditions, the protection ratio has a maximum
value of 50 dB but is less in some parts of
the television channel. Figure 5 shows the
protection ratio curve for the L/gECAM system
used in France. The pratection ratio curves
for the PAL systems used elsewhere on the
Continent and in Ireland are similar, but the
frequencyspacings between the vari4us carriers
are different.
l-l-
L Eu - Esj)
(4)
is
the nuisance field associated with
sj the j-th base station site in dB
(uV/m), as given by e uV/m calculated
from equation (3).
uV/m
(3)
479
will be a particular
problem in the Boulogne arca
of France which is both nearest to the United
Kingdom coast and opposite
the area of densest
Negotiations
with the
mobile use in Britain.
French Administration
have, however, resulted
in an agreement to plan to a value of 70 dB
(uV/m) at Boulogne and 65 dB (uV/m) in other
Equipment
Standards
in Band III
8606
It is the intention
to introduce
new technology into Band III as soon as it becomes
To this end at least one of the
practical.
three mobile sub-bands will be resrved for the
A possible
new technology
is
time being.
amplitude compounded single
sideband in which
there has been much interest
in recent years.
This shows the promise of at least doubling
the number of available
channels within the
constraints
of the sharing criteria.
In order to make best use of the band with
the FM equipment it is the intention
that the
majority
of the mobile services
in Band III
This gives better
will employ trunking.
spectrum efficiency,allowing
more users on a
system, or alternatively
gives users a better
This leads to the approach
grade of service.
to an area
provider.
Other Mobile
not covered
by his
own
Services
In addition
to the @XJ paired channels in each
sub-band which are suitable
for conventional
mobile radio,
there is additional
spectrum
suitable
for other uses.
There is a requirement for wideband radio microphones
for use in
support of broadcasting
and 0.7 MHz of each
sub-band will be reserved
for thtir use.
The
actual allocation will be the lower 0.7 MHz of
each sub-band a6 this is the part of the subband for which the television
channel has the
highest protectisn
ratio and thus is least
usable by conventional
mobile services.
Radio
microphones being low power devices
operated
close to the ground will create little
disturbance
te television
reception.
There is also a requirement
for cordless
telephones
and consideration
is being given
to the use of leaky feeder systems operating
on the television
carrier
frequencies.
Conventional
mobile operation
is net possible
on the carriers
but leaky feeder systems are
found to have a goad performance when operating
in interference
fields
from distant
transmitters.
This development will allow very high
densities
of cerdlcss
telephones
to be employed
and may make possible
the wireless
PA0P
where
all telephone
extensions
in a large building
arc cordless.
- 480
CONCLUSIONS
A channellingplan for the new land mobile
service in Band III has been developed to make
available the greatest number of paired frequency channels in London. This plan provides
three mobile sub-bands,with a transmit/
receive spacing of 8 MI%. The plan has also
been agreed with the French Administrationfor
use in France and has the potential to become a
European standard as televisionbroadcasting in
Band III gradually declines in Europe.
By using current CCIR planning criteria1 highquality land mobile systems can be introduced
over the whole of Great Britain free from
interferencefrom foreign television broadcasting. Foreign broadcastingcan also be
COMPARISON
OF FIELD
COMPUTER
481
STRENGHT
PREDICTION
8707
MEASUREMENTS
IN LAND MOBILE
AND
SERVICE
BBeriC
Federal Radiocommunication
Direction
Beograd, Yugoslavia
ABSTRACT:
Relief digital model has been used for computer-aided field strenght predictions in mobile radiocommunications.
ln order to find the objectivity of this method, detailed ,,on-site
(terrain) measurements have been performed using the special
measurement vehicle of the Federal Radiocommunication Dik?CtiOn
Of
the
SFR of Yugoslavia. The route on which the mentioned
meawrements have occured was more than 1500 km long. For
field Jtrenght recording the whole route have been devided to 302
path incriments of 1 km langht and the vehicle speed was 36 km/h
and also 16 km/h. Field strenght measurements resultscompared to
the results obtained by computer aided field strenght prediction
using relief digital model are showned in this paper.
1. INTRODUCTION
High-grade and fast determination of mediane electric field
value is undoubtly the greatest difficulty in mobile radiocommunication planning. Field strenght data am the barnstones for
determination of the receiving zone of base radio station as well
as for determination of interfering signal zone and interfering zone
of two base stations operating the same frequency. The phenomena
in electromagnetic wave propagations, such as reflection, difraction,
refraction and scatter, as well as all terrain profile elements are to
be constantly changed due to vehicle motion and to the fact that
the receiving antenna is low, being installed on the vehicle (often
aprox. at 1.5 m above ground). Therefore, it is obvious that one of
statistical method should be used for field strenght predictions.
The application of any statistical methodes requires numerious
arithmetical operations, as more as higher accuracy is wanted.
Namlly, for incontestable statistical picture it is necessary to
performs high-scale cakxdation, and this could be done only by
the aid of a computer.
Field strenght predictions by computer-aided techniques
are possible using the digital relief model.
One of the most important questions is the accuracy of
computer-aided
method using digital relief model. In order to
compare the results of mentioned computer-aided method to real
situation,
a detailed and sophisticated measurements have been
undertaken.
These measurements could be considered also as
confirmation of digital relief model accuracy for application for
field strenght predictions in mobile radiocommunications.
The method of computer-aided field strenght predictions is
showned in this paper, following the comparison to results
obtained by measurements.
2. SELECTION OF THE METHOD FOR
COMPUTER-AIDED
FIELD STRENGHT PREDICTION
Several statistical methods for field strenght median value
are known. To mentioned some: Langley-Rice method, CCIR
methode, cleamnce angle methode, methode proposed by the
Polish Administration, Bullingtons method end Okumuras method.
By
comparison
of
measured and calculated
values
performed on the basis of mean error, mean squem error and standard
deviation, carried out insofar examinations at the Faculty of
Electrical Engineering at Belgrade University
[4,5]
it was found
that the ,,clearance angle is to be considered as the most
appropriate methode.
26
6
9
%
Z
0
f
0
10
O
A: VHF
*lo
5:
-26
-30-W
-6.
-4.
-3
-T
-1.
Crq5
Clearance anc$e
Fig. 2.1
UHF
482
the horizontal line from the receiving point towards the transmitter
and the first streight line exceeding all the obstacles up to the
distance of 16 km from the receiving point and in the direction of
transmitter. In depandence of terrains clearance angle, one can find
the correction factor to ba added (or subtracted) to the values
readable at the CCIR diagrams.
The method used in this work for the field strenght
predictions is based on clearance angle methoda based on CCIR
diagrams (having as results median values of field strenght [I ] 1,
A h = 50 m and clearance angle
for terrain irregularity factor
correction factor (detarmened taking the terrains configuration in
the surrounding of transmitter
[ 2 ] ). Following this way, the
simplicity of the method was retained and the personnal approuch
in the estimation of correction is avoid.
The CCIR curves and the correction due to clearance angle
are converted to computer readable form and permanently stored at
disc-package magnetic medium with semidirect computer approuch.
It should ba emphasized that digital data describing relief and
stored on one disc-package are used for the purposa of this work.
Calculation of the effective transmitting antenna height
and clearance angle in selected receiving points are to be performed
by the aid of the existing communicating programme modules and
computer readable relief model, immidiately in the moment of
naed[6].
Fig. 3.1
3. DESCRIPTION
OF TERRAIN CONFIGURATION
WHERE THE MEASUREMENTS
WERE PERFORMED
The measurements described under section 4 where performed on
the road of more than 1500 km lenght during the month of May
1664. The transmitter under testing has been located at aprox.
1200 m height above see level. There wera some mountains in the
vicinity of the transmitter site having heights between 700 and
1000 m. There were also higher mountains (up to 1500 m heigh)
in the wider surrounding of the transmitter site. Therefore, it is
obvious that the terrain was mountainous, that is very unfavorable
for the use of present non-sophisticated methods without use of
digital relief model and computer of field strenght predictions.
Measuring points (from Table 4.1) am shown by numbers in Figure
3.1.
4. FIELD STRENGHT
MEASUREMENTS
communications.
The measurements have been carried by special measuring
vehicle owned by Federal radiocommunication direction of SFR
of Yugoslavia equipped by non-directional calibrated rod antenna
(having centre 2 m above ground), measuring receiver connected to
the antenna and automatic signal level recorder.
The measurements of median field strenght was taken in the
vicinity of each measuring point along to 1 km of path. The 1 km
long incriment has been choosen by two reasons: a) the differences
between all points belonging to the path part of 1 km and the
transmitters site are almost the same compering each other. Following this, the defined median value could be compared directly
by field strenght values obtained as the results of calculating
.methodas
.._ .._ and b) the lenght of 1 km coresponds aprox. to the lenght
passed by the vehicle during one usual conversation:
Typical diagram of field strenght values (In dB releting to
pV/m) vs. the lenght of the road passed is showned at Fig.4.1.
1
As stated above, the field strenght has been registrated along
the 1 km segment of the path. The vehicle speed was 36 km/h
(IO m/s) and on some segments 18 km/h. The recording tape speed
Table 4.1.
Measu- Ep
rement(dB/u)
point
II
::
80
81
:3
8:
86
13g
9:os
9,41
3%
26:35
%58
14180
22,03
23,50
43,85
45,07
:s50
-2128
-3,96
z;,g
-5:56
-2;;
212
;:
4:61
7,58
18,81
14,66
-1,43
-0,91
-3,Ol
-9,63
8,90
:z
j3;95
32,88
24,19
X!
2s:15
x
38:38
24,85
35,79
31,66
25,61
26,21
27,08
::,3;
21180
28,54
27,20
%8
30:41
39,85
35,89
zx
21160
20.70
zo;90
18.12
x
39122
22h8
;;;;;
5,32
:3;:
11:os
6,32
2,12
2,44
14,64
::,;;
-9:14
los,$
16:67
:%
9:92
12;;
$33
6,21
16,71
x
11:n
;t::
17104
152
153
:5:
;:s(:
2329
26:94
40,84
40,53
39,78
:Lz
102
103
5648:
11104
9,83
10,lO
10,45
-3,37
39,87
;;
:%
$55
%f
38:47
39,32
39,29
4x:
40196
40,.55
Maasu- Ep
rement(dB /u) Cd%0
paint
!Z
;.!
9.5
96
x
9:51
4,651
$51
if%::
37:64
17,94
41,15
41,76
42,20
42,85
&!I
:%
8:12
8,78
1.11
8,86
x4
39121
39,20
33x
39188
(d%
%
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
:::
118
119
:;:
122
:
123
124
12;
42,21
41,44
42,19
48,79
29,66
19,21
$17
:%
12,54
13,82
13,63
11,49
x0
10:31
12,12
25:
5:Sl
7,46
I,23
f%
16:49
18,06
x:
35:13
35,54
:%
17106
17,46
14,12
12,00
12,80
12,70
Table 4.1.
E -Em
?dB,
-0,OS
-5,96
12,00
13,61 r,,g
13,20 -5174
15,50 -I,11
24,70 -13,24
27,90 -12,33
$;,;g
-11,ll
37,15
31,23
35,83
:6:
161
15,91
12;;
f%
232
5104
8,14
z:
5,51
5,38
235
236
231
7%
6161
%
4:21
:z
166
167
49,61
32,12
21,56
242
:z;
:,:
3%
35153
112
173
174
175
x
8145
9,88
9,04
17,SO
12,98
13,80
14,28
176
111
178
179
:tt:
9,14
9,08
9,19
36,67
42,90
:%
18:50
182
183
184
185
186
187
%dj
43:61
d%
42:21
41,36
43,40
39,84
38,33
28.43
30,06
E 4op49
;3z
E
;98$:
38154 21165
192
200
201
Z18
2:;
41121
41,87
%
8:97
;z
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
42,SO
42J5
41,92
41,25
40,49
39,44
38,34
31,42
36,86
gs;
37,65
g,;y
6,24
6,97
-6,08
11,45
;::
215
36,31
35,64
33,92
:9:
142
:1:
38,89
38,s
1
37,88
38,66
z:o
42:42
44,41
48,62
4,12
3,Ol
11,21
6,14
216
211
218
219
145
146
147
148
34:39
34,87
21,45
33,44
:;,2!
2111
9,08
1;;;
%
it;:
224
225
226
221
-4,s3
-3,92
-S,24
-5,09
3,87
I,69
0,17
3,37
3,94
12,93
10,43
:x:.
16:89
%
26129
193
139
:z:
36:28
29,16
33,21
26,88
228
229
238
239
%
36,20
lo,36
rement(dBP
/u)
32,99
34,53
%%
;,:;;
19,70
19,oo
22,86
23,92
21,71
25,20
Measu- E
:z:
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
34116
35,06
35,ll
35,56
35,34
35,21
12,74
156
157
159
%
196
191
198
199
27198 -1%
30,72 -17:ll
29,Ol
zl:
x
24;92
10,74
8160
E -Em
?dB)
a:21
%
15132
16,32
1954
20,13
19,67
44,37
29,89
24,38
29,53
%5:
$0
;;:8;
10:70
9,44
8,63
2::
248
XIl
$2
;:o
251
;:;
6182
6,91
10,04
254
25s
2.56
251
258
9%
11:57
11.00
8,72
2,40
2,48
2,66
261
262
%
;:;;
;:4
265
266
261
268
269
8:90
9,80
10.65
1135
16,90
%%
20,68
-6,69
z;:
275
39:30
;;:g
40,14
x
17;43
216
211
:%
41,84
41:69
$R
282
283
284
285
BASE
40:99
41,16
41,65
lo,26
9:11
14,24
3::
9184
27:02
36,38 -0,07
-1;,;;
%:
35:25 -1167
26,91 -16,75
16,20 -14,09
23,26 -14,18
18,92 -9,36
16,21 -6,34
16,3-i -8,14
17,so
19,00 1::;
17,50
-2:y
18,OO -4,36
24,33 -lo,69
2288;
;:9
%
E -Em
IdB)
12:::
-636
-7:26
%!
z:
245
!f
;x
11:11
12,91
1;;;
(df%lu)
9,80
8,48
8,49
I,81
7,lO
%
294
295
x
6:39
5,89
6,36
296
291
%
2::
4181
lo,58
%
302
8,12
7,89
lo,65
13)s
::z
-I,16
-6,03
13,04
13,lO
I$;;
-3:24
L-1:;
x
-2100
13:oo
12,90 -4,18
13,00 -lo,60
13,30 -lo,64
13,lO -lo,62
14,16 -4,36
;;,g
-12,lO
-8,OS
20:38
ZIf
15:71
x:
28125
:2;t
13105
13,oo
13,91
14,06
13,59
16,41
-4,51
I:,:;
-7108
:x
-4;;
-8:31
14:27 166:::
16,lO -10114
;y;
4:;
13:50
-4:78
-6,ll
-5,s
484
zIEpL-
Emil
=482
5. CONCLUSION
Respective high-standard and adecvate frequency planning
is the must for optimal
frequency managements and frequency
coordination
procedure
to
be used between
governmental
administrations. By applying the digital relief model, today is
possible to fulfill these requirements.
To proof these by the practical way, detailed measurements
along the 1500 km long part have been take in order to record field
strenght at 302 parts each beeing 1 km long. If the value of IO dB
shall be taken as accteptable error, it could be considered that these
measurements have been produced applicable results by using the
computer, digital relief model and the clearence angle methode and
for the terrain configuration for which the ordinary methodes would
be unpractical, long and not enough exact.
According to the presented results, it is to be concluded
that the future frequency planning is to be carried out using
computers and exact digital releif model taking in mind the
engeenering propagation models.
REFERENCES
(I)
(2)
!Sl
(4)
(5)
dB
* m=
-n
with n = 302 being the total number of measurements taken.
Considering the error of IO dB in field strenght predictions
as accteptable [ 61
, it is to be concluded, according to detailed
measurements, that the obtained results am generally accteptable,
particulars
having in mind unfavorable
terrain configuration
described in Section 3.
By comparison the measured field strenght values (Em) to
computer calculated values (Ep) it is to be found: a) for calculated
field strenght values higher of 35 dB the deviations are in most
cases positive (optimistic results), b) for calculated field strenght
values lower than 20 dB deviations am in most cases negative
(pesimistic results).
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
COMPATIBILITY
485
OF TV AND
.MOUNTED ON
8808
UHF
THE
COMMUNICATIONS ANTENNAS
SAME TOWER
Golas
Ashok
Telecommunication Research Centre, P&T
New Delhi, India
summary
This study was carried out to
determine the feasibility of mounting
TV
transmitter
antenna
and
communications antennas on the same
tower.
Detailed investigations were
carried out to determine the variation
of field strength along the tower face
and to determine the effect of second
harmonic of TV signal on the UHF
communication signil.
Measurement of
field strength variation was carried
out by hoisting an antenna along the
towa face with a calibrated rope and
pulley arrangement and field strength
different
readings were taken
at
heights and for different frequencies.
This data was analysed to determine
the nature of variation of field
strength along the tower face.
A
model of TV signal spectrum was
developed based on measurement of TV
and
spectra of different scenes
This model was used to
patterns,
determine the interference reduction
factor for computing the baseband
noise in UHF FDM-FM systems.
Introduction
Telegraphs
Indian Posts and
Department has set up microwave radio
relay systems which require large
towers and buildings in various parts
of the country. A dedicated rf channel
for transmission of TV signal has also
been provided on a number of routes.
The TV coverage in India is being
planned for expansion at a very fast
Utilization of the towers
pace.
presently being used for mounting
communication antennas in UHF and
microwave bands for mounting low power
(upto 100 watts)
TV transmitter
antenna also
was one of
the
alternatives
objective.
Board
used
to
achieve
this
... (1)
where
c:
I:
486 -
I+-
E&em-m
microwave
antenna
_ _ + indicates
EM1 coupling
B
NW:
: interference reduction
factor in dB;
weighting factor in
dB (= 2.5 dB).
noise
Field
strength
Vertioal
380.0
at
Maa8ursment
MHz
with
487
versun
LNA
at
8808
separation
Surat
on
from
antanns
.3-1zI-02(Souroa
SO)
Ragraesion
80 -
2 I
equation
C + M *
where
2 = Field
in
C I
70-_
Tha
:
5
CI
c 00..
Q
lllo 1
10
strength
dB uv/m
constant
M = Slop8
log
is
Separation
in
20
v8rtioal
Fig. 3
30
direotion
40from 80TV
* *
00
70
erntsnna
60
in
regression
crnalyeis
Qivea
-23.02
M106.89
C
corralat~on
coefffoisnt
-0.02
Z-
, ,~:~ffX
3.43
90
matresb)
Characterization of TV Siqnal
spectrum
Spectrun of a floral pattern
picked up by a TV camera is shown
the
in figure 4. (Note : All
~~~~e9
in I. _.... . ^
i parenthesi$
_+%_ ..,.$
1 _.,_...
_ __ _^__,
__...-_.
/ ..__+-_
IF' % %dth
/
L-!EE!.
.-... __-
_I.,--
_,._-
^.
..._1
_pJ
_r_.__-..+
Fig. 4
- 488 -
IF bandwidth
= 4 kHz
(_.I___
;7t;--;-:-:!:
-----
.: r-vestigial
carrier
3 T -I,
6-l
r :
-34
:A:
489
8808
IF bandwidth
B
2 ( fd + fm )
TS =
fm = max. modulation freguency
fd = frequency deviation
and
given in figure 3.16 of L23
For
this is drawn in figure 8.
the sound carrier, fm = 15 k~z and
f = 50 k~~zz and substitutinq values
value of
i$ the equation for B
kHz =
is obtained as 2*&5)
B
158 kHz. The peak of sound carrier
level is shown as -10 dB as the
sound carrier is 10 dB below the
video carrier.
I.
X
a
27
.
2
.I
c2
T
In
EL
offset
.
ul
u;
1.
St
a
I-
In
&
.I
/;;,
E-r
:.
Attenuation
in dB
20.0
20.0
30.0
Evaluation of B factor
The calcula*ion for B
factor
Interfering
carrier
: II harmonic of TV
'Interfercid
carrier
: 60 chl. FDM-FM
490
20\
can nw
UBFs#tem
for
Baseband
: 12 - 252 WHZ
: 60
No. of channels
rms test tone deviation : 100 kHz
pre-emphasis
: CCIR Rec. 275-3
Transmit and receive Xf filters :
passband ripple : 0.1 dB over +l MHz
3dB bandwidth
:+2MHz
40 dB bandwidth : rf:10 MBz
Receive IF filter :
passband ripple : 0.1 dB over _+.SMBs
3 dB bandwidth : 2 1.5 MHz
20 dB bandwidth : + 3.3 MHz
Since the interference effects
from the second harmonic of TV signal
are to be considered, the model of
TV signal spectrum has to be further
modified. Based on the observations
of second harmonic generated by the TV
transmitter on spectrum analyzer, it
was found that the model at second
"Methods for
determining the interference in
terrestrial radio-relay systems
and systems in the fixed satellite
service'&,
International
Telecommunication uhion, Geneva,
1982.
491
89 09
BZSIGN OF CGMPATIBLZ
..-I_-VEHICLES
-1 JQUIPMENT FOR LAND MOBILE
S Satyamurthy
Combat Vehicles Research & Development Establishment
Avadi, Madras 600054, India
492
i3ME of mobile
_r?Latforms
*,..1....-_1_
-u__I__-*.
This can be viewed from thrt:adifferent angles. Firstly, what is the
optimum design objective of the prototype vc3hic.l.a
from the theoretical methods? Secondly what Uls level.on63
would achisve in practioa and tihirdly
what will be the differonce/improvements one would expect in production
vehicles? ITumb?r
of subsystems and SYSternsare contributing fox very high EM1
ambients in vehicles due to summation
of their spectrum signatures. It may
also be stated that higher the ambient,
when highor the ,WI emission level
even from a single system. Henci?the
best emission oontrol techniques help
to a larger extent in controlling the
vehicle ..:ME.
It is of great importance
in equipment designs and vehicle designs espeoially for military apalications. Wery critical test point of
the vehicle should be taken care
during early designs.
Now we shall examine fi:wspectrum
signatures of devices recorded from a
landmobile,vehicle.Pig.2(s)
shows the
conducted emission levels from a switched mode power supply unit(SMPU)
Fig.2(b) shows the aonducted emission
levels from a computer intorfaco cable.
Potential EM1 problem exists in vehicubsystems
cle power lines, since many ,J
and systems share power from the same
vehicle battery/alternator.
rsdi;3.tI:d
omi:;siolls
ELI22
493
890s
p~:~dOllli~WXlt
capacitivy
or
conduct-ion
coupling
shapes
lxl,dirl~
D&cc!
b,-:tw::.;n
heat
C535.
Xii~$k!r the?
frequancg
wh.:nthctyart!r,>c;:ptors
and (i) antenna
to box couoling (LI) antenna to cablte
coupling (iii) cablo to box coupling
when they are emitters. To cite Lan
intorusting case, thermal picture of a
low level video monitor was masked
half the scresn by a potential YN
field from a VKF transmitter installed
in the same vehicle. Similarly a sensitivo VW receiver located nr?Xtto the
thermal scanner could not pick up
messages from a transmitter located
1 km distance ins@te of several chsngas over to standby freguoncics in VHF.
Mu.B~~~'l,~~er~s~~~e~.a~~-~ess~~-f&~~-l;~~~:cation performance of antenna are very
popular in land-mobilevehicles. Eiadiation characteristicsof a typical
thermal scanner is shown in Table I.
Table -I.I
_-__-_--...
_",_..
I
-.--*..*"*..__
Frequency Intorferonce
Snec.
in MHZ
level in
limit
dbuv/m/iNZ
-_.
-1II~--~---~_---0.01
;*z
0:15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.60
0.70
0,RO
15.20
30.50
141
129
105
1::
100
88
102
;:
89
:5:
86
u2
1::
82
31
139
78
67
79,.
64
_.-I___,_-,1-^-W- _--__-
ElectromagneticCompatibilityof
Di@tal
_-.-_SquiJments
"._
-P_-Microprocessorsare revolutionalising almost in ev~.?ry
field and more so
with land-mobile vehicles. Engine
parameters monitoring and control,
transmission gear control, computing
devices (for navigation and weapon
aiming in the case of tactical vehiion panel,frequency
cles), instrunonta-t
494
xi
71
69
59
:::
1:::
ig*:
50:o
ii80
g*;
1oo:o
200.0
300.0
400.0
I;
92 *
:;
;ft
50
2:
62
,,:i
;"2
GO
;"o
2:
50
50
EMC Aspects
Devices
--- of O&@l
There are several optical techniques for detqtion
and display of
objects/targetsboth in day light and
in darkness for security observations,
.,weaponaiming, battle field survcillante and gun firings. Of alltechniques thermal imaging is becoming vary
popular. Now we shall SIX?the basic
.XMI producing devices in this. They
are (i) switched mode 20Wr
supply
(ii) DC-DC convertors (iii) Motor
operated thermal scanners (iv) video
converter (v) compressor operated cooling
systoru
(vi) Xlectronic processors
(vii) video monitor. Conducted XT41
observed from thermal scanners and
electronic ;?rocessorsare vary high,
495
89 09
logic circuits should bo properly connected to ground.
Pibre optic cables are great boon
for 13lCas they are immune to EMI, SW,
lightning, cross talk and over voltage
stresses in addition to their light
weights. However system gcnarated
noise (due to TTL signals) in the electronics needs careful handling of EMT
generation and emission control. Use
of smart integrated sensors such as
optical and hall effect devices greatly reduce WI1 threat and simplifies
encoding of signals directly to processors. Optical transmissions,signal
i/p filtering, shielding, floating are
useful techniques in connecting sensors
(thcrmocouplt?s,
prt2ssuretransducers,
strain gages etc.) i:lho.stile,
%MS.
Transient is an inevitable phenomenon in inductive loads of vehicles
and solidstntc d::vices.The excess
onorgg of transient pulses are to be
absorbi!din addition to protection
against component damage from over
voltages by suitable moans. Vsristors
transzorbs, zeners, capacitorsand
surge filters of correct ratings are
must to tackle transients.
i%lCDrsinn ..--.e,,
Gui.dPlj,nes_.I
k-w-W.-L..&
496
+v?lWtti
Oil
and
. *. A--.m-._.M
low
i3.d
tostin;l;.
Still
this
dznands.
Succ:zssful3EICcoizpatibility
of s;ystemsand vchiclt+scan be
verifi;!dwith IA9 following t ::sts
:
(a) By injectin!;;
emissions Lit
critic21 Points in thy syst,:ms/v
:hicl<!at 6 db highz .than:)r!zd,::tormincd
,:Zi
: lev~oland obs::rving
for malfunction.
may
000
syst,:ms)
,$n~uish
bIi:ZLpOn
Vol.v:~.-'72,
No.2 i'l151-157
(my
1983)
The 3010 of
(3) Jose ph .3,dohnston,
Int esrat ed Circuits
Decouplin{; iii
Zlectroma$netic
Compatibility
- .BC
Technology
- PF 19 (Octob::r 1 gGT)
(4) :3ric Chou etl.
A new concept
i:l brLcirplanc communication - .a:lectronit Sngincering
- P;3 97-99 (Play 1384)
(5) Donald White R.J.
A handlsook
si3rio:j o;1 ,,lectroma.,qi~!tic
Comp?tijj.:k$;)
Vo1.2,
PP S:cti.O~l 1 .3
--
497
90
PI
S.R. Ramasamy
Defence Electronics Research Laboratory
Hyderabad, India
ABSTRACT
S. Mahapatra
Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay, India
INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetic radiation hazards
have been widely discussed in literature /j.,27. It is necessary that each
electronic equipment or device is
properly designed to eliminate EM1 and
Radhazards. People with heart pacemakers are warned not to get too close
to microwave ovens because of reports
that some ovens leak radiation at
frequencies that could confuse the
pacemaker. Astronomers using Radio
telescopes worry about microwave ovens
in the vicinity leaking high frequency
radio energy which will be picked up
by their sensitive aerials. Considering the need for reduction of radiation
hazards researchers are investigating
new methods to improve upon performance of existing equipments and
FlG.l(a).
Ovens door
opening
in Megahertz and all values are averaged over 0.1 hour period c3,4,57.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS
One of the authors (S.R.R) in his
earlier paper had presented the idea
of using lossy ferrites kneaded with
a plastic material (rubber for example)
backed with a metal plate called
Magnetic Resistive Sheet [67. Door of
the oven was utilised as backing metal
plate. The door and mainframe of the
oven are considered as equivalent to a
parallel plate system shown in Fig.2.
498
S000MHz
3000MHz
In
6
FIG.2.
Parallel
plate line
filled with rubber
partially
ferrite.
FIG.3
+ i y2 tanhY212
71 tanhull
2b
=O ...-..,..(
1)
and
k=umo
CORRUGATION WITH
p-&7,d-!&4,p/d-1.75
WI_THWr FfJRUGATIONqp
---_---
6l
,:
- -IN CM
J3.35
ul
.:
B
ni
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
This paper discusses the use of
a corrugated metallic structure (C.S)
as shown in Fig.l(b,c,d) instead of a
plain metal plate backing to the
rubber ferrite. The linear or slant
45' corrugated structure is fixed to
metal sheet of oven's door as in
Fig.l(e,f,g). Absorbing material
namely rubber ferrite is fixed on top
of the corrugation. This is called
MRS with corrugation backing, The
principle of operation is based
essentially on the fact that the oven's
mainframe and its door when it is
slightly ajar can be considered as
equivalent to a parallel plate transmission line and an axial component of
the field is produced on the surface
of corrugation, then the lossy material
(rubber ferrite) laid on the corrugation sustains a power loss. The corrugation structure was covered on tno
opposite sides with adhesive backed
Aluminium foil which gave fairly good
results. Hence by choosing appropriate values for corrugation depth,
pitch and thickness and also suitable
type and appropriate thickness of
lossy rubber ferrite, a fairly large
499
90
Pl
attenuation
of electromagnetic
waves
leaking
out between
ovens
mainframe
and door can be obtained.
c.s
FIG. l(
k------72
f).
Enlarged
view
mm------A
FIG.1
(b).View
of corrugation
structure
FIG. l(g).
FIG.l(c).
Elevation
of fig.1 (b).
Slant
THEORY OF OPERATION
Morita
and Suetake
[77 have shown
that
in the case of a lossless
corrugated waveguide
the surface
impeclance
2.1 and Z2 of non corrugated
and corru-
FM(d).
gated section
respectively
should
be
equal
because
the tangential
field
components
from which the impedances
are derived
are continuous.
Hence the
following
equation
is obtained
taking
into account
the boundasy
conditions
and each corrugated
slot
in a sense
considered
as the waveguide
which has
a sectional
area (axd) and extends
from y=O to y= -12 and d=p-t
and t
is the thickness
of teeth
of the
corrugation
and each guide
is excited
in HIO wave by the field
component
E,
p,t,d,lj
generated
on the surface
tion
and short
circuited
lower
(e). Corrugation
on door
panel
H plane
of the
of
at
main
corrugay=-l2 by
guide.
Yl is the transverse
propagation
constant
and is determined
from
above relation.
r, the lonqitudinal
propagation
constant
is derived
t
Cr+j/.J
. .
.--
the
from 5
(4)
r. =j /a,=2 n/&j,
500
- - - - ( 5)
z2 =
zbazM!?s
. . _-.( 6)
* z;+ $,RS
cl Z;-ZMRS
yltanhq $=p. Z;+ZMRS - - - (7)
12
CORRUGATION STRUCTURE
In this paper 3 configurations of
corrugated metallic structures that
have been tried are described.
A) The first called linear corrugated
structure (L.C.S) is shown in Fig.l(b)
The
and its elevation in Fi .I(c).
M and magnerubber ferrites H C(l:43
tically loaded ep2xide cillsd Eccosorb
MF 124 LB] have been attempted as MRS.
A part of this workras presented by
one of the authors (S.R.H) @I .
B) Since in microwave ovens a fan is
used and its blades rotate in front of
the waveguide aperture perhaps as a
mode stirer it was thought that a
slant 45' corrugation structure called
slant C.S as shown in Fig.l(dBg) in
combination with MRS (rubber ferrite)
could give better attenuation of
microwave energy leaking from ovens.
Indeed it was so as can be seen from
Tab1e.i. In both the L.C.S and slant
C.S cases MRS thickness doubled from
2.4 mm to 4.8 mm and it was observed
that increased attenuation was achieved in both the cases.
C) Further the idea of using double
corrugated structure was thought of
a&shown in Fig.l(hBi). In this 'case
also
experimental results indicated
that double corrugation is bett,e; ikan
single corrugation structure.
the case of single corrugation that
where
d = gap between two consecutive
pitches
=
pitch of corrugation structure
P
11 = width of air gap
--ale
FlG.l(h).
FIG.l(i).
FIG.l.
45O C,S
45O C.S
VIEW OF C.S
ON A MW OVEN.
501
90
TABLE
Pl
Sl.
No.
1.
Description
14
24.50
26.10
34.65
35.74
10
40.50
17.00
42.20
-
24.00
38.32
-
4. MRS (M3-MgCuZn)Thickness=lO mm
11
19.78
27.00
8.10
8.60
11.50
12,90
21.20
23.10
32.70
33.83
40.03
34.04
with absorbers
where
MRS with
L.C.S
502
for
HP 4iwR
AUTOMATED
6asQR
MEASUREMENT
MEASUREMENTS
FIG.4
I :t
SETUP
3-5'C.S was also attempted. Prelininary experimental results indicate that double structure gives
better attenuation to leakage
than single C.S. Here also among
the two, slant 45O C.S. shows
better attenuation characteristics
than L.C.S in that attenuation is
higher in the case of the former.
But the theoretical model has to
be derived taking into account
that the wave travels between two
MRS layers and hence the boundary
conditions are different, But
the gap through which energy
leaks can be divided into two
equal halves by considering an
electric wall of e = 00
Fig.l(h&i). That is, it effectively reduces the gap to half
its size and hence the previous
analysis carried out holds good.
Thus it shows a much higher
attenuation
can be achieved
double
slant
45
using
corrugation.
the
res-
pectively.
7. If the attenuation reported here
for L.C.S is reasonably
sufficient
for practical
purposes
then L.C.S
itself
can be adopted
ease of manufacturing
view.
from the
point
of
of p,t,d
of
corru8. Optimization
gation may be attempted for
further improvements in attenuation level and also for compactness.
material
HowevE r,
compared
may be
characteristics.
better
materials
H5C(1:4)
available
& M3 materials
in Jaoan.
90
10. As seen at Table that absorbtion
of microwave energy increases from
26.1 dB to 42.20 dB when MRS thickness was doubled from 2.4 to
4.0 mm in case of L.C.S. But the
increase is only from 35.74 dB to
38.2 dB for doubling the MRS,thickness in case of slant 45O C,S which
is only marginal. From this-two
points emerge namely that the
optimum thickness of MRS (in this
case MF 124) has to be selected.
It is somewhere between 2.4 and
4.8 mm. It is proposed to measure and plot the locus of surfaceZof MF 124 and select the
correct thickness of MRS from this
plot. Secondly the 45' angle may
not be the optimum for the slant
C,S and it appears that there is
an optimum angle which lies between 0' and 45'. This has to be
identified. It is proposed to
investigate this aspect in detail.
11. The idea of combining MRS with
corrugated metallic surface
backing and a resistance film
card was attempted to examine
whether improved attenuation
levels could be obtained. The
resistance film card was kept on
top of the MRS. Resistance film
card and MRS thickness were 0.5mil
and 2.4 mm thick respectively.
The same corrugated structure was
employed. Both in the case of
linear and slant 45' corrugated
structure the attenuation level
decreased by 4.01 dB and 2.99 dB
respectively when compared to
MRS alone with C.S backing was
used . See Table-2. This indicates that MRS with C,S is better
when compared to combining MRS
with C.S backing and a resistance
film card. Also the thin film
card may have to be replaced
often due to wear and tear. Hence
this is not recommended.
TABLE -2
S.No.
Nomenclature
Attenuation
level in dB
29.12
25.11
32.02
29.03
--
PI
J.
: Is today's standard
fox Microwave Radiation Safe
for Humans? Microwaves, Vol. 10,
l,, 9-14 January (1971).
5
r3
504
505
91 P2
W. Hadrian
Technical University of Vienna
Austria
shicld.ingeffectiveness of platforms
of reinforced concrete against lowfrequency magnetic fields (16 Z/3 Hz ,
50 Hz). The fields are created by
extended loons.
This problem occurs when constructing
station buildings over railway tracks
with electrical traction. This type of
construction is becoming prevalent as
main train stations along with their
computer terminals. Therefore the influence'from currents caused by electrical traction should be considered
506
Y = +
sin ai =
PO
l1
id
cos
I-j_
ai
1
) COS
ri
=
OLj_=
d(3)r.
1
r. 1
x - x.
Y-j_
Y -
(2)
r.
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
W,,,,,~,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
..,,,
,,,,
,,,..7,.e7,cr,,m~,,~,,,-
,,,,,,
x,~~~~,~,,,I~,~
,,,,
,,,,
l,ll,,,r
91~2
N-3?
c=99cm
509
92
P3
A formulation of electromagnetic
shielding theory is presented, which
concentrates on the calculation of equivalent sources induced in electronic
systems by incident fields. Inteqral
representations are derived for the
vector of source strengths applying to
an N-port Thevenin representation of
the electronic system. It is shown that
the influence of a shield on this source
vector can be expressed as an integral
over the shield. A simple elementary
configuration is analyzed explicitly
within the formulation as an example.
1. Introduction and general method of
analysis
In electromagnetic shielding theory,
one studies the effects of applying
shields to reduce the unwanted interaction of an electronic system and an
incident field. Publications in this
area of research mostly treat the influence of shields on the structure and
strength of the electromagnetic fields
in the configuration [l-5]. However,
the behaviour of the electronic circuits
is described in terms of voltages and
currents. Therefore, in order to determine the effects of fields and shields
on an electronic circuit one has to relate the fields to the voltages and
currents. This can best be done by means
of induced equivalent sources representing the fields (see [ 61). To the authors
knowledge no satisfying analysis of
electromagnetic shielding exists in the
literature, which provides these relations mathematically. Therefore, we set
up an analysis concentrating on induced
sources from the beginning. We shall
first explain the general arguments
leadinu to a well-defined problem.
We intend to analyze the electromagnetic shielding of electronic circuits.
As we want to use linear electromagnetic
theory and have to deal with nonlinear
electronic components, we adopt the following reasoning. Any electronic circuit
can be thought to be composed of a
linear N-port network with a set of terminations (which can be active and nonlinear), see Fig.1. The interaction of
=[vl
(1.1)
(Thevenin)
- 510
(2.1)
dA = 0,
where
rE_,I$TrR= electromagnetic field in
two reciprocal states
labeled with T and R.
\ ---
,-
a)
b)
4 IS
- 1 IT1 5 VT = fs).
(gTx~R-&gT,
dA
(2.2)
([ It means transpose)
For the T-state we take the state where
all sources of electromagnetic fields
are contained within So the 'Transmitting' state. In the R-state we take all
sources outside S, the 'Receiving' state.
Because of the passivity, linearity and
reciprocity of the N-port in the T-state,
the following impedance relation exists,
[ VT1 = [ 21 1 IT1
with
[ Zl
(2.6)
where
ET
BT are fields in the m-th
-m -m
T-state (ph sical dimensions
Qrn-land m-1 resp.)
Relation (2.5) is the N-port equation in
the receiving state, so (2.6) provides
an integral representation for the equivalent sources.
We shall call integrals of the type
of the right-hand side of (2.6),
integrals of the Lorentz type. They have
some properties which are summarized
here:
- Integrals of the Lorentz type Only
yield a non-zero value when the (continuations ofthe) two fields have their
sources on different sides of S.
- Integrals of the Lorentz type are
not affected by deformation of S through
domains where the (continuations of the)
two fields satisfy the reciprocity
conditions.
- Parts of S on which both fields
satisfy the same,or the reciprocal, boundary condition, do not contribute to the
value. A particular case of the latter
is the radiation contition on spherical
sectors at infinity.
3. The influence of a shield on the
induced sources
In deriving (2.6) we only assumed
that the fields satisfied the reciprocity conditions in D. Therefore, the
same integral representation remains
valid when a shield is contained in D.
However the influence of the shield is
then implicit in the "weight functions"
'E$$and &$ , and we have no means of
analyzing the contribution of the shield.
Therefore, we follow a different route.
The shield is assumed to be present in
the R-state, but absent in the T-states
(see Fig.2). Now the reciprocity condition is not satisfied in the shield
region,Ds. For simplicity, the shield
is assumed to consist of a simple conducting volume. Theh, instead of (2.6) we
obtain,
= [ Zl .
(2.3)
4 ?I 1 =jsv
(gTx~R-gRxgT,dA
(2.4)
T
By choosing N different T-states {I&_,
,
HT
[ITIn}
rvItl
= rv3
with
VR = (IT
m,m)-l/sF cg;I~R-~~ldA,
m
or
(2.5)
JR = aE
_R the volume current density
in the receiving state.
The field
ER IHR
-
is decomposed
as
.
.
rE_R,gRl
= @n,$nl + @sc,Iyc;3
2)
where
ign,kynl=
511
92
P3
[ V] = [ VU] + [ VSh] ,
(3.3)
where
1 vu1
= j&J-
[ VSh]
= j
in
-sinx[ET])dA,
(3.4)
*JR dV.
(3.5)
([ ET1 XH
&ET1
+ [ vs4
l
EindV,
l
gin dV ,
]V sYst]= /Dsyst]1
= IDsh[ zTl
[ VShl
D
syst
h*x L, = y*e
(4.1)
wherg -&
{e ,h ]= magnetic dipolefield:+ regular at infinity (i.e. satisfying the radiation cond.),
- regular at the origin,
Y+= jnodkr[krhl(2)(kr)]/krhl(2)(kr),
Y'= jnodkr]krjI(kr)]
/krjl(kr),
(2)= spherical Bessel and Hankel
jlthl
function of the second kind,
k = w(so LIO 4,
no= (EO/UO)L'.
(3.6)
(3.7)
(3.8)
In order to deterqC\ine
the shielding
we must calculate J in the shell. From
the arguments above it follows that the
next representation holds,
y = yT -GT
(4.2)
where
BT= electrical field of magnetic
dipole with unit current,
YT=
as yet unknown amplitude.
The factor YT is determined by a boundary condition at the spherical shell
(see Appendix B),
- 512
y*
do /[l + da/(Y+-Y-)1
(4.3)
where
(5= conductivity of the shell,
d = thickness of the shell.
Now we are in a position to calculate
the shielding factor defined by,
s = (VU + VSh)/ VU.
(4.4)
(Y--Y+)
\,&T*e_in
dA,
(4.5)
(4.7)
(4.8)
C exp(-jk*d)
,
--
(4.9)
where
k_ = wave vector of the incident
plane wave,
d=
dv (see Fig.4).
- C(1 + jk-d).
--
(4.10)
In this case the shielding factor clearly depends on the incident field.
5. Conclusion
A formulation of eleC+XOIIIagnetiC
shielding theory has been presented which
concentrates on the calculation of equivalent sources in an N-port representation of an electronic circuit. The influence of a shield on these sources
is expressed as an integral over the
shield. It is emphasized that within
the formulation of shielding theory presented here, one can directly calculate
the quantities one really wants to know.
It is often unnecessary to do complete
diffraction calculations in shield configurations, because it is proven here
that the currents induced in the shield
in a transmitting state already determine the shielding properties. In many
cases these currents can be calculated
more easily or can even be guessed. It
is also important to note that in this
way one is able to do the calculations
on the fixed part of the problem (i.e.
the system to be shielded) instead of
the variable part (i.e. the incident
fields). Two elementary examples were
analyzed within the formalism.
Acknowledgement
Some stimulating discussions with
Prof. A.T. de Hoop, on the various representations used in this paper, are
greatfully acknowledged.
References
1 11 Franceschetti,G.,"Fundamentals of
steady-state and transient electromagnetic fields in shielded enclo:
sures",IEEE EMC-21,1979,p.335
[ 21 Harrison,C.W. and C.H.Papas,"On the
attenuation of transient fields by
imperfectly conducting spherical
shell8 'I
,IEEE AP-13,1965,p.960
[ 31 Senior,T.B.A., "Electromagnetic field
penetration into a cylindrical cavity
",IEEE EMC-18,1976,p.71
[ 41 Mgndez,H.A.,"Shielding theory of enclosures with apertures",IEEE EMC-20,
1978,p.296
[ 51 McDonald,N.A.," Electric and magnetic
coupling through small apertures in
shield walls of any thickness",IEEE
MTT-20,1972,p.689
- 513
l'Topological
concepts
for internal
EMP-interaction",IEEE
EMC-20,1978,p.60
"The N-port receiving
[ 71 de Hoop,A.T.,
antenna and its equivalent
electrical
network",Philips
Res. Repts.z,1975,
p.302*
and G. de Jong,"Power
[ 81 de Hoop,A.T.
reciprocity
in antenna theory",Proc.
IEE 121,1974,p.1051
theory
[ 91 StraEn,J.A.,Electromagnetic
McGraw-Hill,NY
& London,1941,p.264
[ 61 Tesche,F.M.,
Appendix
j 2.
Appendix
the
integral,
--
where
04.2)
-V X Hb
- = -Jb , where Jb only differs
from 0 Tn the crosssections
of the wires,
D
(A.31
P'
Substitution
(A.l)
gives
I;
= ,,x*J"
dA
1).
2 = unit
XE
(B.1)
-1 = -10
J-s = ad(vxE)xu,(B.2)
51
=
-vector
d = thickness
to the
shell,
of the
shell,
of the shell.
= ,D +agb/Ib dA = /D$adA/]Dl
P
P
P
D = cross-section
of p-th
P
conductor,
IDpI= area of D .
P
normal
0 = conductivity
Ar,At
where
in a spherical
shell
B. Current
due to a magnetic dipole
source inside
Xg2-
-2-v XH
(A.1)
(EaxHb)dA.
P3
Here we consider
the configuration
of Fig.3.
The currents
induced in the
spherical
shell follow
from the boundary
condition
at the shell.
For thin conhave the following
ducting
shells,we
conditions
on the tangential
fields
(cf .[ 11 1,
description
A. Low-frequency
of electromagnetic
fields
Here we consider
92
it
and
resp.
(B.3)
(B.4)'
transmis-
follows
inunedi-
At = 1 /[
1 + do/(Y+-Y-)I
03.5)
JT
-s = da/[
1 + da/(Y+-Y-)]
gT.
(~.6)
and
Appendix
C. Derivation
of an alternative
expression
for
the contribution
of the
shield.
- 514
gR-E_RX[ET])dA. (C.l)
The field in the receiving state is
again decomposed as in (3.2). Then,
a decomposition of the source vector
follows,
[ V] = [ vloadl
+ [ V ] ,
-jaDx-
[ I]=
(C.2)
([ET1
~sc-~Sc~~~Tl
)dA,
I, ([ET]~c-~sc*[J_Tl)dV.
(C-6)
_ where
.
(Eln + Es').
(C.7)
[ Vl
Substitution of (C.7) into (C.6) yields,
The first term in(C.2) given by (C.3)
is interpreted as the voltage source
vector induced in the terminations of
the system. This term is assumed to be
negligible compared to the second term
representing the system and the shield.
[ Vl=jD
[zTl
*gin
dv.
(C.8)
- 515
93
P4
FIELD lJONUl!WORHfTY
RBDWCTIOl4
IRSIDE
A SPHERICAL
HAOXETICSHISLD
V.A.ltorosov,lV.V.Rodionova,
Institute
of Radioengineering
& Blecrtronice
inamdtoetatlo
emeider.
of an external
r , ,!I -spherical
coordinaterr,PnlcosB)the Leeendre polynomials, *) Equation
(1) holde e.g. in oaee of a magnetic
dipole when the dipole moment vector
ir in the O-5 direction and the dipole
ia itself
at a distanoe aa from the
ori
n*
shield ia mede of
$ e multllamellar
a ferromagnetic
materiel with a hl@
pammbility
- 516
=jR,R:;,d:dMF (6)
where "n" and "t" are indexes of norma1 and tangential directions to the
spherical surface at the point.
The final result for relative attenuation of the n-th spatial mode by
such a shield
i.$
sZ2_ -4.%+I Rotd n-,-r/-mt
S, 3 M+l) c Ro
(7)
which is correct when
(8)
$@$>>I,
nt
Ra=Ro-+d .
It fdilows from (7) that the coefficients of the nonuniform component tend
to zero as&/Ut>>$b,this
tendency being
stronger with increasing mode number
(supposing that (8) is correct).The
desired increase of field homogeneity
of the field within the enclosure is
thus aohieved.
An example.
The nonuniformity of the field inside the magnetic shield made of "isotropic" (M$Ln=&)
and "anisotropic"
(Jut=&-/2,
&*I) material was calculated for the case of an interfering
dipole'at a distance a=Q2dfrom $hc
origin,when d/Ra%10-2,Ko=q=10
.
It is shown that the nonuniformity of
the interfering field4 HPJ/fiIO) lies
below 5% inside the whole enclosure of
anisotropic shield.At the se.mctime for
the isotropic shield a 12% nonuniformity was found for r=O,l.%O .
Conclusion.
It is shown that a passive sphcrical magnetic shield permits a considerable reduction of the relative
nonuniformity of an interfering magnetic field inside the shield.
References.
l.WI$liamson S.J. et al.Biomagnetism
n "Superconductor Applications:
SQUIDS and MachineP,ed.by Schwartz
B.B.,Foner S.,Plenum J?ress,N.Y.,1977/
2.Kaden H.Wirbelstrome und Schirmung
in dcr Nachrichtentcchnic (in German),2nd ed.Berlin:Springer (1959).
3.Cohen D.Rev.de Phys.Appl.,5,53-58,
(fev.1970).
- 517
94P5
Abstract
A very efficient formulation for the problem of a bundle of straight wiers in a rectangular cavity is presented. Any number of wires
in the bundle can be excited and/or terminated
by arbitrary loads and voltages at each end.
The excitation is assumed to be in the form of
a unit voltage source at the point of entry of
the wire in the cavity. The currents in all
bundle wires and the input impedances of all
excited wires are calculated.
Introduction
When aircraft, ships or shielded enclosures are subjected to intense electromagnetic
radiation, such as that of an EMP pulse, it is
well known that very large currents, of the
order of thousands of Amperes, can appear on
cables or cable bundles that interconnect
equipment inside such enclosures. It has also
been observed that if one cable in a bundle is
excited it will excite all others propagating
energy everywhere the bundle goes. If these
cables carry power or data for computer equipment, even small currents can cause irreparable damage.
It is therefore important to study the
mechanism by which the enclosure is penetrated and how the cable coupling occurs so that
ways may be devised to eliminate or attenuate
the induced currents.
Usually the penetration occurs because
small portions of power cables are left unshielded or because they are connected to a
sensor that cannot be shielded such as a nav.,gation light or antenna. The prediction of
this coupling and the calculation of the voltage at the entry point of the enclosure can be
done by using the many available computer
programs for wire coupling. In this paper we
will be concerned primarily with the prediction of the current in a cable inside an enclosure, and the coupling to other cables in
the same bundle, once the voltage at the entry
point is known.
Wire bundles usually run through several
compartments of the enclosure as shown in
Fig. la, where the compartments are assumed
to be rectangular cavities. This problem can
(1)
y Btcos T
v=o
i=1,2
(2)
'
(*
+ k2)Ax
E, = -z---JWEo ax2
(3)
(V2+k2)Ex=
f &- d(y--bi)c+.ci)
i=l 0
v=o
B;cosTx&(y-bi)d(z-ci)(4)
5
i=l v=o
V(V*A)
jwvo
A + -LjWEo
(5)
(7)
Ed=
mIo
nI,prl
*mnp
cos Ex
a
sin=ysin=s
b
c
(8)
mnn
(y)2}
1 Bisin 7
bc(k2-E2 )WEo i=l
mnP
bisin y
ci
(9)
where
KLp
= (?)2+
(7)2+
($)2
(10)
(11)
where ii is the unit normal vector on the surface of the wire, Etot is the total electric
field and g(x) is the surface wire impedance.
In view of the assumptions made earlier, Eq.
(11) reduces to
E
- &'(x)Ii(x)
= - ETan
i=1,2
(12)
in
where Etan is the tangential component of the
impressed electric field.
Let us define a testing function of the
following form
wuz+cos
y ;.
i=l
(V2+k2)Ax=-
(6)
j4tK2 -
B;cos f
518
+ 6(y-yi)
{CE;(Y-Yi-r)+6(y-yi+r)16(z-zi)
[b(z-zi-r) + S(z-zi+r>l
(13)
B1
B2
V1
(14)
V2
References
or
..
ZB = V
[ll
[2]
(15)
El
Y
(16)
b)
2,
"2
2L2
"3
"1
2Ll
C)
ZO:!
Cl\
___ ___
WY
1117i
, 2
II
/,
1'
L
"1
"2
Numerical Results
A few numerical calculations are shown in
Figs. 4 to 9. All cavities are rectangular
and have x,y,z dimensions of 3,4,5 m respectively. Figures 4 and 5 show two wires of
diameter 0.001 m at locations (x, 1.5, 2.0)
and x, 2.5, 3). In both figures wire 1 is
excited at x-3 m by V=l volt and wire 2 is
either connected to the cavity wall or left
open. Note that when open the parasite wire
current is of the same magnitude of the excited even though they are about 1.5 m apart.
Figures 6 and 7 show three parallel wires half
a meter apart. When wire 1 is excited, due to
symmetry wires 2 and 3 have the same current.
When wire 3 is fed, as in Fig. 7, the symmetry
is broken and wires 1 and 2 have different currents. In these two examples the wires not fed
were shorted to the cavity walls. Figures 8
and 9 show a similar situation but for a bundle
of five wires. The wires not fed are shorted
to the walls. The induced currents are about
five to six times smaller. This is still significant taking into consideration that the
bundle diameter is one meter.
"1
- 520
=:
.oo .
(x10-']
LENGTH
IM
.oo
LENGTH
METERS
IN
METERS
Figs.
4 and 5 - Current magnitude for two parallel wires in a rectangular cavity
(3,4,5 m>. F=60 MHZ, 1000 cavity modes, 10 Fourier coefficients, for different
parasite wire termination.
::
(x10-)
.oo
LENGTH
IN
METERS
(X10-1)
LENGTH
IN
METERS
Figs. 6 and 7 - Current magnitude for three parallel wires. Same conditons of
Figs. 4 and 5. Different wires fed. Parasite wires shorted.
LENGTH
IN
METERS
- 521
95
P6
$"?&g
fine
I
1 cd)
,,,,------a#J-----
Introduction
_---The usual method for the measurement of
transfer impedance and admittance of coaxial
cables uses two propagation lines : a disturbing line and the cable under test. In most
cases, the disturbing line is made by a hollow tube which acts as an outer concentric
conductor, the inner conductor being the cable shield itself. This disturbing line is
driven at one end and the transfer parameters
are deduced from the voltages appearing at
each end of the coaxial cable.
At low frequency, thus when the cable length is much smaller than the wavelength, the
transfer parameters are easily determined
from the measurements. However, if the frequency increases, the propagation along the
line cannot be neglected. We shall see on an
example that corrections based on a mathematical analysis does not allow to get results
with a high degree of confidence for frequencies above about 100 MHz. The only solution
is to decrease the cable length but putting a
cable few centimeters long in a usual bench
is not realistic.
We propose a new method of measurement badiscontinuised on the behavior of shield
ties. The coaxial cable has, as usually, a
length of about Im. An additional homogeneous
shield (copper adhesive tape) is added but it
remains a small length of the braid which can
be exposed to the disturbing field. This cable
is then put in a hollow concentric tube such
that the disturbing line is the same as in the
usual benches. To avoid reflection effects
due to mismatches, the line is excited by
pulses
of current with a fast rising time.
We shall describe this method and give results
in the 100 MHz-1000 MHz frequency range.
Vo(o) =
~tZt+Z~oZcdYt)Fot~o,~d,~~~dt~~Lt3~
522
As an example, the curves in Figure 2 represent their variations as a function of frequency. The velocity of the waves into the
two lines is v. = 2.10Sm/s and vd = 3.1OSm/s.
oddihnal
,Shield
I1
t
&Id
of Me
aable
~___GL.._?!~~~
-fm 2
________,,
Oscif
f0sCope
The cable under test behaves now as a wellshielded cable (perfect shield at high frequency) except along a small discontinuity.
To avoid to match the disturbing line, measurements are made in the time domain with pulses of current such that its rising time is
much smaller than the time of propagation
along the line. The additional shield being
very effective, the disturbing voltages appearing at both ends of the coaxial cable are due
to the penetration through the braid of length
6. This length must be chosen so that the
"low frequency" approximation previously described, can be applied. This leads to a length
of few centimeters (3 cm to 5 cm).
Signals processing
To simplify the explanation, let us assume
that the transfer impedance behaves as an
inductance L . In this case, the effect of the
braid appearE during the transition time of
the disturbing current. The shape of the various signals are given in Figure 4 if the
discontinuity is situated in the middle of
the cable.
We note that the effect of the shield discontinuity occurs at a time 0 /2 + Qd/2 after
the beginning of the pulse of'current where
So and 8d are the durations of propagation
along the entire disturbing and coaxial lines.
The effect of the discontinuity on the voltages V (0) and V (L) corresponds to the derivative xf the curgent. Then they are reflections of the disturbing current at the end of
the line which give rise to oscillations of
the measured voltages.
TO
process these signals, we first make a
shift in the time domain such that all the
signals appear at the same time. (correction
of the time of propagation). Then the signals
are "cleaned" to eliminate all the reflection
effects after the significant response. Before
applying Fast Fourier Transform procedures,
there is a convolution of the signals (almost
Id(O
t))
by the Nicholson Transform
Method 141.
523
95
Low @ical
Cowyage
P6
ratio
--
~----_----_--
0-
OfLf
cbvercye
mhb
524
Conclusion
Measurement of the transfer impedance of
coaxial cables above 100 MHz is not easy if
the propagation along the lines cannot be neglected. We have shown that the usual setup
made by the cable under test and a concentric
tube can be used if only a small part of the
cable is exposed to the disturbing field.
Furthermore the approach in time domain allows to avoid to match the disturbing line.
_/t
--------References
III
121Demoulin,
Fig.8: Phase angle of the transfer impedance
for two cables
Limits of the method
As it has been previously outlined, the
length of the discontinuity must be small
enough so that the electromagnetic field is
nearly uniform along it. On an other hand,
this discontinuity must characterize the
braid and thus it must have a value of at
least few centimeters. A compromise between
these two assuptions leads to a discontinuity
of 3cm to 5cm long. The rising time of the
pulse of current is chased to about 400 ps.
In this case,
the upper limit of frequency
is between 1 and 2 GHz. However the behavior
of the cable for frequencies smaller than
1000 MHz is sufficent for nearly all the
applications.
- 525
MAGNETIC
OF
TWISTED
TO
MULTICORE
TWISTED
AND
AG, Power
Erlangen,
The following
means can
reduce
the interference
runs :
be used to
along cable
- Connecting
cal paths
to
- Using
screened
- Separation
different
cores
conducting
the
points
are
dealt
with
1. Voltage
induced
in a twisted
twowire line
by the field
of an untwisted
two-wire
line
2.
Magnetic
multicore
stray
cable
field
of
a twisted,
3. Current
induced
in a rectangular
loop by the field
of a twisted,
multicore
cable
4. Voltage
wire line
multicore
THEIR
TWO-WIRE
COUPLING
LINES
Gonschorek
and Automation
Republic
of
Group
Germany
Introduction
The simplest
way of estimating
the worst case interference
of a
constant
magnetic
field
on a twisted
two-wire
line
is to consider
an
effected
area formed by a half
length
of twist.
As shown in Fig.
1 the vector
of
the area influenced
by the magnetic
field
changes
its direction
every
half
twist
length.
This is indicated
in the figure
by a plus and a minus
sign.
S
= length
RO = core
of
twist
radius
cables
AND
symmetri-
of cables
conducting
signal
and power levels
- Twisting
of
same signal
CABLES
Federal
Knowledge
of the active
and passive
interference
behaviour
of the devices
and components
is necessary
in order
to be able to analyze
the EMC of
a system.
Quantitative
values
regarding
the interference
radiation
of the
cables
interconnecting
the devices
as well as the interference
coupling
into these
cables
is necessary,
signal
FIELDS
Engineering
The electromagnetic
compatibility
(EMC) between
power and electronic
systems
is becoming
increasingly
difficult
due to the increasing
power
ratings
on one hand and the reduced
signal
levels
and increasing
packaging
density
on the other.
the
STRAY
NON-TWISTED
K.H.
Siemens
96w
induced
in a twisted
twoby the field
of a twisted,
cable
Fig.
1: Schematic
representation
of a twisted
two-wire
line
maximum induced
is
(1)
open-circuit
= w.B*RO.S.
The effects
of large
changes
in the
magnetic
stray
field,
such occur
in the fields
of twisted
cables,
can
at present
be only inadequately
estimated. To improve this unsatisfactory
situation
this
paper deals
in detail
with twisted
lines.
Simple
formula
are derived
for analyzing
the interference
effects.
(21
Voltage
induced
in a twisted
twowire line
by the field
of a nontwisted
two-wire
line
The arrangement
in Fig.
2.
studied
is
526
The resulting
a function
of
parallel
path
shown
.04
0.00
I
Fig.
2:
IT
T--
3:
---!+ 1
r-d 1 *
i r+d
>> d, this
equation
as follows:
spacings
r
be simplified
=
po.
&.G
d2
0
F
M = 37.4
(3)
The coupled
r2
the
for
value of
spacings
.lOo%.
voltage
2d.RO.S
(5)
i-2
*
it was assumed that
Furthermore,
the magnetic
flux density
in the
influenced
area remains
constant
and is equal to the value along
the
centre
axis.
i
= uo . f.1
2.
pH .
voltage
w.1.M
is
given
= 2.35
uV .
by
exact
solution
in (5) is
F = 10 dB .
The approximation
(5) can be used for
all
practical
cases
as described
above.
Extending
equation
(5) by a correction
factor
k=0.5 derived
from Fig.
3
reduces
the error
to
F = 4 dB .
Magnetic
,
the coupled
r >> d is
.20
x [ml
= 10 kHz, d = .5 cm,
RO = 3 mm, S = 20 cm
The error
between the
and the approximation
.is
In this
case the error
between the
exact
solution
(3) and the approx.
is proportional
to the
solution
(4
ratio
(d/r) 4 :
F=
.i2
Mutual inductance
for the
arrangement
shown in Fig.
x = Length of the parallel
path.
ui
BZ
.OS
I q 1 A, f
r = 10 cm,
The magnetic
flux density
of the
non-twisted
cable
for field
points
in the xy-plane
is given
by the
equation
For
can
Fig.
Arrangement
of a non-twisted
pair of wires
causing
interference
in a twisted
pair
Bz = po+*
mutual inductance
as
the length
of the
is shown in Fig.
3.
stray
field
of
multi-core
cable
a twisted,
The magnetic
flux density
of a
conductor
of finite
length
in space
is given
by the equation
with
the
transformation
ratios
(7)
a
E _
/q-To/
(8)
/(;+-~o,x(?l-Fo~/
_______
(9)
/F1-iro/
y=
(??-Fo)* F1-Fo
(10)
=x3
detailed
96
527 -
~7
with
BXI
(Px=atan BXR
(15)
(16)
BY1
AY2 = BYR2tBY12 , cPy=atan BYR
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
AX2=BXR2+BX12,
AZ2 =BzR2tBz12,
Cp
=atan
Z
s
6
X4+Az4t2.K2*AZ2*cos(~K-2~z-
;)
4:
Fig.
Geometry
equation
used
(6)
for
AX2.sin(2$t
deriving
(PX=atan
The magnetic
stray
field
of One core
of a twisted
cable
is obtained
approximately
by representing
the core by
a polygon
and applying
equation
(6)
to each side of this
polygon.
The
representation
of one turn of a core
by 12 straight
lines
has proved
to
be sufficiently
accurate,
Considering
these
bases,
the treatment
of multicore
cables
becomes only a programming
problem.
A current
I. in a wire or in a core
having
amprttude
Ii and phase angle
can be represented
by the equation
Ii
This
flux
= Ii*(cos
current
density
vi+
Ii
Tf
j -
generates
Bi=BXi.~xBYi.b
sin
(11)
(Pi).
a magnetic
+BZ..~
-1
i,
Pi
T)tAY2*sin
(21)
(22)
(2%+5)
(23)
(12)
(12) has
to equation
If a system contains
a number (N) of
wires
or cores
carrying
currents
of
different
amplitudes
and phase angles,
the total
magnetic
flux density
is
given
by the vectorial,
phase-correct
addition
of the individual
components.
Fig.
i?
-ges=
+(BYicos
vi+j*BYi.sin
= (BXR+j+BXI)$
qi)a
+ (BYR+j*BYI)p
at
one
from
(AX2+AY2+AZ2+L2)
values
the
The curve
is harmonic
for x = O! the
field
strength
decreases
approximately
in inverse
proportion
to the square
of the spacing.
field
the
1
of
Magnet ic flux density
a 10 m long twisted
cable,
carrying
a current
of 1 A,
on field
point
lines
perpendicular
to the cable
axe,
Parameter
x is the axial
distance
from one cable
end
+ (BZR+j-BZI) .<
The maximum amplitude
point
can be calculated
formula
5:
(14)
cable.
Thereafter,
the field
to a local
maximum and then
ly approaches
zero.
528 -
increases
continuous-
A better
picture
of the magnetic
flux
density
is obtained
by a three
dimensional
representation
(Fig.
6).
In Fig.
6, the display
range in the
axial
direction
is from x = -1 m
to x
5 m and in radial
direction
from r = .I to r = 6.1 m.
q
Fig.
7:
Magnetic
flux density
NYM 4 x 4 cable
Display
range:
x = -1 m to 5 m
1 m to 6.1 m
r=.
for
of the twisted
two-wire
line.
This
curve runs above all
the curves
of
the twisted
line.
Fig.
6:
Magnetic
flux density
for
a twisted
two-wire
line;
Display
range:
x = -1mtox=5m
1 m to r = 6.1 m
r=.
both
From these
figures
one
that the maximum fields
the ends of the lines.
lines
is
Thus formulas
(3) and (4) can be used
for a worst case estimation
of the
magnetic
stray
field
of a twisted
cable,
replacing
d by RO.
Current
1 00
Here
example
induced
multicore
in a rectangular
cable
again,
we shall
from /2/.
consider
It is required
to calculate
the current in the sheath
of a twisted
cable
NYKY 3 x 185195 which is laid with
a spacing
b above a metallic
cable
tray and
whose sheath
is connected
regularly
at spacings
x*to
the cable
tray.
See also Fig.
8.
l:YKY
3x 185195
\I/<R=Scm
basi-
may conclude
occur
at
Fig.
5 also
shows the magnetic
flux
density
along a non-twisted,
very
long two-wire
line
with spacing
between the cores
twice
the core radius
the
&
IKM
/////////////////////:///)////
Fig.
8:
three-phase
current
For a symmetrical,
the effective
mutual
I in the cable,
inductance
between the three
cores
and the loop formed by the cable
sheath
and the cable
tray can be
calculated
by:
-MlM2
-M1M3
-M2M;
In the
placed
obtain
loop
(25)
= W. M
*I 9
max
The current
in a closed
in Fig.
8 of this
paper
equation
loop as shown
is given
by the
i
'KM
=
f-
R2-y-w2z27
of the
R = Ohmic resistance
consisting
of the cable
and the cable
tray,
L = Self
inductance
of
(26)
'
the
loop
sheath
IKM=I.
The factor
as
the
Mmax
reduction
can
(27)
be defined
factor
The reduction
factor
k = 0.167.
The error
computer
calculation
Voltage
line
k.
(29)
nH.
is calculated
to
as compared to the
is thus negligable.
induced
in a twisted
two-wire
by the field
of a twisted,
multicore
cable
The first
example concerns
the coupling
between
two twisted
two-wire
lines.
The arrangement
is shown in
Fig.
9.
___
Fig.
The self
inductance
of the loop
is
L = 333 nH in the above example so that
the reduction
factor
becomes
k = 0.163.
'
If we neglect
the ohmic resistance
of
the loop,
which is permissible
only at
higher
frequencies
O>l
kH), we obtain
a maximum cable
sheath
current
M
- max
L
M
max = 55.5
Y
loop
(;;td2)
~7
above equation
r must be reby b/2 and d by RO. We then
the following
value
(24)
From Fig.
8 in /I/
we obtain
for
xw
.6 m, being half
the twist
length,
= 54 nH as the maximum value
M
oFathe effective
mutual inductance.
96
M max=+R).$$-.
The induced
voltage
in an open
is thus given
by the equation
529
--___________
9:
M
-
52
_-
x0=1. 5m
Arrangement
of
two-wire
lines
-__-___
X
two twisted
The influencing
(culprit)
cable
a twist
length
Sl = 1 m, a core
RI = 1 cm and a length
of 5 m.
has
radius
The influenced
(victim)
cable
has
a twist
length
S2 = 0.5 m = S1/2,
and a core radius
R2 = 1 cm.
The influenced
cable
begins
at
= 1.5 m and runs
parallel
with
a spacing
of 10 CIIJto the influencing
cable
up to x = x .
X0
for
that
of
left
= 1 kHz
maximum
530 -
induced
voltage
cable
is
Ui =
in
Mmax
0.
the
I
be used
accuracy.
influenced
2.89 PV.
in
spite
of
the
large
in-
I
.15
.20
661
[PHI 646
431
215
T
0.00
.20
.I0
0.00
.30
.40
Xf - 1.5
Fig.
10: Mutual
inductance
arrangement
shown
.50
[ml
for the
in Fig.
= p, .f
*I .=LFQ.S.
r2
(30)
The shorter
of the twist
lengths
of the two cables
is to be used
S; here S = S2. We thus obtain
i
= 12.5
for
pV.
The error
is relatively
large
(factor
4 = 12 dB). One should
not
however overlook
that we have here
assumed ideal
conditions
which exist
very rarely.
The second
example handles
the coupling
between
an electrical
cable
NYM 4 x 4
carrying
a three-phase
current
of
two-wire
line
I = 1 A and a twisted
laid
close
to it.
Referring
to Fig.
9, line
1 is the
NYM 4 x 4 cable
with a twist
length
Sl = 90 cm and a core
radius
two-wire
RI = 2.76 mm. The influenced,
line
2 with S2 = 20 cm and A2 q 1 mm
is laid
at a centre
to centre
distance
of r = IO mm from the influencing
starting
at x0 q 0.5 m.
cable,
i
From equation
of
ui
=
6.9
we obtain
pV
.5
[ml
Mutual inductance
for the
arrangement
of a twisted
NYM 4 x 4 cable
and a twisted
two-wire
line
remarks
Knowledge
of these
peripheral
ditions
add weight
to the use
approximate
formula.
conof
References
/I/
Gonschorek,
K.H.:
Numerische
Berechnung
der durch Steilstromimpulse
induzierten
Spannungen und Strijme;
Siemens
Forschungsund Entwickl .-Ber.,
Bd. 11, 1982, ppa. 235-240
/2/
Gonschorek,
K.H.:
Application
of Computers
for the Determination
of Magnetic
and Electromagnetic
Coupling;
5. Symposium on EMC, Zurich,
1983,
Sci.
Contrib.
70 M3
131
Bridges,
J.E.:
Study of LowFrequency
Fields
for Coaxial
and Twisted-Pair
Cables;
10. TRI-Service
Conference
on EMC, 1964, ppa. 475-495
a value
The error
in this
example
is 8 dB,
For a conservative
assessment
of
the magnetic
interference
between
twisted
cables
equation
(30) should
x* -
I
.25
Exact assessment
of the magnetic
stray
fields
and of the magnetic
coupling
of
twisted
lines
is only possible
by the
use of computer
programs.
Four arrangements are investigated
extensively.
The
value of computer
calculations
is however not entirely
undisputed
as the
actual
physical
condition
is not the
ideal
one which is assumed when carrying out theoretical
studies
/3/. When
twisting
the conductors
together
the
coupling
is reduced
by the compensation
effect
of opposing
field
or area
components.
The result
is almost
always
a small difference
between very large
figures
so that any manufacturing
inaccuracies
lead very quickly
to large
deviations
between
the theoretical
and
the actual
values.
The magnetic
field
of a coaxial
cable
is a good example.
I_Iv .
(30)
I
.10
An effective
method of reducing
the magnetic
coupling
between power
supply
and signal
cables
or between
signal
cables
themselves
is to twist
the cores
belonging
together.
Fig.
11 shows
the curve of the mutual
inductance
for the above arrangement.
From this,
the maximum amplitude
of the coupled
voltage
in line
2
for f = 50 Hz can be calculated
as
= 2.7
11:
Concluding
If a non-twisted
two-core
line
is
taken for the influencing
line,
the
coupled
open-circuit
voltage
can
be calculated
according
to equation
(5):
ui
Fig.
8
.05
- 531
97a1
M. Di Stefano
FS (Italian Railways)
Roma, Italy
G.L. Solbiati
SIRTI S.p.A.
Milano, Italy
Introduction
The expansion of railway traffic in Sardinia, one of the largest Italian islands led, to the "resolution
of electrifying in the 25 kV, 50 HZ ac
single phase traction system the most
important FS lines of the island.
Owing to the orographic configuration of the island, the road system covers a considerable length in
proximity to the railway network, and
therefore, the problem of the electro
magnetic compatibility ( EPIC) betwee;;
telecom cables and traction
system
takes up a great importance.
The same problem alsoarises for
signalling and telecom railway cables
which are laid inside therailwaytrack
area.
This paper shows the project
approach followed and the
results
of the project under the EMC fea
tures.
A very short description of the
calculation method for evaluating voltages and currents in a multiconductor
system, widely used in this project,
is also given in Appendix.
A preliminary analysisofthe
problem showed that a large percentage of these cables wouldhavebeen
affected by interference, with re markable effects, if no protective
measures had been taken.
Railway signalling and telecorncables, laid along thetrack.and
thus more affected by electromagnetic coupling, are expected to be:
telecom
: 46 symm. pairs : 400 km
signalling: 1200 km
From a general pointofview,
the protective measures can concern
both the induced cables andthetrac
tion line.
On the basis of economical
considerations it was considered
more suitable to look over the trac
tion system only in order to insure
the EMC with all theexisting cables
for public service, and thentolook
- 532 -
railwayline t0
be electrified
telecomoables
COAX CABLES
FOR
PUBLIC SERVICE
SYMM. 4cABms
FOR
PUBLIC SERVIGE
SIGNALLINGAND
TELECOM
RAILWAY CABLES
*I
--
60
1200
-_
60
430*
60
430
1 Schematicroute of railwaylines
and telecompubliccablesin
Sardinia
ble 1
which
pling
lines
o%$
can
Preliminary project
This stage of project was car ried out by FS (Italian Railways)in or
der to make the most proper choices foi!
the project, taking into account the
EMC with telecom cables for public ser
vice.
For this stage of project the
following assumptions were considered:
- the traction line is powered by 6
feeder stations each feeding radially line sections as far as the nearest MPSC(s);
- traction currents, for each inducing
section, are picked out in the most
severe 5 minutes, with reference to
the maximum expected traffic (fig.2).
Among the possible choices, the
533
97a1
MPSC
FS
telecom cable
FS
traction line
1,'
' 1,
+
1
&_I
11
13
12
li
lh
FS Feeder station
li train location (at time t)
Fig. 2
1 l'lj
Faction currents for two inducing section, both inducing the same telecom
cable (asan eX!%Wle).
return
contact
olassio
rails
ground
analysis
The first step of the
involved the optimization of signifi cant parameters
(conductor section, ma
terials, geometric arrangement,
...)of
the traction system for each mentioned
choice.
with autotransformers
1
feeder
25 kv
contact
line
-_______--_______-
--------wire
(retur
rails
mnmmmnnmmnmmmnmmmmmmground
led
Fig. 3
contact
line
return
wire
feeder
telecomcable
return
emf
E
wire
wire
railwayoable
Fig. 4
Geometrical
arrangementof the traction
line conductorsand of the railwaycable
electrification
system:
Definitive project
The EMC definitive project was
developed by SIRTI SpA as a member of
the TEAM Consortium to whom FS entruE
ted the project and the implementation
of the Sardinian line electrification.
The first step of the definiti
ve project consisted inevaluatingthz
measures to be taken on the traction
system in order to assure theEMCwith
the public telecom network.This phase
was developed according to the preli-
classic
withoutreturnwire
l2- classicwith returnwire
3 - with autotransformers
4- with boostertransformers
97a1
- 535
6 shows theresultsob
tained.
red;
- just the use of a return conduc tor in parallel with rails is required;
- the use of boostertransformersis
required.
The second step of the definitive project was the evaluation of the screencharacteristics
and other protective measures to
be applied to telecom and Signalling cables for railway service.
This phase was developed ontheba
sis of the traction line configuration coming from the first step.
equipped
For the sections
with booster transformerstheirmost
convenient positioning has been determined, while theb.t. characteris
tics have been chosen eventakingig
MPSC
0 FS
2C$ classic,withoutreturnwire
p.ppw 4% olassio,with returnwire
wti
35$ with boostertransformers
(4,5 km waced)
5$ with boostertransformers
(2,5km spaced)
Fig. 6
Eleotrifioation
type,as the result
of the definitiveproject
- 536 -
Conclusions
bhe
traction
approach we have
The project
followed usescalculationmethods
(Q
pendix,[5],[6])
which for their gene
rality and flexibility
prove
quite
proper and lead to detailed
choices
for the precision of the results.
preliminary
project
1
public cables
position
I
possible measures
traction side
_
Et
railway net.
configuration
alternatives
for screens
dyiGGzJ
I
railway cables
position
F/
rr
-1
actual
inducing
section
--
"(IF;\
1
I
i
i
voltage induced
on the public
cables oonduotors
I
t
eleotrification
type for each
section
i
]
!
!
STEP 1
Fig. 7
inducing
section
multi
cona,
I
induced e.m,f.
on the railway
cable sheath
I
I
reference pair:
inducing section
-induced cable
I
/----a
I
e.m.f. induced
on the railway
cables conductors
I
lengths of the
*
electrical
continuity
STEP 2
97m
- 537
in the k-th
Appendix
[J]
in a
[II, = @Jl,-blk+,+
bl,j
k=l,...,n-I
k=n
cul
k
, . . ..n-1
[H]~+
[uIki,k=l
where:
k=l
k=2 ,...,n
k-l
k=2 ,...,n
[A],=
k=l
CM1,
[M];[D\*[A$QHI,_,
k=2,... ,n
PI, the
voltage
vector
the
of the sources
viously
f (G,C,Z,Y)
section
When EMC problems are invol ved, both inducing and induced systems can be studied in one step putting them together in order to form
a "big system" which is not induced
by external sources.
But this is not always
the
best way and it is not always possible due to the limits of the compu ting system.
When some alternatives to the
induced system must be studied for a
given condition of the inducing one,
it is better to split up the studyin
two Steps separately applied in series to the inducing and the induced
systems: the condition for
this
is
that the effects from theinducedsys
tern on the inducing one are nq.ligi=
ble.
When the induced systemis far
enough from the inducing one , the
first step ends with the calculation
of the inducing current in every set
tion, as the sum of the currents i;i
the inducing conductors (from this,
the emf induced on the induced system can then be evaluated).
When the induced systemis clo
se to the inducing one, but is quit;
small compared to it, the first step
ends with the evaluation of the emf
induced on the induced system.
In both case the firststepon
ly studies the inducing system, not
induced by external sources: the second step is the study of the indu ted system, induced by the previous
one.
SyS-
of the sys-
of the sources
538 -
References
PI
Cd
concerning
the
CCITT-Directives
protectionoftelecommunication
li
effects
harmful
nes against the
from electricity line - ITU-1963
(1974-1978)
- Impostazione
generale
de1
calcolo
elettrico
delle linee di contatto della tra
zione a corrente alternata - IngZ
gneria Ferroviaria
- n. 8 - 5
gosto 1983
Dl
c51
ISI
effects
Italy - Evaluation of the
caused by the electromagnetic
coupling between power lines and tele
communication
lines - CCITT Contrz
bution Corn. V n. 42 - Period 19771980
currents in a
and
Numerical
multiconductor
system .
solution - CCITT Contribution Corn.
Vn.
29 - Period 1981-1984
_.
--
539
98
02
1. Object
Manufacturers and users of elCtriCa1
engineering products encounter more
and more the problems presented by
an electromagnetically polluted
environment; in other words, with
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
problems - all the more as it is
becoming widely appreciated that the
quality of a product is extensively
determined by its electromagnetic
compatibility characteristics. The
required standard quality can only
be obtained by EMC testing during
'the design stage as well as during
the final inspection of a product.
In order to obtain meaningful
results from an EMC test, the tester
must possess indepth knowledge of
the prevalent interference sources,
the coupling links and the test setup. Some basic facts were already explained in references /l/&/2/.
Fig. 1
Schematic diagram
EMC test set-up
of an
Coupling elements
r-bwl
A8301 8
Fig. 2
Coupling elements
Varistors
Gas discharge tubes
Bipolar diodes
Capacitors
.
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
inductive-coupling in series
coup11ng
Common Mode
system
Radiated coupling
Radiated coupling
S/S
WE
Common Mode
system
Differential
II
System
Capacitive,
Coupling
Mode
inductive
Differential Mode
RC
Common
Differential Mod
system
II
General transformer
Interferencesource
H/E field
Coupling
20 log
ug
E/H
Interference
H/F field
Coupling
SOUICC
20
log
fix
Differential
node EM2
Cowling
1.
2.
I
crease
circuit
inrredonce
3.
raduction
Red.!.
co&n.~
area
Cou~llng r.duction
1. Reduce pacing
2. Twist cable,
3. SCrewI parsu.1
conductors
I
Reduce cowlinq
Couvlins
area
Select conductor,
I. Select height Over earth
plate (stray capacitance
8. Spaca between conductor,
1.
t
ncrcase
3.
wscin,7
2.
Split
COINIIO
mOde EnI
reduction
connect
primary
screen
to
winding
Differential
node EMI
CDnnsct acreen t0 e*rfl
mode EN2
Optc.COpler
I
cOuDlinq
CaPacitance
90
Fig. 5
itCtUAtin9
And
monitoring device
Measuringinstrument
02
8
IF-
0,
rest specimen
uI
power
signal
generator
MAtChin
Interference
network
base
coil vindiws
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Erroneous design
of the filtering
element in act.
with Fig. 1
Correct design of
the filtering element
EUT
Filter
Mains
Fig. 8
principle diagram
superposition of current
impulses
Burst generator
type PB 4
Coupling/filter
element FP 16/3-l
Coupling Clamp
IP 4
1 to 300 MHz
Frequency range:
Fig. 8
Ph
MEAll
computer
RS 232
l-
Fig. 10
Pfinter
Fig. 11
time domain
Fig. 14
Fig. 12
frequency range
Fig. 14
Over a length of
1 m the interference transients
are coupled into
the tested data
lines.
Fig. 13
coupling clamp Z = 50 n
Fig. 15
Block Diagram
- 544 References:
Fig. 16
/l/
Interference generated by switching operations and its simulation; Rodewald, Kunkel, Lutz
IEEE/EMC Symp. Tokyo, 1984
/2/
/3/
/4/
/5/
IEEE 587.1
/6/
/7/
Filter behaviour
Filter attenuation
Coupling
545
CONTROL
99
03
CONVERTERS
FRANZ C. ZACH
Institut
phase conAbstract
- Application of conventional
trolled
power electronic
circuits
causes reduced
power factor
and increased
harmonic
content in
the electric
mains. Therefore,
a new method has
been investigated
here in order to eliminate
to a
large extent these effects mentioned.
The optimization objective
has been to minimize
the rms
harmonics
current
content
in the mains while
achieving
a power factor
of one. It should be
pointed out that the problems treated here are in
the lower frequency
range as most important for
EMC problems concerned with influencing
the electric mains. The method used has been found to
have a duality with PWM (pulse width modulated)
inverters:
the voltage patterns
for PWM inverters
are governed by the same switching patterns and
control laws as the current
patterns
for the (improved) phase controlled circuits. The improvement
requires switching
devices having a turn-off capability.
While this formerly did require thyristors
commutation
circuits,
with
force
today
this
feature
is easily
implemented
by using power
transistors
or GTOs (gate turn-off
devices). The
control
laws for minimizing
the rms harmonics
current contents in the mains, the circuits and the
results are shown in the paper.
Introduction
The application
of power electronic
circuits
connected
to the mains (such as line commutated
rectifiers
with phase control) is connected
with introducing
current
harmonics
and reduced power
factor in the mains. These effects lead to strict
regulations,
especially
in European
countries.
Corresponding
codes are, e.g., EN 50.006, as one
major
guideline
to be observed.
Furthermore,
various electric
utility companies have introduced
their own standards, limiting the use of line commutated circuits without special permits usually to
very low levels (typically
to a few kW, in some
cases even below 1 kW), These reasons make it
almost mandatory
to look for methods to improve
the power factor and the harmonic content
associated with power electronic
circuits connected to
the electric mains. A very promising method is the
so-called pulse-time-control
[l, 31. This method basically adds force commutation
to line commutation, as will be shown later in detail. Since the advent of power transistors
this so-called
force
commutation
does not require any additional devices as was the case formerly when thyristors had
to be used. We also just can say that the switching
devices are assumed to be of the gate turn-off
type (i.e. transistors,
GTOs etc). Whereas the exact
elimination
of lower order harmonics as shown in
[ 1, 31 leads to an increase of the remaining harmonics, the method used here is based on the minimization of the overall current
harmonic contents.
(Here - as in [1, 3] - the power factor achieved
is unity.) The method of [I, 31 is limited to a restricted
load voltage region (where the restriction
is the more severe the more harmonics are to be
eliminated).
Other methods have been proposed in the literature in the last few years. They are based, e.g.,
on the subharmonic
oscillation
method [8]. This
method does not allow a rigorous
optimization
because the control is generated
by intersections
of a sine wave and a triangular
wave without the
basic possibility
of freely adjusting
the switching
instants.
A more sophisticated
method, basically
related
to the method given in [4, 71 and also
applied here, has been proposed in [9, IO]. The
merit of these papers is the discussion of filter
sizes (both on the supply and on the load side).
However, the control angles are fixed values, basically not allowing to control the load voltage
mean value U, and the line current fundamental
$1 in order to control the energy transfer just by
c angmg the control angles. With the method of
[9, ib] application
of two rectifiers
operating out
of phase would be required which is recommended
for higher power applications
only.
The new method proposed here does not have
such limitations
because the control angles can be
adjusted
according
to the Ud and iR1 required.
be seen
,h,s;es~;;n~tween
.
R.
Fig.
546
1.
uI
Fig.
Transistorized
3.
trolled
rectifier
time control.
three
circuit
a
wt
b
wt
*
wt
Fig. 2.
Jo-t-
-c
of Fig. 1.
Fig. 4.
Electric
variables
of Fig. 3.
making
current
Control
account,
considerations
547 -
inevitable.
5-
-.
.
contents
Fig. 5. Transistorized
(I)
4ud
(1 - 2cos 39
a3 =v
4ud
harmonic
is used:
Application
to Controlled
circuit.
Rectifiers
(2)
(3)
5n
4ud
an = x
(1 - 2cos no1 + 2~0s no2 - 2~0s no13),
with all even order harmonics
inverter
(4)
to be zero.
The optimization
approach now to be followed
for the PWM inverters
would be to calculate the
inverter output current based upon the voltage expressions given above and based upon the particular
load. As mentioned, the load to be used here would
be purely ohmic because
then the line current
patterns
of Fig. 4 have the same characteristic
shape as the patterns of Fig. 6.
(5)
The line to line voltage can be easily determined: due to the phase shift of 120 between
ulo and u20, we receive
Q12 \/;10 .
(6)
For the following considerations
the duality
of the two circuits
considered
is of advantage:
the line current
peak PR is easily determined
by
starting
with pulse patterns
as shown for u,~.
If we assume that a. pulse pattern
equal to that
for u12 in Fig. 6 is introduced
for transistors
Tl, T4 in Fig. 3 we receive Fig. 7a. This pulse
pattern
IS realized
by appropriate
turn-on
and
turn-off
of the transistors.
Then we assume
the same pulse patterns
for the other transistor
pairs T3, T6 and T5, T2.
load is
tal P
state 5
output
PRl =flal
(7)
because the pulse pattern of iR of the controlled
rectifier
is the same as the line to line voltage of
the PWM inverter. Here,
a,
Fig.
6.
of
(a)
(b)
Output voltage
Fig. 5.
for C( - 0
for a11 f 0
patterns
for
the
circuit
4Icl(1
=y
(8)
iR3n
and
for all
n=l, 2, 3, . . . . .
(9)
Rk = fiak
(with
n = 1,2,3,
(I 0)
. .. . .).
switching
leading
angles
to the optimization
of
has
to minimize
1,2,3
PH = C al
548
(I 5)
66
;I
I,
(11)
k=5,7,11,13,17,19
,.....
with ak taken from Eqs. (1) - (4), where ud is replaced by Id. The sum does not contain
harmonics
with the order
3 and multiples
thereof.
This is
due to the generating
principle:
as explained
before, the current
pulse patterns
in the transistor
pairs are chosen
such that they are the same as
for the line to line voltages
of PWM inverters.
These
in turn
are
generated
by two
voltages
(u
and ~20) having a phase shift of 120 with
re@ect
to each
other.
Because
u12 = uIo
all harmonics
k=3.n;
n=1,2,3,
. . . . . cancel.
u20,
Fig.
7.
Current
waveforms
for the rectifier
with
the new control
scheme.
iR, is, iT, . . . . . waveforms ang,es
as for
tro,
are u?,z,;;
Fig. 6a (the same con-
Fig.
8.
As Fig. 7, but
than used in Fig. 6.
2<
3<
-rr/2
(12)
has to be observed.
For optimization
purposes,
it
geous
at first
to select
al
which
Eq. (1) ) to
is advantaleads
(with
I - aI
coso
3-
---
cos 1 + cos 2.
(13)
for
other
control
angles
549
solutions
given in Figs. 9 and 10 show about the
region
0 6
same
results
for PH for the entire
al rel Q I. Either one of these solutions
can be recommended.
The solution
shown in Fig. 11 leads to
spectra
somewhat
higher
PH. The line current
corresponding
to the solution
of Fig. 9 for a1 re, 2
0.5 are shown in Fig. 14 in comparison
to the conventional
phase control.
__
99
the first
alternative
is to
let
ulo
have
a3
a positive
treated
pulse
trol)
angles,
patterns
certainly
with three
a
also
switching
(conhigher
number
The difference
between
Figs. 12 and 13 lies
in the modulation
sign. This means that the same
fundamental
can
be
generated
by two
pulse
patterns
being
dual with respect
to each other:
1
a
Fig.
Basic principle
of a three
dimensional
12.
representation
of PH versus a , a 2 fqr al =
of
in
Fig.
30
9.
Control
anglesai
80
90 i
harmonic
content minimization.
al rel = al / (414 /71)
(14)
al re
II
Pk
Fig.
a:
additional
solu-
&
ak rt :I
Fig.
10.
30
As Fig.
80
60
a second
9, but showing
Ii
_____
I
I0
conventional
control
new optimal
phase
control
9O cli
solution.
at
30
Fig.
11.
As Figs.
solution.
9 and
60
10, but
90 cli
showing
a third
11
a k
550
is applicable.
Because there is no basic difference
and because there would not be any three dimensional
representation
possible,
such cases
are
omitted here. How the procedure would be can be
seen from PWM inverter
drive optimizations
as
performed in [4].
The practical
realization
can be easily performed as shown in [l], where also the line filter
dimensioning
is discussed.
The line filter Will be
much less involved with this new type of COntrOL
[31
ZACH,
tronics).
II41
[51
[61
of Influences on
ZACH, F.C.: Minimization
the Mains for Line Commutated
Converters
the F#se-TimeTControl.
Proceedings
of
by
International
Power Electronics
and
Motorcon
Conference.
Geneva,
Switzerland,
September 13 - 15, 1983.
[7Li
ZACH, F.C. and F. THIEL: Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Inverters for Efficiency
Optimal
Control of AC Drives - Switching
Angles and
Ef iciency/Loss
Profiles.
Proceedings
of the
3t-6 IFAC Symposium
on Control in Power
Electronics
and Electrical
Drives. Lausanne,
Switzerland,
September
12 14, 1983.
[81
KATAOKA,
T., K. MIZU.MACHI and
S.
MIYAIRI: A Pulsewidth Controlled
AC-to-DC
Converter
to Improve
Power
Factor
and
Waveform of AC Line Current.
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications,
vol. IA-15,
no. 6, pp. 670 - 675, November/December
1979.
[91
ZIOGAS, P.D., Y.-G. KANG and V.R. STEFANOVIC: PWM Control Techniques
for Rectifier Filter Minimization.
Conference
Record
1984 Power Electronics
Specialists
Conference. Gaithersburg
/ Washington,
June 18 21, 1984.
Conclusions
It has been shown that
the control
of
the transistors
of a three-phase
controlled rectifier
bridge is best performed
as for PWM inverters.
This means that the pulse patterns of the currents
in the controlled
rectifier
are the same as the
pulse patterns
of PWM inverter
output voltages.
This further
means that the basic principles and
relationships
of PWM inverter
output voltage control also can be applied
here.
One essential
feature is that the overall harmonic content of the
line current is minimized.
This leads to realizable
solutions for the entire region of line current fundamentals
between
0 and its maximum.
(This is
opposed to elimination
of only a few selected
lower
order
harmonics
(while
increasing
the
remaining
harmonics)
which would lead to unrealizable
solutions in many cases.) The resulting
control law is especially easily realizable
when the
new high current
power transistors
or GTOs are
used in controlled
rectifier
bridges. The method
should gain importance
in all the countries
where
the application
of conventional
controlled
rectifiers so far has been highly restricted
by regulations.
The new method
avoids
power
factor
reduction
in the mains and reduces the harmonics
content.
The reduction can be further improved if
more than three control angles are applied. With
this method
it is certainly
possible
to meet
the standards
and regulations
determining
the
upper limits of line current
harmonics
generated
by controlled
rectifiers
connected
to the mains.
References
[l]
[2]
LlOl ZIOGAS, P.D., Y.-G. KANG and V.R. STEFANOVIC: Optimum System Design of a ThreePhase PWM Rectifier-Inverter
Type Frequency Changer. Conference
Record 1984 Annual
Meeting IEEE Industry Applications
Society.
Chicago, Sept. 30 - Oct. 4, 1984.
011
BUECHNER,
P.:
Stromrichter-Netzrilckwirkungen
und ihre Beherrschung.
Leipzig:
VEB Deutscher Verlag fiir Grundstoffindustrie.
1982.
- 551
100
Q4
Sack,
H. Schmeer
Hochschule
der Bundeswehr
Miinchen
Elektrotechnik
Fachbereich
Elektronik
Institut
4 Federal
Republic
of Germany
Neubiberg,
100
ABSTRACT
dBoJ/)
The conducted
emission
of radio
frequency
interference
(RFI) voltage
by
small commutator
motors
is investigated,
with emphasis
on permanent-magnet
DC
The current
commutation
in the
motors.
armature
coils
is identified
as the main
source
of RF1 generation.
Therefore,
commutation
theory
is briefly
reviewed
with regard
to the features
of small
It is shown that two types
of
motors.
commutation-dependent
voltage
peaks can
An RF-domain equivabe distinguished.
lent circuit
of the motor is presented
which models the influence
of the distributed
inductance
and capacitance
of
the motor winding
on the emitted
RF1
spectrum.
By combining
the results
of
commutation
analysis
and the RF-domain
model of the motor,
a computer
program
for simulating
the conducted
RF1 voltage
emission
of permanent-magnet
DC motors
is obtained.
Some computed RF1 spectra
in the frequency
range 0.1-100
MHz are
compared
with corresponding
measured
results.
Input data requirements
and limits of applicability
of the computed
simulation
are discussed.
1.
1.1
Generation
INTRODUCTION
mechanisms,
problems
commutator
motors
emit a broadband
RF1 spectrum
(Fig.11,
due to voltage
peaks which are produced
by two mechanisms:
the current
commutation
in those
armature
coils
that are short-circuited
by the carbon
brushes
/l/,
/2/;
and abrupt variations
of the contact
resistante,
in extreme
cases
short-time
contact
breaks
due to the relative
motions
between
the brushes
and the collector
/2/.
Both types of voltage
peaks can be
distinguished
by means of their
spectral
properties,
Those caused
by commutation
occur
in a nearly
regular
periodic
pattern,
which means that the associated
spectrum
is of a coherent
type (surroundings
of spectral
zeros
excluded).
Variations
of the contact
resistance
and
15
OF:
OS
Fig.1:
motor
firing
IO
MHz
100
Conducted
RF1 voltage
of a DC
(1) as compared
to a dimmer at
angles
100 (2) and 900 (3)
contact
breaks
through
the relative
motions
between
the brushes
and the collector,
however,
occur
in a quasi-random
manner. They produce
a spectrum
of 2
stochastic
type.
Two peak voltage
(U)
measurements
at a given
frequency
using
an EM1 receiver
with variable
bandwidth
(B) will
yield:
51/62
= 0l/B2
(coherent
spectrum)
&/ii2
= 4%;
(stochastic
spectrum)
(1)
(2)
Fiq.2:
age is
caused
mutation
shaded
(n:speed,
rent;
RF1 voltmainly
by comin the
area
I:curDC motor)
- 552 manufacturers
/l/,
/3/ as well as for
universal
motors /4/.
The limit between
the two areas in the I/n-diagram
of
Fig.2 is marked by an empirical
equation
of the type
Fig.4:
System of b commutating
coils
1.n = K.
K depends on the construction
the motor, some of which will
cussed in SS2 and 3.
data Of
be dis-
commutation current
self-inductance
of the coil
LS
of the coil
RS
: ohmic resistance
contact
resistances
rlrr2:
trailing
edge of the brush)
(1:
contact
currents
il,i2:
i2=is2-is1
i =I/2tisl,
(i: armature current)
transformer
voltage
due to mutual
ut1
:
induction
from coils No.Z...b
of rotation
due
el
: induced voltage
is1 i
to
Inter-
Motor
connection
LISN
RF-domain calculations
of the conducted differential
mode interference
voltage
presented
in S4 use a two-port
network model shown in Fig.3,
where the
motor is represented
by an RF-voltage
source !o and a complex, frequency-dependent internal
impedance 21. The principles
of calculating
U, an7 Z are explained in SS2 and 3. FomparaFre to RF1
voltage measurements, the RF-impedance
of the power supply is simulated by a
line impedance stabilization
network
(LISN) which has an impedance Z2. The
influence
of the interconnectiEn
motor/
power supply is included in the calculations,
but will
not be discussed
here.
The interference
voltage c2 across z2,
referred
to uo, is
1
u2
-L:
L!O
(5)
LSdiSl/dttutl+RSiSl+rlil-r2i2+el=O
(4)
of
where Al . ..A22 are the coefficients
the campi ex Chain matrix of the interconnection
motor/power supply.
2. COMMUTATION
ANALYSIS
Detailed analyses of the current commutation in small motors are presented5
in /4/,
/5/,
and /6/.
The purpose of
S2.1 is to give a risumC of the results
for DC motors. Supplements necessary for
universal
motors are discussed
in S2.2.
(parasitic)
interpole
field
The contact
resistances
rl and r2 depend on time because of the varying contact areas Al(t)
and AZ(t).
Due to contact fritting
/i/,
they are also influenced by the current densities
gl and g2
(Def.:
g=i/A) . Since gl and g2 vary in
the course of a commutation period,
Equ.5 is a nonlinear
differential
equation without a closed-form
solution.
It
can be solved by numerical integration.
The starting
value of i
is I/2 at t=O
if b-l.
For b>l a set o s1 starting
values
iSb must be calculated
by an
of iSl...
iterative
method /9/.
The commutation in
coil No.1 ends at t=tR when isl=-I/2.
Some important influences
on commutation are shown in Fig.5,
with special
regard to small motors:
1.1 The reactance
voltage
across Ls
has a retarding
effect
on commutation
If LS increases,
the differ(Fig.Sb).
ence at t4tH between the actual value
of iS1 and its desired final value of
-I/2 increases,
too. This is equivalent
to a larger contact
current il and contact voltage
rlil.
2.1 For the absence of interpoles,
el
can be varied only by shifting
the
brushes
out of the neutral
zone.
Growing
el in Fig.Sa
is achieved
by a backward
brush shift,
compared
to the rotation
direction
of the motor.
The brushes
in
small motors
are usually
shifted
backward, which partially
compensates
the
reactance
voltage
across
LG.
3.) At t4tK
the current density
gl
under the trailing
edge of the brush
takes
high values,
which in addition
change rapidly
with time /8/.
The effect
0)
b)
C)
2.1 DC motors
A system of b commutating coils
under
one brush is represented
by the equivalent circuit
of Fig.4,
leading to a
system of b coupled differential
equat ions. For coil No.1 we obtain:
Fig.5:
Influences
on commutation
d)
of contact
fritting
and thus,
the effect
becomes
then
of gl on rl (see above)
This is called
the dynamic
negligible.
contact
behaviour.
rl can then be described
as a mere function
Of time:
rd:
(6)
(t+tE)
r1 = rdA,/Al(t)
dynamic Contact
reSiStarm?
full
contact
area
A~:
At t+tE
the reactance
voltage
across
~~ and the contact
voltage
drop across
in the commutating
coil.
rl are dominant
using Equ.6:
Equ.5 can then be simplified
LSdiSl/dt+rdilAo/Al(t)
k 0 (tdtE)
(5a)
Universal
motors
Additional
parameters
appear in universal
motors:
1.) The armature
current
is no longer
constant,
but varies
with the frequency
i=$!*I*sin(
2rf. t) . As
of the AC supply:
a consequence,
the commutation
analysis
mUSt
be Set
up at various
times within
a
half-wave
of the sine function.
2.) The inductor
pole
flux varies
Its first
harmonic
has
also with time.
the same frequency
and phase angle as i.
The flux
variation
causes
an additional
transformer
voltage
in the armature
coil
which influences
commutation.
3.
3.1
of
voltage
peaks
As a consequence
of commutation,
two
types of voltage
peaks appear
in the
armature.
To demonstrate
this
fact,
we
use the equivalent
circuit
of a symmetrical
simplex
armature
winding
of a DC
motor including
the brush contacts
shown
Each of the brushes
short-cirin Fig.6.
cuits
two armature
coils.
At t4tE
this
corresponds
to a brush-to-segment
width
Fig.6:
Symmetrical
simplex
armature
winding
and brush
contacts
(low frequency)
100
553 -
Q4
The armature
branches
ratio
of l<B62.
are shown as voltage
sources
Ui. They
represent
transformer
voltages
induced
by flux variations
in the branches
due
to the current
changes
in the commutating coils.
We neglect
the remaining
DC or low
frequency
AC voltages
in the branches.
abrupt variations
On the one hand, their
occurring
when a coil
is added to or
taken from a branch also create
a broadband RF1 spectrum.
On the other
hand,
our calculations
show that under normal
operating
conditions
the spectrum
of the
voltage
peaks discussed
below is conThus, the voltage
u
siderably
stronger.
(Fig.6)
consists
of two components:
1.)
The total
contact
_----------_- voltage_
drop
ur = rliltr3i3
It was pointed
out in S2.1 that the
current
density
under the trailing
edge
of the brush attains
high values
at
t+tE.
As a consequence,
rlil
at t_tE
rises
far beyond its average
value within a few microseconds,
thus becoming
Together
with Bqu.6,
dominant
in Equ.7.
one can deduce the approximation:
Ur #
rdilAo/Al(t)
(8)
(t-@tE)
If the commutation
current
iS1 has
not reached
the value of -I/2
at contact
a short
arc is ignited
between
opening,
the trailing
edge of the brush and the
commutator
segment,
well known as commutator
sparking.
The right
hand side of
Equ.Ba (and of course
the term rlil
in
Equ.5)
must then be replaced
by a suitable expression
of the arc voltage.
We
assume that it has a constant
value UB,
yielding:
Ur * UB (t+tE,
commutator
sparking)
(8a)
2.)
The -----_------induced
voltage _
b
ui = t:
MkdiSk/dt
(9)
k=l
inductance
between a branch
Mk: mutual
and the commutating
coil
No.k
u. can also
attain
a high amplitude
at
t+
bet ause high rlil,
see above,
produces a rapid
current
change di,l/dt
in
the commutating
coil
No.1.
This can be
deduced
from EqU.Sa. How$ver,
in symmetrical
windings,
which we assume here,
u. appears
only at a brush-to-segment
width ratio
B>l /9/.
For ~$1, the single
commutating
coil
under each brush is
magnetically
decoupled
from the branches.
A third
contribution
to RF1 voltage
appears
in motors which have an inductor
winding,
like
universal
motors.
This is
due to the flux
coupling
between
the
commutating
coils
and the inductor
windining. Again a rapid diS /dt at t+tE
duces a voltage
peak.
4 he principle
is
the same as explained
above for Ui, except that the value of 13 is irrelevant.
- 554 -
Fig.7:
Impedance
Of a DC
motor
armature
winding
25
0.1
Fig.9:
IO
MHz
100
Computed contributions
of gr (1) and ui (2) to g2 (31
- 555 -
100
11112
Q4
v / 155 w
sot-~
-400
-100
-20
-300
Fig.12: Computed influence
on U2 of the brush shift
9oc
SO!
-400
-300
-100
-200
dB(pV)
15
24 A / 3200 RPM
0.1
IO MHZ 100
Fig.10: Computed RF1 voltage 22
at H=1.3 (1) and a=O.9 (2)
0,1
10
MHz
100
IO
15
20
/JH
25
I&#,,1
20
,,,,I,,,,
25
30
mR
35
Fig.15: Computed influence on g2 of
the dynamic contact resistance rd
- 556 -
the sliding
contacts
breaks
(see $1.1).
not be used at oper-
REFERENCES
/l/
S.
/2/
Properties of High-Frequency
Conducted Noise from AUtOmOtiVe
Electrical Accessories
IEEE Trans. Electromag. Compatib.,
Vol.EMC-25, No.1, Feb.1983, p.2-7
R.M. Labastille
/3/
/4/
GmbH, Stuttgart.
/6/
/7/
Yamamoto,
0.
Ozeki
Die Funk-Entstorung
von Gertiten mit
und Kleinstmotoren
KleinETG-Fachberichte
l/1975, p.114-121
D.P. Motter
Commutation of D-C Machines and its
Effects on Radio Influence Voltage
Generation
AIEE Trans.,Vo1.48(1949),p.491-496
D. Roye, M. Poloujadoff
Contribution to the Study of
Commutation of Small Uncompensated
Universal Motors
IEEE Trans. Pow. App. & Sys., Vol.
PAS-97,No.l,Jan./Feb.l978,p.242-248
A.W. Mohr
Der funkenfreie Drehzahl- und Belastungsbereich bei Universalmotoren
ETZ-A,Bd.81,H.23,Nov.l96O,p.812-816
G. Bolz
Die Stromwendung der GleichstromKleinstmaschinen
ETZ,Bd.60,H.32,Aug.l939,p.949-953
R. Holm
Electric Contacts, Fourth Edition
;pr;;;;f;Verlag, Reprint 1979
/8/
Die Strom-Spannungs-Charakteristik
des kommutierenden Kohlebiirstengleitkontakts in der Endphase des
Kommutierungsvorgangs
Elektrie
28 (19741, H.4, p.206-209
/9/
J. Sack
Storspannungsemission kleiner
Gleichstrom-Kommutatormotoren
im Bereich
PhD thesis,
der
to
HBrfunkfrequenzen
be published
- 557
101Q5
Firth
INTRODUCTION
The spacecraft for the International
Solar Polar Mission (ISPM; now renamed UlYsses) will carry nine groups of experiments
designed for studies of the sun. Each experiment is separately powered from the spacecraft
28~ bus by its own DC to DC converter, which
serves the unique power requirements of the
experiment and isolates the experiment from
the spacecraft power systems.
This paper outlines the problems encountered in meeting the stringent EMC specifications and describes a neutralising technique
used to meet them. This technique is completely general and may be applied to any converter.
d.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Grounding protocols.
b.
C.
Radiated emissions will occur from transformers and chokes; these are readily controlled at frequencies above a few tens of kHz by
a case which is thick compared with the eddy
current skin depth.
Defined frequencies (phase-locked converters) for interfering signals prevent the
possibility of intermodulation products in the
power system and allow sensitive experiments
to devise comb filters for troublesome interference.
558
LOAD
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 3.
The source and load are inherently unbalanced with respect to structure; the noise
voltage appearing across Cf will drive current
to the load which may return via the system
ground return and structure; this may be worse
from a system point of view than the higher
levels of differential ripple before filtering. In Fig. 4, note how the internal noise
voltage, En, has created an external structure
current, In, as the result of the Cf to case.
Only a large, and maybe unattainable, value of
Lf will control this.
Note that the OC current balance is implicit in the common mode connection and there is
no problem of saturation, even when using a
very high permeability core. Applying this
technique to the secondary side as well produces a dramatic reduction in the structure
current (see Fig. 7). However, the use of CM
transformers alone was insufficient to reach
levels required by the ISPM specifications
(see Fig. 7).
Consider that on the primary side at least
the switching of 28v is equivalent to 4Ov RMS
which, at 60 kHz, when driving unbalanced capacity to case of only 10 pf, will exceed the
100 microamp spec. Practical limits on Lcm
and Cp and Cs may make the filter insufficiently effective at the first few harmonics.
(In the case solved, Cp=Cs=IO nF was needed to
bring the L-C series resonance below the firt
harmonic frequency. This exceeded the stated
spacecraft isolation criteria, and a waiver
had to be requested.) The key to the solution
of the overall problem was the use of a neutralising capacitor from transformer to
IO-IQ5
559
CONCLUSION
I
Fig. 6.
=j= =P
cs :
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Fig. 7.
Fig. 7 shows the before and after measurements on the structure current. Note the
dramatic reduction of first harmonic, 40 db of
improvement. At the higher harmonics, effects
of phase shift make the simple capacitive
trimmer ineffective; some further improvement
may be had by adding variable R-C series elements, d, to case and adjusting until the best
reduction is judged to have been achieved.
These can then be replaced by fixed components
of the closest value.
The synchronisation signal itself may be
the cause of CM currents, if not supplied on a
balanced pair with a shield connected to primary ground. Again, a common mode transformer
may be necessary to achieve balance in the
differential current. Note that should the
sync signal be supplied from a floating but
ungrounded winding, grounding one side will
result in large circulating currents due to
the line to shield capacitance. Virtual balance can be created by matching the input
impedance of the circuit, Zi, with its equivalent on the neutral side, Zb (see Fig. 8).
The COSPIN particle experiment power converter was designed by SPAR Aerospace Ltd.;
solutions to the EMC problems were arrived at
in collaboration with the National Research
Council of Canada. I thank my colleagues,
Drs. M. Bercovitch and J.D. Anglin, for helpful discussions, and Mr. W. Blore for suggestions on this paper.
- 561
102
Q6
Summary
A review of the two most important methods
for the measurement of current pulses is given,
and their specific advantages and disadvantages
are discussed. For most applications the
Rogowski current probe is the optimum solution. The theory necessary for the understanding and the main features of Rogowski probes
are resumed. Formulae for the design of a
Rogowski coil are presented and a practical example is calculated. After a short discussion
of the calibration systems used, some measurement results are presented. Further results
will be given at the Symposium.
1. Introduction
In the field of EMP-Simulation the measurement of induced currents is of great importance. Current sensors in accordance with EMP-requirements (e.g. peak values up to 10 kA and
bandwidths from 10 kHz to 130 MHz) are commercially available. For some applications, however, it may be neccessary to have a probe
adapted to very specific requirements. In this
paper the experience gained with self-made
Rogowski current probes is presented.
2. Methodes for wide band current measurements
The principles used for the measurement of
pulsed currents may be summarized as follows:
- measurement of the voltage drop caused by
the current flow through a shunt or a
current viewing resistor [l], [2]
- measurement of the current in an inductively
(or field) coupled circuit
of the maqnetic field
associated with the current {e.g. by Hall
effect or magneto-optic Faraday effect)
[21*
Only the first two techniques are in practice being used for the measurement of high-current pulses. The field coupled probes are the
favoured current measuring devices in the field
of EMP-Simulation.
The resistive shunt is DC coupled and
although very easy to calibrate has the
disadvantages that
Fig. 1: I+$iple
i
Pr
- 562
CA
is the path of the windings of the
coil
where: C
A
dl
o = nA
where:
ipr
P
where
L
R
(1)
(1 n(iadi)dl
42 =
<<i,
iC
da
dt
Integral mode
f Tpr < L/R in equation (4) then
L
RXand hence
di,
> ic
di,
1 &
..--._*-_
dt
L dt
Rc
ic
CD
CII-=L
ipr
N
(6)
dg
Rm
dt
Its
are:
PI, PI
due to the low impedance of the currentviewing resistor the device is less sensitive to noise
1
R
-'x
d@
L
di,
=+i
R'dt
'
(4)
- 563
102
Q6
Table I: Symbols
4.
Design
4.1 Construction
This is illustrated in Fig. 3
P
'pr
Fig. 3: Construction of a Rogowski-type
current measuring system
The two essential components are the probe
coil and the current viewing resistor.
The coil is usually"circular and has to
fulfill as well as possible the conditions
stated in section 3. That is
Meaning
ymbol]
S.
iC
coil current
RM
measuring resistance
("current viewing resistor")
RC
CD
- the plane of the turns should be accurately vertical to the coil axis to avoid
coupling with the axial flux.
Bsat
Urn
Rmic: voltage on Rm
Zt
LIm/ipr:probe sensitivity
(=transfer impedance)
Tpr
TC
EoE)-:
conductor resistivity
dielectric constant
The following equations are used to calculate the main properties of self-integrating
Rogowski coils. Most of these equations are
explained in References [3] and[4].
Condition for a Rogowski coil to be selfintegrating: if L/R > Tpr then
ic = g/L
(7)
(8)
27Fr
Inductance of toroidal coil with circular core
section described by Grover [5]:
$=
L = L'-aL
where
L = 1
2
and
AL
ImaN*
(9)
b
paN(G+H)
(10)
(11)
- 564
and
with
G=$-ln$
(12)
H =k$o gk(lnW)k
(13)
go
g1
g2
gs
=
=
=
=
0,00070
0,17730
0,03220
0,00197
(nf~g)12N[p2+(2Ra)2]12
(14)
rd
ZT = 6 IEJ; ic = 3 kA;
R, = ZTipr/ic = 30 ~IXJ
ipr
@Rm
=_____=
L
+NARm
7=-
(16)
271rL
L
(17)
R
Low-3 dB cut-off-frequency: fl = h
7c
F [erpr(p2+(2xa)2)]12
(19)
Table
N2Asat
ipr(t)dt = _
Rc+
Requirements
The design of a Rogowski coil current probe
has to match the signals to be measured; the
case of a probe to measure a signal with the
parameters given in table II is now considered.
Parameter
peak current
current rise time
low 3 dB cutoff frequency
transfer impedance
minimum inner diameter
(with housing)
Value
15 kA
< 20 ns
5 kHz
<
iJ lm62
90 mm
24x24 mm2
> 10
= 1
1T
50 pm
Coil: The constraints arising from the already defined core size and from the
maximum transit time leave only a few
parameters to be varied within a small
range.
Three different coils have been constructed with the basic specifications
listed in table IV.
> 140 mm
Table
b)
Value
The core foil has a high magnetic permeability and is wound up to the core
size of 24 mm. This construction results in a high conductivity in the
core direction and a high resistance
for circular currents in the plane of
the cross section.
Core characteristics
(20)
4n
a)
III:
Characteristic
%at
t0
15 kA
(15)
ZT =
ipr =
Calculation of parameters
T,: The transit time should be 4 to
5 times shorter than the rise time of
the signal to be measured. This avoids
problems due to spurious oscillations
Symbol
Meanings
Value
- 565
90 mm
14 mm
14
102
Frequency
_.----
.,
-r
Symbol
L
RC
TC
iprt
fl
Meaning
Inductance (p = 1)
Skin effect resistance
,at f
= 50 kHz
Value for
700 nH
175 nH
8rnJ
2mG
11,6 ns
6,8 ns
Il'laximum
current-time1,2 As
Ilroduct before core
saturation with
i3sat= 1 T and R = 32 no,
0,6 As
netic core)
[Hz1
single
two
toroidal oaralcoil
leled
halfcoils
Q6
f'robe sensitivity or
0,8
rrlaximumprobe output
\loltaqe
12 v
1transfer impedance
ms1 3,2 mc
48 v
566
H.J.
References
Fig. 8:
PI
Di Capua, M.S., "Rogowski Coils, Fluxmeters, and Resistors for Pulsed Current
Measurements" Physics International Company, April 1981
E21
Schwab, A.J.,
'Hochspannungsmesstechnik",
Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg,
New York, 1968
Pellinen, D.G. et al., "Rogowski Coil for
Measuring Fast High-level Pulsed
Currents", Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51 (ll),
6. Measurements
Figure 9 shows the measured transfer-impedance in dB's (20 log ZT) with coil No. 3,
which has a ferromagnetic core (see section 4.3).
[31
Nov. 1980
141
July
-68
Id
(55
B,.$
_*
t.1111
3 455
B,#
Frequency
.I
I,,,,,
3 45s
I,d
.,
, ,,,,,f
456
8,$
CHZ I
1971
PI
[Cl
iI71
567
103 Q7
RLECTROMAGNETIC
COMPATlBILITY
OF ELECTRICAL
EQUIWsENT
IN POWERANDINDUSTRIALSUPPLYSYSTEMS
V.Nikiforova
of Energetic8
All Union Research Institute
USSR
Moscow,
of
Interferences
transmitted in the
supply networks might be devided into
continuous and transient ones4 Continuous interferences
occur in the electrical networks of steady-stage
operation. Harmonio interferences,
volasymmet and unbatage fluctuations,
lance of the three-phase vor9 tage system are related to them. All devices
which are of the nonlinear volt-ampere
characteristic
oawe harmonic interf erences.
Fluctuations are produced mainly by
the devices with sharp alternating
duties of operation.
Asymmetry is oaused either by the
nonsymmetrical duty of operation or by
the asymmetry of the network elements
parameters,
The following sources of the electromagnetic interferences
are to be
mentioned among the typioal ones:
electric
arc steel melting furnaces,
rolling mills* welding installationa,
electrioal
means of transport,
various
household appliances,
etc.
Dips and spikes of voltage, various
types of impulses, etc. are related to
transient interferenoes.
Atmospheric
phenomena, fault circuits
and various
commutation recesses might serve as
sources of t %es8 interferences.
Material oonoerning continuous interferences
is presented further on.
Selection of Crit~~~tfor
33.ectromawleti.o C D ibiitv Evaluation
A system of indioes
is necessary
to have a possibility
to quantitively
a whole or at definite
intervals
of
time (what is practioally
always observed) then the mechanism of the
spectral theory of the random proaeeees aould be used for obtaining quan-
568
Uiirr
*t(>)
,
F(
F, (&) - the energy spectrum of 4 he dis I!orted and nondistorted prooess respectively.
If the harmonic interferences,
asymmetry or voltage fluotuatioas
are
independent of time the EM01 coinoide
with the generally accepted ooeffieients which oharaoteriae these inter
f erences . The following would be obtained forrthe harmoni interferenoes
where
=cl-zE
6U
UL
if it is square-wave ooltage(ourrent)
mod;Iio$.
6u
P-
9-W
$Uf
"'
where
magnitude of voltage
ohauge. Thus, when voltage fluctuation,
EMCIL *
It
is more difficult
to obtain simple formula for EMCIduring the action
of the eleatromagnetic
interferences
changing in an accidental way. Rowever, comparatively simple expressions
are managed to be obtained in some
cases, For instance, if the harmonic
interference
amplitudes are accidental
and independent on time the probable
process of the harmonic interference
voltage ohange might be presented as
follows :
where
- random mlues.
oonditions are
observed (in a wide sense) the random
process of the harmonic interferenoe
voltage ohauge manifests itself
as a
proaess of the descrete spectrum,
where values represent a distribution
hfh,a
where
the r.mis. value of the
first harmonic.
It is necessary to point out that
the proposed quantitive evaluations of
EM01 oorrespond to the physical nature
of the random processes of changing
three-phase voltage system in electrical networks. In some oases these evaluations are simple expressions being
wed in practioe for a long time. The
above desoribed approaoh for evaluation of EMCI Gould be easily used in
praetioe of mxintenance and designing
as it proves to be a uniform methodological
basis of measurement and caloulation of EMCI.
Efficiency
of the electrical
equipment operation as well as maintenance
of the required technological
ohasacteristics
as far as eleotrical
equipment is ooncerned are determined to a
reat extent b the ower supply sys&em zualits,
Tge qdity
of E;T,;,E;Pply a understood to be two
neoted conoepte with speeifio
peculiaritiest
reliability
of .power supply
and quality of elecltrical
energy. The
latter is a set of properties
of electrioal energy stipulated by the generation, distribution
and consumption
of energy prooesses and which make the
eleotrioal
equipment operation with
~h&de~rmined technical oharaoterisIt is evident that the quality of ihe eleotrier energy is closely
conneclted with the eleotromagnetio
compatibility
of the equipment during
the action of interferences
propagated
in the network.
Quality requirements of the eleotriaal energy are determined in the acting USSR standard GOST13109-67
Norms of quality of eleotrioal
energy
for appliancsee oonneofed to public
networks*. GOST 13109-67 determines
norms of quality of electrical
energy
on the terminals of the equipment supplied by the public three-phaae and
one-phase 5OHs stationary networks
and by the d.o. networks. Requirements
of the standard are extended to normal
and after-break-down
duties of the
network operation.
Seven &dices
are regulated in the
standard. They determine quality of
the electrical
energy in the a.c.
three-phase networks. There are indioes among them that &araoterise
the
voltage curve sinusoidelity
distortion, asymmetry and unbalance of the
three-phase system voltages as well as
voltage fluctuationa.
Mathematical form of these indices
electromagnetio
interfeoharacterizes
rences asaumlng that they do not change in time.
The limiting values of harmonic
distortion
and-asymmetry indiaes are
determined in GOST13 109-67 with the
allowanoe for susaeptibility
of the
most widely used energy receiver induction motor to the respeative interferences.
Therefore the harmonic diatortion index value up to 5% or asymmetry index velue up to 2% are allowable for a long time on the terminals
of any electrical
aonsumer.
The limiting values of the unbalance index are determined in every paxtitular case on the basis of the allawable voltage deviations on the terminals of one-phase eleatriaal
applfawes since the unbalance of voltages
mainly manifests itself
in the additional voltage losses in the network
and it means that in additional voltage deviations on the terminals of
the electrical
consumers.
According to GOST13109-67 voltage
fluctuations
are evaluated by the ranby the frege of voltage change
, i.e.
quency of the voltage a&nge
by the number of voltage changes per
unit of time and by the time interval
between the consecutive changes of
voltage
of the voltage
Experimeital stu
periodic changes infds uence on visuality and its fitness (the latter has
been charaaterised
by the clear visuallty stabillt
) permitted to set bounJ lowable voltage ahanges
lower boundary oorresponds to
d? . The
to the
those voltage changes when the reduation of visuality
begins to take place
The upper boundary aorresponds to the
voltage changes which cause the lessening of illumination
by 10% allowed for light installations.
For instance, if the voltage ahan e fre uenoy
equals 20 per second (1OHzf the Pover
and the upper limits will equal to
0.32 and 0.45 % respectively.
Besides the energy quality indioes
already ooneidered three more indioes
are determined in GOST 13109-67: the
voltage deviation,
the frequency deviation and the frequency fluctuation.
These indices might be related to
the eleotromagnetic
situation
oharaoteristios.
More over, the voltage and
frequency deviations define, to the
most degree, technical and economic
factors of the electrical
network and
e uipment operation,
quality and quantjty of the manufactured products.
Variation of the energy quality indices on the terminals of the electrical equipment depends on the great
number of reasons most of which are of
accidental nature. This clraumstance
makes approach the energy quality indices evaluation from the probability
point of view.
It is accepted in GOST13109-67
that energy quality index values must
be within the aIl.owable limits with
569
103
07
of Interferenaes
on
Eauiument Oaeration
Electromagnetio interferenoes
are
conducted In the network to the eleatrioal equipment eusceptable to their
aation. As a result the supply voltage
is being distorted.
Action of the distorted voltage, might produce an instantaneous effect or manifeat itself
gradually. In the first oase the eleotxical equipment as a rule stops to
function or has a ielse operation,
for
example, relaying,
automatio devices,
570
Conclusion
For the recent years a wide spreading of electric equipment which creates long-term electromaguetic dieturbances through electrio systema for
supply of that equipment, inoreased
number of eases when the electromagnetic disturbances influence badly on
sensitive eleotrio equipment.
In the USSR in order to guarantee
an effeotive
and reliable
operation
of the sensitive
eleotrio
equipment
there is a standard limitated electromagnetio disturbance levels at a network point where the sensitive
electric equipment has been connected or
may be connected.
The application of standard requirements in the uourse of design and
performanoe prevents expenses due to
BMCI decrease,
References
-1 ~~tantinov B.A., Zheehelenko
Nikiforova V.N. and others:
TLe*kyatem of indices and stendartization of the energy quality.
ELECTRICHESTVO, No 9, 11-19 (19782 Levin B.R. Theoretical fundamentals
of the statistioal radioengineering. SQVIETSKOIE RADIO(1977)
3 GOST 23875-79 oQuality of electrical energy, Terms and definitions
4 Marusova T,P*, Jagovkin G.N.
A question of normalizing volta e
fluotuations in elec ric etworf8,
SVETOTECHNIKA,
No 2 119777
- 571
104Rl
K.
Deutsche
Bonn,
Federal
Bundespost
Republic
Introduction
The usable
radio
frequency
spectrum
is a limited
natural
resource.
Its
use
is open to everybody
and it can be reas well
as polluted.
The reused,
source
is not adequately
used,
when
the objective
can be easily
achieved
in other
ways or the parameters
of the
use are not correctly
applied
to the
task.
To use the resource
efficiently,
it
is necessary
to question
the need
to manage
its
use by imto use it,
plying
efficient
sharing
criteria
and
to coordinate
the assignments
nationally
and internationally.
Developed
countries
have difficulties
to achieve
these
goals
in view of
the ever
increasing
demands
in the
field
of radiocommunications.
They
however,
developed
tools
and
have,
procedures
that
permit
acceptable
aolutions.
The problem
of developing
countries
is lack
of infrastructure:
To develop
or improve
their
economical
and cultural
infrastructure,
an efficient
telecommunication
infrastructure
is essential.
To cope
with
this
demanding
requirement,
governments
have
to look
at priorities
to achieve
nar
tional
planning
objectives.
Radio
networks
can rapidly
improve
domestic
telecommunication
at moderate
costs.
In 1979,
the WARC recognized
the
need to improve
spectrum
utilization
and considered
the application
of computer
methods
in frequency
management
essential.
The conference
also
expressed
the need
for
guidance
in this
It therefore
in Recommendation
field.
31 invited
the CCIR to
prepare
a
handbook
describing
the various
aspects
involved
in applying
computeraided
techniques
to radio
frequency
management
discussing
the approaches
which
have been made,
providing
guidelines
for
various
levels
of practical
application
and making
recommendations
for
those
aspects
involving
international
cooperation.
In Resolution
No. 7 and No. 37 the need to develop
national
Radio
frequency
management
is highlighted
and seminars
are en-
1.
Olms
of
Germany
visaged
to assist
developing
counA first
seminar
was held
in
tries.
Geneva
in October
1983.
CCIR Study
Group 1 in 1978 sat
up Interim
Working
Party
l/2
which
has prepared
a Handbook on Spectrum
Management
and Computer
aided
Techniques
which
has
been published.
This
presentation
is largely
baaed
on the handbook.
2.
International
Regulations
The radio
frequency
spectrum
as an
international
resource,
has been divided
into
frequency
bands
which
may
be used
by one or more radio
services
under
specified
conditions.
This
division
of the spectrum
is the basis
for
the Table
of Frequency
Allocations
set
out in Article
8 of the Radio
Regulations
and constitutes
an agreement
between
the members
of the ITU for
the
sharing
of the spectrum
among the various
radio
services
operated
in different
regions
of the world.
This
table
is a fundamental
instrument
of
the national
and international
frequency
management.
For frequency
allocation
purposes,
the world
has been divided
into
three
geographical
regions,
the boundaries
of which
are defined
in Nos.
392-399
of the Radio
Regualtiona.
Besides
the geographical
division,
different
categories
have been eatabliahed
for
radio
services.
These
categories
are defined
in
the Radio
Regulations
as follows:
primary
services
permitted
services,
secondary
services.
The radio
frequency
spectrum
is
an asset
which
is common to all
administrations.
The spectrum
must be
shared
-among
administrations
-among
radio
services
-among
stations.
On the
other
hand,
each
administration
is
autonomous.
It thus
becomes
apparent
that
the beat
way to serve
the interest
of every
administration
is to obtain
an international
agreement
on
rules
and procedures
for
the manage-
National
Spectrum
Manaqement
The requirements
of individual
radio
stations
or services
can be met
only
by sharing
time,
space,
or frequency.
Moreover,
bilateral
or multilateral
agreements
will
increasingly
be required.
This
means that
general
assignment
procedures
in the form of
simple
network
plans
for
the use of
frequencies
cannot
always
be employed
in the near,
and especially
in the
far
future.
In the future,
it will
become
necessary
to make electromagnetic
compatibility
(EMC) calculations
before
frequencies
are assigned.
The
bulk
of technical
and administrative
work involved
will
not only
require
detailed
knowledge
of the equipment
used
but also
of the physical
characteristics
of propagation
over
the
whole
frequency
spectrum.
The solution
of the aforementioned
problems
neceaaitates
the introduction
of new spectrum management
methods.
Spectrum
management
is the combination
of administrative
and technical
procedures
necessary
to ensure
the
efficient
operation
of radiocommunication
services
without
causing
harmful
interference.
When an administration
ratifies
572
the
International
Telecommunication
Convention
or accedes
to it,
it should
enact
domestic
legislation
to make the
provisions
of that
Convention
and of
the Radio
Regulations
annexed
to it
applicable
to its
Administration.
Generally
speaking,
use of the frequency
spectrum
can only
be efficient
if
it
is properly
organized:
by imposing
restrictions
on certain
technical
characteristics
that
must
not be less
strict
than those
specified
in the international
agreements;
by providing
for
the future
well
in
advance
through
national
planning
of frequency
usages.
The first
condition
necessitates
the issuing
of national
regulations
which
should
not be confined
solely
to the international
provisions
and
may comprise
everything
which
the legislature
considers
necessary
to:
enable
each
user
to carry
on a
service
under
specified
conditions;
make sure
that
the administrations
international
obligations
are fulfilled.
The second
condition
implies
the
existence
of an administrative
body
to ensure
coordination
between
the
different
users.
This
body must have
the technical
resources
and administrative
means to check
whether
the
domestic
legislation
is being
applied,
in other
words,
to manage
frequency
spectrum
usage
in the national
context.
The National
Spectrum
Management
Authority
will
thus
have several
roles,
which
may be summed up as follows:
which
consists
of
a) Standardization,
effecting
coordination
between
various
users
with
a view to defining
technical
standards
to be
imposed
on users
and,
if
necessary,
on equipment
manufacturers,
in implementation
of domestic
legislation;
which
consists
of effecb) planning,
ting
coordination
between
various
users
with
a view to defining
the
use to be made of the frequency
bands
as listed
in the Table
of
Frequency
Allocations,
and in
planning
future
uses
so that
they
may be included
in this
Table
by
an administrative
conference
competent
to revise
it;
proper,
consisting
of
c) management
granting
authority
for
frequency
usages
in accordance
with
international
regulations
and domestic
legislations,
and ensuring
that
those
frequencies
are actually
used
in
conformity
with
the
terms
of the
authorization.
This
role
also
includes
compliance
with
the
obligations
embodied
in
the
Convention
and
the
Radio
Regulations
with
respect
to
other
Administrations
(for
instance,
the
for
coordination
handling
of
received
requests
from
other
Administrations,
etc.).
3.1
Domestic
Leqislation.
Since
domestic
legislation
is considered
to
include
the pertinent
provisions
of
the Radio
Regulations,
an assignment
in conformity
with
it is necessarily
in harmony
with
those
Regulations.
A document
containing
the provisions
of domestic
legislation
greatly
facilitates
the task
of each
national
soectrum
manaoement
authority.
Licensing
is the
3.2
Licenses.
orocess
of conferrinq
the leqal
authority
to operate
a-radio
station
under
specific
and stipulated
condi-
tions.
In some Administrations
the
belongs.
right
to use a radio
receiving
installicensing.
lation
is also
subjected
to
Administrations
may charge
users
of the spectrum
a fee for their
licenses.
The fee may reflect
the degree to which the spectrum
is used,
as well as the economic
benefit
derived.
3.3 Inspection
of installations.
In connection
with its responsibilities
for
issuing
of the Government,
licenses,
on
to frequency
behalf
users,
including
radio
amateurs,
the national
spectrum
management authority
must be
able to confirm
that stations
comply
with the relevant
provisions
of the
Radio Regulations
and domestic
law,
and with the terms of the license.
For that purpose
it must have the
staff
and equipment
necessary
for
conducting
inspections
of stations
and checking
their
operation
on the
spot;
as far
as checking
the quality
of emissions
from a distance
is concerned,
it is understood
that
the
authority
is able
to do this
with
the
monitoring
facilities
at its
disposal
and also
to see that
the nature
of
the traffic
exchanges
by amateurs
remains
within
the limitations
laid
104
5 73 -
RI
It is also
the function
of the
national
spectrum
management
authority
to issue
ship
station
and aircraft
station
operators
certificates
specified
in the Radio
Regulations.
3.4
Monitoring.
The national
spectrum management authority
should
monitor
the emissions
of radio
stations
to check
their
technical
characteristics
and to ensure
that they are op-
erated
in
conformity
with
the
stand-
ards
and various
conditions
on the
basis
of which
their
licenses
were
issued.
A monitoring
station
can help
a
great
deal
in solving
problems
of
harmful
interference
and in finding
suitable
frequencies
not subject
to
such
interference.
The monitoring
service
should
be
designed
to meet domestic
since
radio
emissions
needs.
However,
are no respecters
of frontiers,
the
stations
of the monitoring
service
of
an Administration
should
be prepared
to cooperate
with other
Administrations
as well as with the IFRB and
the international
monitoring
system.
3.5 National
file
of frequency
Once a frequency
has been
usaqes.
assigned
to a transmitting
or a reall the technical
and
ceiving
station,
operating
data indicating
the spectrum
space occupied
by this
assignment
should
be entered
in a government
master file.
Such a file
not only serves
as a reference
for subsequently
usable
assignments,
but also provides
the
basic
material
for taking
effective
measures
required
to adapt national
planning
to the real
requirements
of
the various
users.
The greatest
care
should
be taken in compiling
the national
file
and keeping
it up-to-date;
it must have room for a sufficient
number of assignments
and for all
the
information
needed for the clear
and
complete
description
of each of them.
It is very useful
to employ
modern
computer
processing
and recording
techniques
suited
to the size
of the
file
and its
usage.
primarily
4.
Analyses
Models
Efficient
spectrum
management can
be accomplished
only through
a joint
technical
and administrative
effort
requiring
the application
of rapid
record
keeping,
quantitative
analysis
and experiential
judgement.
In many
cases
the results
of an analysis
process serve
as improved
advisory
information to the human decision-maker
that are used to expand the understanding
of the problem.
It is only
from the application
of rapid
spectrum
management techniques
that timely
and complete
solutions
to the problem
can be obtained,
The nature
of some of these
tasks
requires
data files,
and much of the
problem
approach
is oriented
with
Efficient
use of large
this
in mind.
volumes
of data
logically
requires
high-speed
digital
computer
capability,
and its
application
for
both
data
and
analysis
is considered.
In practice,
a hybrid
approach
using
a combination
of automated
and manual
techniques
may be used
for
the solution
to many
problems.
A variety
of techniques
are available
as aids
in the evaluation
of
These
include:
problems.
Frequency-distance
separation
criteria
Guard Band Design
Parameter
Sensitivity
Analysis
Antenna
Dynamic
Analysis
Frequency
assignment
procedures
Each of the functions
performed
during
this
approach
establishes
requirements
for
a variety
of analysis
techniques.
The requirements
for
a
particular
item
of data
base
information
or a basic
analysis
tool
may be
established
by serveral
analysis
functions,
although
each
function
generally imposes
different
demands
on accuracy
or quality
of the data
or models.
A short
discussion
of these
requirements
for
models
and data
is given
in
the CCIR-handbook.
An initial
list
of System
Models
useful
in performing
basic
EMC analysis
and spectrum
management
functions
include:
File
Selection
and Review
Technical
Cull
Received
Power Prediction
System
Performance
Prediction
Frequency
Assignment
Generation
of Frequency-Distance
Separation
Criteria
The need to evaluate
the basic
power prediction
equation
require
component
(basic)
models
that
are capable
of rapid
computation
and that
produce
consistently
conservative
or safe
estimate
of each
variable.
Basic
Model
requirements
include
prediction
of:
Propagation
loss
Antenna
Patterns
Transmitter
Emission
Spectrum
Receiver
Performance
Each of these
model
categories
is
discussed
briefly
in the following
paragraphs.
More complete
descriptions
for
various
models
are available
in
the CCIR Reports,
many of which
are
discussed
in some detail
in the handbook.
In general,
no environment
input
data
will
be required
beyond
that
needed
by the component
models.
4.1
Propagation
loss.
Propagation
loss
models
are available
in a wide
range
of complexity,
accuracy,
and input requirements.
Input
requirements
for
these
models
vary
considerably.
In most cases,
the less
input
required
by a model
the less
accurate
its
outa characteristic
common to most
put,
model
classes.
Minimum input
models
are used
for
cull
purposes
in most
574
cases
although
for
those
physical
circumstances
that
fall
within
the model
limitations
the results
can be quite
accurate.
4.2
Antenna
patterns.
Models
are
required
to portray
antenna
gain
characteristics
both
discretely,
as a
function
of angle,
and statistically.
Analysis
requirements
can be expected
to involve
all
possible
angles
in
three
dimensions
and frequencies
below
and above
those
for
which
the antennas
were designed.
Model
development
to
date
has been based
primarily
on emand significant
conpirical
data,
straints
have been
imposed
due to the
limited
availability
of measurements.
4.3
Transmitter
Emission
Spectrum.
Models
are required
that
will
portray
electromagnetic
emissions
emanating
from a transmitter.
Emissions
include
wanted
and unwanted
energy
(primarily
that
delivered
to an antenna)
including
in-band
and out-of-band
spuriIn most cases,
models
ous signals.
will
be a primary
function
of power
output
and modulation
characteristics.
While
such
complete
descriptions
are
desirable,
they
are often
unavailable.
In many practical
cases,
knowledge
of
emission
characteristics
within
the
few channels
adjacent
to the tuned
frequency
and at dominant
harmonics
is
adequate.
Problem
analysis
requirements
can logically
be expected
to include
all
modulation
forms,
both
state
of the art
and advanced
development.
4.4
Receiver
Performance.
Models
are required
that
produce
descriptions
of the performance
degradation
characteristics
of electronic
circuitry
(primarily
receivers)
that
is potentially
capable
of responding
to the
presence
of electromagnetic
energy.
This
should
include
the fundamental
response
and selectivity
of a receiver
plus
any additional
responses
that
may
occur
regardless
of frequency.
Image
and other
spurious
responses
are included.
Both linear
and nonlinear
effects
are of concern.
Requirements
may also
exist
for
output
displays
to summarize
or highlight
a large
volume
of output
data.
The most common displays
are the
histogram
type.
In addition,
displays
of functional
relationships
synthesized
within
the program
are useful
as
a user
selected
option.
In the detailed
analysis
case,
a
receiver
input
wanted-to-unwanted
signal ratio
is most frequently
useful.
The use of this
expression
establishes
model
requirements
of emission
spectra,
receiver
performance,
receiver
sensitivity,
desired
signal
level,
and off-frequency
rejection.
Off-frequency
Rejection
(OFR) may
be derived
from analysis
of emission
spectra
and receiver
susceptibility
data
but in some cases,
it may be more
convenient
(and accurate)
to develop
OFR data
directly
for
given
combina-
tions
of transmitters
and
Several
computer
programs
toward
this
objective
are
in Report
654.
5.
receivers.
directed
described,
Data base
considerations
Planning
for
automation
and computer
applications
includes
provisions
for
the extensive
use of automated
Availability
of data
in
data
bases.
computer
readable
form greatly
enhances
the flexibility,
speed,
and
economy
with
which
automated
processing is accomplished.
However,
many of
the analysis
techniques
can be effectively
used without
any automated
data
in which
case
users
supply
rebases,
quired
input
each
time
new analyses
are conducted.
In practice,
the need
for
automation
should
be judged
on the
basis
of individual
requirements.
Prospective
users
should
carefully
evaluate
benefits
and costs
of each
data
base
file.
The most common data
base
structure
involves
one or more files,
each
containing
a number
of records.
Each record
contains
data
located
in a number of fields.
Perhaps
the most
fundamental
data
and one that
already
exists
in
file,
some manual
form in any organization
charged
with
the responsibility
of
administering
frequencies,
is a list
of frequency
assignments.
In the simple
case,
this
frequency
assignment
file
will
contain
one record
for
each
and each
record
will
conassignment,
tain
a number
of fields.
One field
might
contain
frequency,
another
the
transmitter
power
authorized,
a third
the name of the operator,
etc.
Data useful
in spectrum
management
and interference
analysis
can be
grouped
according
to its
degree
of
generality.
Such grouping
offers
several
advantages.
It reduces
the
amount
of data
collection
and storage
required
and improved
quality
control
efforts
by ordering
like
data
togeththus
highlighting
anomalies
and
er,
discrepancies.
An anomaly
(unusual
data)
and a discrepancy
(an error
or
missing
data)
are not the same;
awareness
of both
is important
for
problem
analysis.
For example,
the costs
associated
with
maintaining
the accuracy
and currency
of frequency
data
in afile
may not be justified
for
the mobile
units
associated
with
a base
station.
A useful
distinction
in planning
for
data
bases
is the difference
between unique
and generally
applicable
information.
Unique
information
applies
to one single
frequency
assignment at a specific
place.
The latitude
and longitude
of a transmitter
operating
under
a specific
assignment
is
probably
the best
example
of unique
On the other
hand,
general
data
data.
applies
to a number
of situations
or
104
575
Rl
items
of equipment.
For example,
the
power
output
of the simple
transmitter
used
at a specific
location
is not unique
to that
operator
at that
place.
It is general
data
that
describes
the
power
output
of all
transmitters
of
the same design
(manufacturer,
model
number,
etc).
Data groupings
useful
for
spectrum
management
applications
may be as follows :
5.1
Operational
usaqe
or frequency
Files
in this
category
dependent
data.
contain
data
unique
to a specific
sitLocation,
frequency,
antenna
uation.
and pulsewidth/PRF
are typical
height,
of such
data.
In general,
one might
expect
large
numbers
of relatively
short
records
in such
a file.
A key
item
in each
record
is information
(a
cross
index)
that
unambiguously
relates
to appropriate
information
on
The make and model
of a
other
files.
simple
transmitter
(one
which
has only
one power
output)
is one example
of
such
an index.
5.2
Equipment
characteristics
data.
These
files
contain
data
common to all
equipment
of a given
nomenclature
or
of a given
class.
Antenna
gain,
power
output,
receiver
sensitivity,
and IF
bandwidth
are typically
in this
group.
Parameters
other
than nomenclature
may
be used
as the classifying
criterion,
modulation
type
for
example.
Such a
file
would
normallly
contain
substantially
fewer
records
than in the equipment
dependent
case,
but each
record may be quite
extensive.
5.3.Pathor
couplet
dependent
data.
Files
of this
kind
contain
information
unique
to transmitter-receiver
combination
. Path length,
path
profile,
mutual
gain,
off-frequency
rejection,
susceptibility
criteria,
path
loss,
etc.,
fall
in this
category.
Note that
this
type
of data
may apply
to a single
discrete
path/couplet
situation,
or it may represent
a general
class
of
situations.
6.
Conclusions
Efficient
spectrum
management
requires
an infrastructure
that
can satisfy
national
requirements
and international obligations.
Joint
efforts
require record
keeping,
quantitative
analysis
and experimental
judgement.
Data
files
and analysis
techniques
vary
from simple
to very
complex
systems.
Voluminious
data
and complex
analysis
lead
to change
from manual
to automated processes.
The changeover
will
create
new types
of problems
and may
be costly
in the initial
phase.
Such a
changeover
therefore
requires
time
and careful
analysis
and planning.
Computer
systems
are now available
to perform these
functions
at reasonable
costs,
thus
permitting
improved
handling
of assignments,
staff
savings
and better
information
availability.
577
105
R2
H. J. Weiss
Communications Satellite Corporation
Washington, DC, USA*
*The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of the Communications
Satellite Corporation.
578
use up" an increasing number of necessary "separation arcs out of the orbit's 360'; ulti-
Maximum SatelliteAntenna
Discrimination33 dB. Earth Station Antenna Diameter 10 m. Satellite Antenna Beamwidth 2.5'.
00
20
e+
40
6O
579
isolation (in dB) as a function of earth station antenna diameter for the "homogeneous"
example, for earth station antenna diameters
between 3 and 20 meters and a 6" intersatellite spacing without polarization discrimination. Figure 3 also shows the available isolation under the assumption that earth station
antennas conform to the current sidelobe reference gain equation 32-25 log EldB.
29-25
Figure 3.
"' 2olI
3
5
10
20
;
E. Sta. Antenna Diam.(m)
Function
acity
of
Required Isolation as
of Voice Channel CapInterfered-with
FDM/FM
dBI c-3
35 -
c-4
30 _
10
20 n +
50
R2
log 0 dB
105
100
200
500
Peak-to-Peak
Energy Dispersal
QPSK SCPC
64 kb/sec
CFM SCPC
27 kHz
1 MHz
2 MHz
4 MBZ
47
dB
45.2 dB
43.4 dB
41.5 dB
39.0 dB
36.6 dB
- 580
discrimination,
but
in fact there IS in use a
mix of earth station antenna sizes the majority
of which lie in the 4.5 to 10 meter diameter
range.
30
40
35
Available Isolation (dB)
45
,
E.S. Ant.
Diam.(m)
FM/TV P-P
Spreading (MHz)
AT/T @
3O - %
AT/T @
6O - %
10
1
2
4
14
7
3.5
10
5
2.5
1
2
4
56
28
14
40
20
10
- 581
105
A
The second operational constraint would
be aimed at systematically segregating the frequencies occupied by (interfering) kigh-idensity
transmission components and (interfered-with)
low capacity transmissions. Such a constraint
has been proposed in the form of various "spectrum segmentation" arrangements of a fairly
restrictive nature. However, there is one arrangement that might be both effective and generally acceptable: the identification of a suf-ficient number of specific narrow frequency
regions across an allocated band, High density
transmission components would be restricted to
these narrow frequency regions by general aqreement (e.g., 2 MHz frequency slots every 20 MHz
across the band). Prior knowledge of where
high-density transmission components could be
expected would allow the planners of low-capacity transmissions to make appropriate frequency
assignments. This approach is fairly equitable
since it is about equally constraining on users
of high-density and low-capacity transmissions,
not denying either any particular major segment
of the spectrum. It would be very effective,
producing on the order of 10 dB lower isolation requirements. Moreover, it would siqnificantly facilitate the selective acceptance of
higher interference as discussed above.
POST-PLANNING COORDINATION - A fundamentally different approach would be to acknowledge the benefits of coordination as an effective tool to produce high orbit utilization
efficiency and to provide for it in planning.
Under this approach, reservative assignments
would be made by electromagnetic separation
criteria which are intentionally insufficient
to guarantee acceptable interference for all
assignments under all possible technical and
operational conditions, in order to achieve a
R2
Eii
III
..__~_._ _-----
582
The other assignment alternative would follow the U.S. precedent: intersatellite spacings
which, if necessary, would have to be accepted
by all networks, regardless of their characteristics, are pre-established by a formula which
qives suitab,le recognition of available satellite antenna discrimination when there is geographical separation between networks' service
areas. Determination of affected networks, when
a new one is introduced, would be by AT/T or
isolation coordination criteria.
CONCLUDING
REMARKS - It has been shown that,
-
bital accesses to satisfy demand under a reservative planning regime such as may be considered at ORB-85, there is a distinct probability
that
a) certain constraints may need to be adopted, notably one relating to an a-priori
segregation of high-density and low-capacity
transmissions;
b) there may be a need for coordination of
an assignment, prior to its implementation, with
existing networks.
This casts doubt on the benefits of reservative
planning vis-a-vis the alternative of accommodating networks as demand for them arises. To
the burden of planning would have to be added
the continued burden of coordination: at worst,
and of grave concern, reservative planning would
diminish orbit utilization efficiency relative
to more flexible orbit utilization approaches.
It is noted that the 1984 CPM for ORB-85,
charged with developing technical bases for the
work of ORB-85, did neither recognize this nor
even addressed the matter in general terms. To
prevent ORB-85 from making decisions for ORB-88
which are in conflict with technical reality,
it must address the questions raised above. As
a minimum, it should request the CCIR to undertake additional studies in the intersessional
period, but would then have to leave enough
leeway in its decisions to allow the findinqs
of the CCIR to be accommodated at ORB-88.
[1lResolution
583
106
R3
summary
Congestion of radio spectrum calls
for frequency reuse in large broadcast
and mobile-radio systems. Theoretical
network planning relies - since decades - upon lattice models with spatial
and spectral regularity.
Here, more realistic and efficient
models without geometric regularity are
introduced. Classical lattice theory is
supplementedwith engineering criteria
of coverage and compatibility.In eq.
/6/, admissible displacementsof stations in the lattice are determined.
Deformability of actual lattice increases with spectrum occupancy, represented by the number n of channel sets.
Small mobile-radionetworks /n<12/ exhibit reduced deformability because of
adjacent-channelinterference.
Extended concept of deformable lattices disregards topological 9esselation" rules, as given by the set of
"rhombic numbers". Various natural numbers n> nmin can be matched to actual
topography and data of stations, provided their spacings remain within the
bounds in /6/. Thus, spectrum occupancy
may be reduced.
1. Introduction
In large broadcast and mobile-radio
systems, frequency reuse is now imposed
by spectrum congestion. Relevant planning of compatible networks relies customarily - since decades - upon lattice
models. So far, of [1,2], regular ar-
584
fdi/*dsq
/4/
106
- 585 -
d,
/6/
Relation /6/ is quite general and indicates admissible limits of lattice deformation. Fig; 3 shows how the deformability increases with n, iie; with
spectrum occupancly.
The least theoreti-
ceil
R3
value
/di+ds/2
%ni.n*T
/7/
/a/
Od,
586
References
1
/1982/.
CORRECTION
The rhombic numbers - with b 9 F in
/2/ and without common divisor in (_a,
b,n} - do produce option /max. density/ latticesA But, against the assertions in b ,2,4] , all numbers satisfying /2/ - i.e. nonrhombic ones too yield fully regular lattices with eauilateral cochannel triangles$ for easy
check try with n 319 or 12,
581
107 R4
R. Sandell
British BroadcastingCorporation,Research Department
Tadworth, England
The Objective
Basically the objective of field
strength assessment in broadcast planning is
to ensure that every potential viewer and
listener has access to signals which will
provide acceptable reception quality.
Clearly, subjectiveassessmentsof quality
will vary, but many tests in the past have
provided informationon this aspect, and
minimum field strengths to provide services to
agreed standards have been estab1ished.l
Also, there will be wide differences in the
quality of the receiving installation,
although in this instance the planning
engineer has to assume that the user is making
the best use of the available signal.
However, it is recognized that there are
certain unavoidableconstraints- not everyone
can erect an external aerial which enjoys a
clear view to the transmitter. Similarly a
substantialproportion of the radio audience
will want to use portable or car radios.
Thus the measurement or prediction process
must take account of these factors in order
588
These
than 20 years for planning work.
curves avoid the need to carry out
time-consuming measurements of distant
stations - transmissions which cause
Inevitably,
interference to a new service.
there are errors inherent in this form of
assessment, which is prediction rather than
measurement, and these will be discussed
Here the use of measurement is
later.
analysed in respect of its ability to define
spatial variations of field strength.
where e
d=
n
2.56
\$-
589
107 R4
590
Acknowledgement
The author gratefully acknowledges the
permission of the Director of Engineeringof
the BBC to publish this paper.
References
1.
"A Comparison of
SANDELL, R.S.
Standards Used to Plan UHF and VHF
Networks". Royal Television Society
Journal Vol. 12 No. 7 Autumn 1969.
2.
Recommendation370 Vol. V.
Propagationin Non-Ionized Media
InternationalTelecommunicationsUnion,
Geneva.
3.
4.
591
108
R5
OPTIMUMFREQUENCY
ASSIGNMENTSTRATEGIES FOR
RADIO CELLULARSYSTEMS
G.A.
De Couvreur
Department
Ottawa,
of
Ontario,
SUMMARY
It has been established
that it is
possible
to achieve ideal spectrum utilization
for radio cellular
systems with a maximum
frequency
separation
strategy
and with an
intermodulation-free
assignment strategy.
In the complex intermodulation-free
case, the proposed method, which is based on
necessary
and sufficient
conditions,
reduces
the calculations
to the level of one cell and
provides
the means to select
the intermodulation-free
strategy
with the highest
achievable
The method can easily
frequency
separation.
be implemented on a computer with a simple
A simple example is used
efficient
program.
throughout
to illustrate
the concepts
involved.
CANADA
strategies
are presented
in this
paper.
= (fa,fl,...fMN1),
Af = fn+l
fO<fl<
freideal
for any
set of
con-
*** fMN_l
(1)
- f,
(2)
INTRODUCTION
An important objective
of frequency
assignment strategies
is to achieve optimum
spectrum utilization
within reasonable
constraints
imposed by interference
potential
considerat ions.
separation
between
two
First of all,
the frequency
spectrum
will be represented
by an equivalent
set which
is more amenable to mathematical
treatment.
The frequency
spectrum can be represented by a set of integers
that is
independent
of the values of the frequencies:
s = {0,1,2
It is possible
to achieve ideal spectrum
utilization
under the constraint
of theoretically
maximum frequency
separation
between the frequencies
in a cell.
In this
case, all frequencies
in a cell are equally
spaced and are therefore
in intermodulation
relationship.
It is also possible
to distribute
the frequencies with ideal spectrum utilization
and without any intermodulation
relationship between the frequencies
assigned to a
In this case, the theoretically
cell.
maximum frequency
separation
will not be
achieved,
but it is possible
to calculate
the maximum achievable
frequency
separation
and to obtain the corresponding
frequency
distribution.
The methods
mathematical
theories
MATHEMATICAL
FORMULATION
,...,
MN-l},
The N frequencies
represented
by:
Fm=
(SUES:
fk = fo+kAf,
assigned
O(n<N):
O<k<MN (3)
to the cell
m are
Olm<M
(4)
There is then an immediate correspondence between the frequency domain and the
integer
domain.
For instance,
the absence of
intermodulation
relationship
between three
frequencies
can be represented
by:
2fi
- fj
# fk+=+>
2i
- j # k
MAXIMUM
FREQUENCY
SEPARATIONSTRATEGY
The
strategy
will
starting
with
Let us assume
maximum frequency
be established
in
the derivation
of
that the smallest
separation
two steps,
an upperbound.
frequency
592
separation
AF between the two closest
frequencies in any ce.11 could be larger than the number of cells
M, and could be equal to M+l for
Then, in the cell containing
the
instance.
frequency would be
frequency
k, the closest
k+M+l, and the M intermediate
frequencies
would have to be assigned
to the remaining
M-l cells,
on a one per cell basis in order
to satisfy
the hypothesis
AF = M+l; this is
Therefore:
obviously
impossible.
The frequencies
in the second
be, with a shift
of three:
AF 5 M
The frequency
can then be represented
(5)
0 + M,
l+M,
Mll,
(M-l)
be achieved if
a cell are at a
equal to M. The
follows:
. . . . 0 + (N-l)M
. . ..l
(N-l)M
M, . . .,
(M-l)
i. (N-l)M
0
1
cell
M-l
INTERMODULATION-FREE
ASSIGNMENTSTRATEGY
The derivation
of a strategy
that
achieves
ideal spectrum utilization
without
intermodulation
relationship
within any cell
is a complex problem that requires
extensive
mathematical
treatment beyond the scope of
this paper.
Therefore,
the presentation
of
the method will focus on the concepts
rather
than on the theory.
The fundamental concept was to reduce the problem of distributing
MN contiguous
frequencies
among M cells
to the choice of an
appropriate
set of N frequencies
for a first
cell,
from which the frequencies
to be
assigned to the other cells
would be obtained
by successive
shifts,
so that equally spaced
frequencies
in intermodulation
relationship
would be systematically
in different
cells.
A simple example of 4 cells
with 3
frequencies
each will be used to describe
the
concepts.
In this case, the 12 frequencies
are first
distributed
among three subsets containing
4 equally
spaced frequencies
so that
each cell would be assigned one frequency
from
each subset.
These subsets are:
S] = 11, 4,
Fz = 19, 13 = 1, 81
Fk = ((sn
distribution
by:
+ kN)Mod MN , 0 (
method
k < Ml
(6)
111,
(7)
selected
OLn<Nl
(8)
O<n<N
-
(9)
The first
step consists
then in the
choice of three frequencies,
one from each
subset,
to be assigned to the first
cell,
with
the obvious constraint
that they cannot be
equally
spaced,
in order to avoid intermodulation relationships.
For instance:
F. = (3.7,2)
5)
9),
7, 101,
S.? = 12, 5, 8,
10,
would then
This shifting
process
can generate
the sets of frequencies
for the other cells,
provided that the resulting
integers
be expressed in Modulo MN arithmetic.
For
instance,
for the third cell:
Fo = (sn&S)
cell
cell
so = IO, 3, 6,
Fl = (6,
cell
n,0
=n +C
n70.
in the first
relationships:
N,s
n,l
cell
=n +C
N,s
=n +C
N
n,2
2 n,z
1
n,l
satisfies
the following
n,1
n,l
+s
n,2
-2s
+o
n,o
n,2
Cn 1 > Cn , 2 (11)
- 2sn 0
(12)
where:
AF
= Min
0,min
AF
0 ,max
= Max
R5
CONCLUSIONS
the set
AF = Min
108
(10)
, # + MN if
+s
593
(lSn,2
- n,,])
(13)
(lsn,2
- n,ll)
(14)
595
109R6
A SECONDGENERATION
MOBILE SPECTRUMMONITORINGSYSTEM
P. Vaccani
Department
Ottawa,
of
Communications
Ontario,
SUMMARY
The Canadian Department of
Communications has been using for several
years mobile spectrum monitoring
vehicles
to
gather occupancy data and has recently
been
engaged in the design of a second generation
mobile spectrum monitoring
system.
This second generation
system builds
on previous
experience
and utilizes
a microcomputer to automatically
control
the frequencies to be monitored in osder to obtain
The major differspectrum occupancy data.
ences from the previous
generation
is the
availability
of processed
and unprocessed
data
concurrently,
the capability
of automatically
controlling
and recording
data of additional
equipments that would support othes spectrum
monitoring
functions
and the capability
to
generate all reports with the on-board
computer.
INTRODUCTION
Currently the Department has a
number of mobile spectrum monitoring
vehicles
which are used operationally
to gather occupancy data automatically
for the land-mobile
bands at twenty monitoring
sites
across
Canada.
The monitoring
format for obtaining
occupancy data was jointly
developed by the
Departments
Communications Research Centre
(CRC) and Spectrum Management Systems (SMS)
and described
in the literature
(1,2,3).
These systems were obtained
in the mid 1970s
from SRI International
and modified
substantially
in the ensuing years and are now
approaching
the end of their life
cycle.
Recognizing
the need for replacing
these systems the Department proceeded on the
design and implementation
of a second generation Mobile Spectrum Monitoring
System; hereafter,
referred
to as MSMS. The MSMSwas to
be designed using the departmental
research
and operational
experience
with the first
systems; yet, taking advantage of the advances
in technology
in particular
in the microcomputer area.
This paper deals with the
characteristics
and functions
of this second
generation
Mobile Spectrum Monitoring
System.
CANADA
DESIGN OBJECTIVES
During the feasibility
phase of the
design of a second generation
MSMSa number
These
of design objectives
were fixed.
ob j ectives
were :
The microcomputer
on-board the MSMShad
1.
to be utilized
to the maximum extent possible.
channel occupancy and
Channel histograms,
other reports
had to be produced at the end
of the day and at the end of a full monitoring
The microcomputer
had to have the
run.
capability
to be completely
self-supporting
without the need of an off-site
computer.
2.
For economic reasons,
MSMShad to be
capable of providing
other monitoring
functions besides
occupancy monitoring.
The MSMS
had to be designed as a multi-purpose
vehicle
supporting
the enforcement
function
as well
as the occupancy monitoring.
As other requirements would be identified
in the future,
additional
equipment had to be easily
incorporated under computer control.
3.
The MSMShad to provide processed
and
unprocessed
data concurrently
for the same
monitoring
run.
This would allow further
research
and analysis
of the unprocessed
data
by programs using the on-board microcomputer
or an off-site
computer.
4.
The MSMShad to be easy to use with
particular
attention
given to the man machine
interface
and automated sufficiently
that
only one operator would be required.
A
diagnostic
capability
for fault identification and for carrying
out preventive
maintenance had to be included.
5.
The system had to be installed
in a removable enclosure
so that the investment
in
the system would be protected
from the higher
wear rate of the vehicle
and the removable
enclosure
could be moved from one vehicle
to
another.
'
596
Length = 3.66 m
Width = 2.29 m
Height = 1.9 m
.Access to Cab
ccess
Cover
597
DATE:
Frequency Coverage:
[Band I 138-174 MHZ] [Band II 406-470 MHz]
[Band III 806-870 MHZ]
Noise Figure:
8 dB maximum across the frequency coverage
Minimum Detectable Signal [in 10 KHz IF (SW)]:
Band II -118 dbm
Band I -121 dbm
Band III -115 dbm
Third Order Intercept Pt.:
Band II +16 dbm
Band I +16 dbm
Band III +3 dbm
IF Bandwidth: 3 KHz/l0 KHz
Scan Rate: 2 ms per channel
109 ~6.
REPORT
1133918
27-JUL-83
CHN
(MHZ)
25
50
75
100
406.050
********
TH 52%
BS 24%
46.1c,
**************t*******************
************
TH 88%
BS 33%
406.250
***********
TH 82%
ES 26%
406,350
*****t*******************************
***************
TH 92%
BS 38%
,**************************t***t*
406.450
TH 82%
BS 24%
406.550
*******
TH 62%
ES 22%
406.650
************t*******t*t********
*****t********
TH 68%
BS 34%
406.750
********
l ****t*********t*****
t********************************
*******
t******t********t********
t****t***************
**t*t****t****t******
406.850
*******
*****t*********t*****
406.950
*******
.*t******************
TH 52%
SS 24%
TH 52%
BS 24%
TH 52%
BS 24%
TH
8s
52%
24%
407.050
********
407.150
******
TH 52%
BS 24%
*t**t**t~***********
*******
TH 52%
BS 24%
r******,********+*****
407.250
407.350
tt******t***tt***t**t
*****a**
TH 52%
BS 24%
407.450
ttt**t***************
********
TH 52%
BS 24%
598
Data Display
The MSMScan generate two types of
displays ; those produced during monitoring
and those produced after a monitoring
session.
The reports
produced during the monitoring
session
are the Spectrum Activity
display
and
the System Status display.
The Spectrum Activity
display
is a
real time display
whose main function
is to
give the operator
an indication
of the
activity
and the validity
of the data
collected.
The signal
amplitude is plotted
as a function
of frequency
on the graphics
display
unit.
The System Status display
indicates
the mode of operation
and the commands available in that mode on the console
screen along
with the date, time and disk space left.
MSMShas three modes of operation:
the
command entry mode, the monitoring
mode and
the file
preparation
mode.
In the monitoring
mode the scan tables
being used for the
monitoring
session,
the scan table currently
in use and the raster number are displayed.
The reports
monitoring
session
is
on the printer
or the
be transferred
to an
displays
basis.
Operator
by Time report
on an hourly
and Control
The operator
interface
function
allows the operator
to monitor and control
the
operation
of the system via the console
The operator
can specify
the freterminal.
quencies
to be monitored and the operational
parameters to be used either
from a tape
cartridge
produced from the SMS database or
prepared on-line
by the operator
using the
text editor.
He can initiate
and terminate
monitoring
runs, invoke various
displays
and
print-outs
and run the analysis
programs.
If
he requires
assistance
the complete operational manual is available
to him on-line
on the
computer and he can request assistance
on any
command or mode via the help facility.
Diagnostic
Capability
A diagnostic
capability
is provided
to verify
that a particular
unit within the
Diagnostic
programs
system is functioning.
are provided to test the computer system and
The DEC 11/23 comthe receiver
subsystem.
[2]
[31 DE COUVREUR,G.A.,
Canada.
DROUIN, M.,
McCAUGHERN,R.W. and AHMED,S.N.
Acquisition
and Utilization
of Channel
Occupancy Data in the Shared Frequency
Assignment Process.
EMC Zurich
Symposium, Zurich,
Switzerland,
March 1981.
599
110
Sl
Introduction
The sourcesof electromagnetic
radiationlocatedin inhabitedareas
and in apartmenthousesare e*g.t
transmitters
of variousradio services
/ includingpolice,taxi,emergency
and amateurradio service/, medical
equipment/ RI!and microwavediathermy, lancetron/, small workshopequipment / inductiveheater,dielectric
welder / and householdelectronic
equipment/ microwaveoven,radiosand
TV receivers/. These sourcesmay remarkablychangeEM environmentand
disturbthe work of home entertainment
electronicdevices,e.g.: another
radio- or/andTV receiver,tape recorder, gramophone.
Till now the susceptibility
of
home entertainment
electronicdeviaes
to undesiredsignalshas been taken
into accountneitherby manufacturers
nor by scientists.It shouldbe mentioned,however,that this problemhas
satisfactorily
been solvedin modern
radiocommunication
equipment.It is
necessaryhere only to understand
necessityand to adopt well known protectivemeans and use them in home entertainmentdevicesas well.
In the previousworks Cl,&33
the authorshave shown that the above
formulatedthesisis true with respect
to widebandinterference.
In the prssent work the authorshave tried to
find not only reasonsof high susceptibilityto selectiveinterference
but also simpleand inexpensive
means
making it possibleto improveimmunity
of radio and.TVreceiversto selective
interference.
Some selectiveinterfe-,
rence has been observedin otherdevices than radios / e.g.: phonograph,
tape recorder,heart pacemaker,hearing aid /; these effects,however,are
ratherincidentaland they appearat
parasiticresonantfrequencies.
Such
frequenciesdependupon parasitic
inductancesand capacitances
and they
are usuallyabove severalhundredb!H5.
AB a rule these selectiveeffect8are
qtitewell eliminatedby the means
- 600 -
applied
outside chamber
measurements -----_-
_L-
!---
--
--
-_-
--
__---_-
--
--
I,
-7
__-__A
inside chamber
measurements
Fig.1 Test set for susceptibility
measurements of receivers with
ferrite rod antenna.
f
SPL
DUT
MAINS
f-
&asurin& methods
601
&
Ai.cos 2riifit
(11
i=O
Sl
Results of measurements
Basic theory
u(t)
110
(2)
[dBl
602
-10
-30
Fig.3a
-40
wave
range
low!i
-50
-60
SW
0
[dBl
-10
;<I
2
4
-20
130
<
_6_
\>,'a
-40
z%Z"
wave
range
10
-50
40
-60,
20
IO
2015
IO
30
5o
[MHz]
loo
MW
Q)
IdBl '
-10
!?
k
-20
- 603
-30
IdSI
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
110 Sl
-20
id61
-30
-40
-50
-60
neither that changes applied are optimal. Capacitive couplings play an important role when attenuations at the
level of above 40 dB are considered.
Thus, provisional reconstructions can
show only aualitative results. The results confirm the validity of the idea
presented. Its realization, however,
must be applied at the desigting atage
where each factor may be considered
and optimized.
In the original design of the receiver the first stage is an auto-generating mixer. It has been found that
its oscillations amplitude is too high.
As a result of this and of nonlinear
characteristics of the transistor, the
oscilator voltage was distorted. Due
to a change of the workin& point of
the transistor and changes in the oscillator circuits the voltage was reduced by 2 + 6 dB. This has remarkably
reduced the sensitivity of receiver
,j,I,
,I
r
(4...)"'
<-9OdB
\ 3"'
5 [MHz] '0
604
Ills2
- 605 -
ABSTRACT
This paper presents co-channel interference
on-board
techniques
in
an
cancelling
processing satellite system using orthogonal
The techniques based on mean
polarizations.
criterion
and
error
square
(MSE)
convolutional coding / soft decision Viterbi
decoding (SDVD) are introduced on board. The
bit error rate (BER) is derived for the mixed
and
an
of a desired signal
detection
co-channel interference when the
undesired
techniques are applied to binary phase shift
keying (BPSK), and is compared with that of
interference.
for
the
compensation
no
Performance results, obtained theoretically,
show that the techniques of both the MSE
processing and the SDVD realize an excellent
improvementsof the BER, and the improvements
become significant in a large interference
environment.
2 SYSTEM MODEL
1
INTRODUCTION
'CONVOLWIONAL
ENCODER
CHANNEL 1.
on-board
expected as a hopeful1 satellite scheme. ;:
the on-board processing satellite, various
including a
techniques
baseband
signal
become available on-board the
processing
practical
satellite.
As
effective
and
techniques for reducing the effect of cochannel interference, we consider a compound
strategy of mean-square error (MSE) signal
processing and soft decision Viterbi decoding
(SDVD) in binary phase shift
keying (BPSK)
systems [l]. The MSE signal processing has
been shown to be a useful scheme to reduce
the interference by Nichols [Z]. On the other
hand, the SDVD yields the significant bit
error probability (BER) improvements [3],
in future
and
is expected to be used
satellite systems. These two techniques never
CONVOLUTIONAL
ENCODER
CHANNEL 2.
EARTH STATION --
"1
LUP-LINK
PSK
MODULATOR
4/
r---_------.
RECEIVER ____________~
SATELLITE _____/
606
complex
the asterisk denotes the
where
conjugate, and the relations of ISm]2=1 and
(m=1,2) are used. Determination
E[ n?+,]=2p2
of the channel coefficients ( Tii ) leads to
the choice of thzoptimum v$.ghts
('&J;& ].
are obtained
and S2
The MSE outputs Sl
immediately. Now we let
Xi
=T22
T21=
lexp( 01
b exp($)
(6)
T:!=bexpk@)
the
where nd and n2 are
respectively,
mutually independent gaussian noises with
variance 2p2 . The on-board MSE processor
makes the mean square error between the
transmitted and received signals~minimum,,and
and S2 .
yields the MSE processor output S1
are
and $2
The estimated values 31
converted into digital forms using Q-l soft
decision thresholds. Then, the obtained Qlevel soft decision data is sent to the
transmitted
decoder to get the
Viterbi
information.
(7-j
i+=
where W is the vector of weights to be
determined,
Sm
is the transmitted BPSK
signal, and Frn is the estimated signal
reformed by the _MSE prEcessor.
The MSE
processor outputs Si and S2 in Fig.1 can be
expressed by linear combinations of
the
received signals r-1 and r2 as
(3)
and
z&=tiln
+2322r2,
(Ilef=
tlt2&-ti,+bZ(t!+2~2-I 1
(l+b2+2u412 -4bZ
4@b
(l+bz+ 2u-212-4bz
expC1N
(8)
f
(9)
2)nl+b(b2+2~z-11exp(-~9)n2 ,
(+*~;;b+
2@)2,,&b2
(10)
We note that the MSE processor output 3
consists of the signal component sef
, the
interference component &f
,
and the noise
component 0l.af
the probability
distribution fuActr&dr;geD.F.) of the MSE
output $
The probability distribution
function P.D.F. F(k) is expressed as
e+(t)=
&@q)(-w2)dI.f,
(12)
Ills2
60.7 _-.
hbi
p(n)=$ p(r)
= F-ck,&-
J (14)
dr
F(len~,
n=1,2;..,~,
(18)
gn.=k*Sq
E%f
I
p=
len-
{(d-Q+l)+p(~+-l))2
(151
= ck{(ch-(3+1)2 + p(d+(3--1,2}
iw-P+l)+P(d+g-1)2
where
CX= - i
2 &*
: inverse of SNR
(17)
and
p =
(19)
(n=2,~~~+J-1
and
where kn is the normalized threshold
is the space between the neighboring
n
thresholdsexcept for go and gg .
We show the derivation of the BER of the
SDVD using soft decision probability p(n).
For the convolutionalcode with rate qu/nu,
the BER Pb is tightly upper bounded by [5]
(20)
where d is the minimum free distance of the
code, Cq is the total number of erroneous
bits included in all incorrect paths whose
distance from correct path equals to q, and
the
coefficient Cq is obtained by
the
generating function T(D,N) of the code.
dT
where D correspondsto the free distance ,
and N corresponds to the error bit.
The first event error probabilityPq can be
derived from the soft decision probability
p(n) as follows, We let M be the metric of
correct path, and M* be the metric whose
distance from correct path equals to q .
Then, Pq is given by
density)
?
ived
1.C
threshold
VP&H
81
decision
soft decision
probability
:P()
soft
dT( D,N)
(Prob.
kn-1=A,
t (16)
4cq
EgiO
Q
P(Q)
Q-1
80-00
-es_
____
P(Q-1)
----
----
PW
,P(l)
symbol
IQ
Iq_,
.---
----
I,
l;l
symbol
11
I*
___-
----
&,
Ig
metric:
- 608
5 NUMERICAL RESULTS
PnI(1n)
609
10
without signalprccessin
__________withm
without SDVD
-------_-- with SDVD Q=2
-.-.+_
with SDVD 4~4
10-l
10 -2
-3
10
aJ
c1 10-4
$!
2
k
2 10-5
c,
;;:
10-6
lo-'
lo-8
0
246
10
12 14
SNR(dB)
Fig.5. BER of MSE processing
16
14 16
12
SNR(dB)
Comparison of BER of SDVD for Q=2
and 4.
2
Fig.6.
10
REFERENCES
SDVD
1.7dB
5.ldB
6 CONCLUSION
This paper has introduced the co-channel
interference cancelling techniques in the onprocessing satellite
communication
board
system utilizing orthogonal polarizations. In
order to reduce the co-channel interference,
MSE processor and the SDVD
are
the
equipped on board the satellite. The BER
both techniques has been
derived
using
analytically for BPSK. The numerical results
of BER have shown that the compound technique
yields the excellent BER improvements. To be
specific, the improvements become significant
in the case of low SIR.
- 611
RELATION
112
s3
NOISE
*
Shigeru YAMAZAKI,*cukihide NOGUCHI and*Hiroshi KURONUMA
*
Science & Technical Research Laboratories, Japa;*Bsoadcasting Corporation
Nippon Electric Company
l-lo-11 Kinuta, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 157 Japan
4-14-2 Shiba, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108 Japan
In this article, first, a newly developed
Summary
noise receiver is introduced. It has a wide IF
bandwidth for measuring the APD and CRD of the
newly developed noise receiver
is
A
impulsive noise received through nearly the
introduced, which has a wide IF bandwidth to
same transmission bandwidth as TV signals.
measure the APD and CRD of impulsive noise
an APD/CRD measuring instrument,
Secondly,
received through nearly the same transmission
which can
called a noise level analyzer,
bandwidth as TV signals. An APD/CRD measuring
measure the APD/CRD of the impulsive noise with
instrument, called a noise level analyzer,
a frequency spectrum of this width is also
which can measure the APD/CRD of the impulsive
introduced.
noise with a frequency spectrum of this width
Thirdly, the results of outdoor measureis also introduced.
ments of automobile ignition noise using this
Outdoor measurements are made of automobile
together with the
equipment is described,
ignition noise using this equipment, together
results of the subjective evaluation of TV
with subjective evaluation tests of TV pictures
pictures impaired by corresponding ignition
impaired by corresponding ignition noise. The
correlation of
the
measured
noise.
The
a very
subjective annoyance level shows
parameters of the percentage time and the
good correlation with the percentage time and
with the annoyance
average
crossing rate
the average crossing rate of the 'envelopecaused in TV reception is also described.
detected impulsive automobile noise, which are
both derived from APD/CRD, in both cases the
Wide-bandwidth noise receiver
bandwidth of the noise is 3.5 MHz and 120 kHz.
On the other hand, the quasi-peak voltage is
In order to investigate the statistical
not a proper parameter as far as the annoyance
properties of impulsive noise with nearly the
caused by automobile ignition noise in TV
same bandwidth as a TV transmission channel, a
reception is concerned.
new noise receiver was developed which can
ilr~c3SLkC
iis2
rx~;st:
envelope ara>liLude of a,,
arbitrary VHF and UHF TV broadcasting channel.
Interference from impulsive noise affecting
Fig.1 is a block diagram of the wide-bandwidth
noise receiver. The receiver has a 3.5 MHz
TV reception and causing the degradation of
picture quality has become a serious problem
bandwidth of 6 dB down and a dynamic range of
with the increase of automobiles, household
50 dB. The lowest possible input voltage is 30
appliances, various kinds of electric facilidB$l with 50 ohm termination. The noise is
ties, and other sources. Quasi-peak (Q-peak)
detected
after
being
compressed
by
a
voltage measured by a CISPR measuring receiver
logarithmic amplifier employed at a 57 MHz IF
developed for use in amplitude modulated sound
stage. The receiving frequency is variable by
broadcasting has been said to be not always a
*1.5 MHz with a 80 kHz step from the video
proper parameter by which to gauge the annoycarrier
frequency of any VHF and UHF TV
ance in TV pictures. On account of this, there
channel. The measurement error of the level
has been a need for a new look at more suitable
indicator
is within f2 dB. Three different
parameters from the statistical point of view,
holding times of 0.05, 0.3, 3.0 seconds can be
such as the percentage time of noise envelope
used for a peak voltage measurement.
amplitude or the average crossing rate obtained
from the amplitude probability distribution
Noise level analyzer
(APD) or the crossing rate distribution (CRD).
Only a few articles,
however,
have been
The newly developed noise level analyzer
published
with regard to the relationship
for the measurement of the APD and CRD of
between the annoyance in TV picture reception
impulsive noise has 24 high speed voltage
and such parameters.
comparators to discriminate the noise level
RF input
RF
attenuator+
(lOdBx5)
Logarith- Noise
mic ampl.' detector
Synthesized
oscillator
- 612
Gate
Control signal
32 Bits binary
counter for CRD-
a
P
CRT
Printer
Start/Stop
IF
Clock rate
Ext. trig.
Antenna
I,
Ban
pass
filter
(TV ch.2)
Power
splitter
Attenuator
CISPR
receiver
Widebandwidth
receiver
Power
combiner
Video
sip@&
TV signal
modulator
(TV ch.2)
Digital
--.
> data
recorder
12OkHz, envelope
----_
r---(offline)
Quasi-peak
>
various
Demodulator
recorder
Attenuator
Fig. 3. Noise measuring system.
- 613
112
10
% time
ordinate
(a)
Average
is exceeded
APD
10l
102
10
crossing
(b)
rate
10
s3
lEIS 10
(cps)
CRD
Table 1.
MOS=
Z?
i=l
i*qi
(1)
(dB)
(2)
- 614
5.0
g
B
%: time
* ; 10-1
0 ; 1o-2
4.0
t + ; 1o-3
E
s
; 3.0
,
n PJ/
0
?I
a
2.0
1
0
10
20
30
D/Uj (dB)
D/Uj (dB)
Fig. 8.
Relations between Q-peak
voltage and MOS at specified percentage time.
% time ; (a) .. 10 %
(:b) . . 5 %
(c) .. 1 %
11G 10
20
30
40
50
60
10
20
30
40
50
60
1
10
20
30
40
50
60
D/Uj (dB)
crossing rate
* ; 100 (cps)
: 4.0
: 4.0
s
$3.0
.ti
E?
2.0
9
2
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
D/Uj (dB)
Fig. 9. Relations between D/Uj and MOS for
3.5 MHz bandwidth at specified
average crossing rate.
Y =
1 / (1 + exp ( A-X
1)
A,B:Bregression constan::)
1.0
I.
10
20
30
D/Uj
I.
40
50
*I
60
(dB)
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
% time
(a) D/Uj= 41 dB
(b)
D/Uj=
(d)
29 dB
D/Vi=
11
dB
% time
(a) D/Uj= 56 dB
(b) D/Uj= 50 dB
(c>
(d) D/Uj= 29 dB
D/Uj= 41 dB
Fig. 13.
Relations between percentage
time and MOS for Q-peak voltage
at specified D/Uj.
(a) D/Uj = 44 dB
(b) D/Uj = 36 dB
(c) D/Uj = 28 dB
reception is concerned.
MOS at a given D/Uj versus percentage time
and average crossing rate
Relations between MOS and percentage time
at a given D/Uj can be derived from APD graphs
drawn for each noise measurement, shown for
example in Fig.4, and from corresponding MOS
data. This is also possible for the relation
between MOS and the average crossing rate.
Fig.11 shows the:relation between MOS and
percentage time at D/Uj ratios of 41, 29, 20
and 11 dB corresponding to a) through d) of the
figure. The noise bandwidth is 3.5 MHz. Graphs
indicate that there is a very good correlation
between MOS and percentage time when D/Uj
equals 29 or 20 dB. A similar relation holds
for noise with a bandwidth of 120 kHz when
D/Uj equals 50 dB, as shown in Fig.12. On the
other hand, the correlation is poor for Q-peak
3
cl
rerifd
l$lEW18
llQle'lB
ldldl~
(b) D/Uj= 29 dB
(d) D/Uj= 11 dB
CC> D/Uj= 20 dB
Fig. 14. Relations between average crossing rate and MOS
for 3.5 MHz bandwidth a< specified D/Uj.
(C)
D/Uj= 41 dB
(d) D/Uj= 29 dB
Conclusion
A newly developed noise receiver has been
introduced, which has a wide IF bandwidth to
measure the APD and CRD of the impulsive noise
received with nearly the same transmission
bandwidth as TV signals. A noise level analyzer
which can measure tne APD/CRD of the impulsive
noise having a frequency spectrum of this width
has also been introduced.
Outdoor measurements with regard to the
automobile ignition noise were made using this
equipment. Subjective evaluation tests of TV
ignition
pictures impaired by corresponding
noise were also made. The subjective annoyance
has a fairly good correlation with percentage
time and the average crossing rate of envelopedetected impulsive automobile noise, in cases
of both 3.5 MHz and 120 kHz bandwidths. As for
the parameters of quasi-peak voltage, the correlation was found to be poor. This suggests
that the APD/CRD of quasi-peak are not proper
parameters, as far as the annoyance of autois
mobile ignition noise in TV reception
concerned.
References
(1) Parsons, J. D., and Sheikh, A. U. H., "The
characterization of impulsive noise and consifor a noise-measuring receiver",
derations
Radio & Electron. Eng. Vo1.49, No.9, 1979.
(2) Matheson, R. J., "Measurements of Automotive Ignition Noise Using A DM-4 APD Meter",
IEEE Int. Sympos. on EMC, 1981.
- 617
113 s4
Japan
University
Sendai,
This paper deals with the electromagnetic radiation (EMR) caused by Ag-Pd
alloy contact switching. In the case of
a normal arc, the EMR level depends
upon the alloy composition of contact
materials, while, in case of a showering arc, it does not depend upon it.
A parallel capacitance connecting
between the contacts is effective for
suppressing the EMR.
Introduction
An electromagnetic
relay trends
toward small-size and low-power, as an
integrated circuit (IC) is being developed. There are many cases where the
relay is installed closely to the IC iii
an electronic equipment or a control
system. A discharge due to the relay
operation may cause the electromagnetic
interference to the various IC equipments, especially the IC is irradiated
by the electromagnetic
radiation (EMR)
from an arc which appears in breaking
contacts of relay. Thus it is very
important to clarify the characteristics and the generation of EMR which
causes by the breaking electric
contacts.
Meanwhile, in a low current region
of O-l-3A, various alloy contacts such
as Ag-Pd, Ag-Ni, etc., are widely used
in the relays rather than the pure
metal contacts.
This paper deals with the EMR caused
by silver palladium alloy contact switching. The Ag-Pd alloy contacts have
such good properties as low contact
erosion and very few brown-powder.
Ag-Pd alloy contacts are also not expensive compared with pure metal
contacts such as Pd and Au. From these
reasons, new manufactures of wire
spring relay now practically employs
the Ag-Pd alloy instead of pure Pd [l].
In this study, we operated Ag, Pd,
and Ag-Pd alloy contacts at the source
voltage of d.c.25V and 5OV and in air,
and then measured various properties
of the EMR caused by a normal arc and
a showering arc. As a result, it was
found that the EMR caused by normal
arc depends upon the alloy composition
of contact materials, while the EMR
Japan
Experimental
Method
Quasi-peak
value meter
Fig.1 Experimental
,
setup
bandwidth 4kHz (3dB down), and nonshielded loop antenna, and the other
has 25-23OMHz, 120kHz+lO% (6dB down),
and loop antenna. The quasi-peak value
meters have also the following specifications; overload coefficient of beyond
12dB and 43.5dB, charge time constant
of detector of 1+0.5ms and Ims, and
discharge time constant of detector of
600+120ms and 55Oms, respectively.
The distance between the contacts
and the loop antenna of the apparatus
is 3 meters. The floor of experimental
room was covered with the metal grounding screen. The height of the contacts
above the ground was kept at 0.5 meters
and that of the antenna at about 1
meter.
Measured
EMR Caused
Results
by Normal
of EMR
Arc
Fig.2 Typical
618
where e. is a standard field strength
of luV/m. We then obtain the following
relations in the frequency range from
0.1 to about 1OMHz.
e oc f-u
( .I
[dBl
waveform
of normal
(2)
arc
voltage.
80
I=2A
Ag
T
i:
-.
i
-L'**
.-c
..
;;.
Ag-208Pd
0.5
5
Frequency
Fig.3 Frequency
distribution
10
50 '100
f(MHz)
of electromagnetic
radiation
in normal
arc
619
(a)
(b)
0.15MHz
70
113 s4
f=5MHz,V=50V
50
-50
8
w
30
1
50MHz
10
Circuit
v=5ov
I
1
Circuit
EMR Caused
current
by Showering
Fig.4
Relation
5
current
between
I(A)
E(dB)
and I in
7
I(A)
ASI
Arc
v=25v
1=90mA
L=550mH
C=O.O026pF
200V/div.
lOOp.s/viv.
Fig.5 Typical
waveform
of showering
arc voltage.
limited up to lOOmA. Hence the only two
cases of 50 and 9OmA have been tested,
and the EMR from contact showering arc
were measured under the conditions
where the source voltage V=25V, inductive load (coil of relay)L=550mH,
and
parallel capacitance connecting between
the contacts C=O.O026pF. Figure 7(a)
shows the measured results of E(dB)-I
characteristics
for Ag contacts at the
frequencies 0.2, 1, 5, and 70MH2, and
Fig.7(b) shows those for Ag-Pd alloys
V=25V
1=9omA
L==550mH
C=O.O026uF
2
.:
u-l83
CG
:
(H"
&I
2
.5
40
I : Ag
T
20
h : Ag-20%Pd
1 : Ag-40%Pd
_
1 : Pd
.;
rd
$
0
0.1
II
Ill
0.5
III
1
Frequency
Fig.6 Frequency
distribution
I
5
III
50
10
100
f(MHz)
of electromagnetic
radiation
in showering
arc.
- 620
IIntermittent
(a)
1:
4.
@Z:z
20
arc voltages
0.2MHz
Ag
v=5ov
I=2.5A
lOV/div.
lms/div.
f=lMHz
w
v=25v
L=550mH
Fig.8 Normal
C=O.O026pF
arc voltage
100
50
Circuit
current
I(mA)
(b)
-
I:
f=70MHz
ACJ
-r
': Ag-20%Pd
;;i
2 40
E
_$I/=4
W
t: Ag-QO%Pd
v=25v
L=550mH
20
c
1: Pd
C=O.O026pF
I
I.1
50
100
Circuit
current
I(mA)
60
I : Ag
I : Pd
(c)
40
wave
(a)
(b).
Discussion
01
60
wave
/z
Z
w
/
f=SOMHz
20
Normal Arc
In order to clarify the effect of
circuit current on the EMR, the waveforms of both normal arc voltage and
EMR voltage were simultaneously
observed by using a 2 channel oscilloscope.
The EMR voltage was observed at the
output of the intermediate frequency
amplifier in the electromagnetic
field
measuring apparatus. Those observed
waveforms are shown in Fiq.8. The
source voltage is d.c.50V and the
circuit current is 2.5A for Aq contacts.
The larger EMR voltage is seen at the
portion (lower trace) corresponding
to
the lager amplitude voltage fluctuations in the waveform of normal arc
voltaqe (upper trace). The intermittent
arc voltage fluctuations, which is
shown in the upper trace of Fig.8, are
governed by the transition of arc phase
from a metallic phase to a gaseous
phase, and occur at the circuit current
2-3A [3].
On the other hand, Figure 9 shows
the relationship between arc duration
Ta and circuit current I. In cases of
Ag and Aq-Pd alloys, Ta chanqes discontinuously at 2-3A. It has been said
that this discontinuous
is also due to
V=lOOV
L=lOmH
Ag-20%Pd
C=O.OlpF
I
0
10
50
Circuit
Fig.7
Relation
100
between
500 1000
current
case of showering
III
A='
I(mA)
E(dB)
and I in
arc.
Circuit
current
Arc duration
current.
versus
7
I(A)
circuit
621
for Pd,
(5)
t1 < llus
for Pd.
On the other hand, according to our
experiments, the start time t of
region (3) is approximately
2$ Ops,
which is independent of the circuit
condition and the kind of contact
material. Hence, the regions (2) and
(3) are nearly independent of the
contact material, that is, alloy compo-
113 s4
Ag
v=25v
1=90mA
L=550mH
c=O.O0261;1F
2OOVldiv.
1 OOus/div.
f=50MHz
(a)
(b)
Fig.10
Showering
arc voltage
wave
wave
(a)
(b).
VE2
-~Lzztp--_I
I-----Fig.11
Schematic
Tsdrawing
of showering
arc.
sition. Therefore the duration tl of
the region (I), which depends on the
contact material, is only a few percent
of the total duration of showering arc
Ts (see Fig-II). From this reason, it
is considered that, since the showering
arc voltage waveform does not nearly
depend upon the alloy composition, the
EMR characteristics
become also roughly
independent of the alloy composition.
1" the meantime, the voltage across
the contacts begins to rise according
to:
dV
(6)
E t=() = ;
where
decrease
[4], so that the Z:MR can be
expected to decrease. From the above
consideration,
we tried to connect the
C-r series circuit between the contacts
in parallel. The result is shown in
Fig.12, and it is found that the C-r
series circuit is effective in suppressing the EMR from showering arc. In
case of the normal arc, we already
stated that the C-r series circuit was
effective for suppressing the EMR, as
well [2].
\
60
non C-r
44
40
-_
-1,
ACJ
\T
i\
20
C-r
C=0.33pF
0
III
0.1
0.5
Fig.12
Frequency
T.
r=14851
I III
I
I
5
Frequency
10
f(MHz)
distribution
Acknowledgment
\
3
w
622
of EMR
Conclusion
The results of this study are summarized as follows.
1. The EMR caused by normal arc depends
upon the alloy composition of the
contacts, while the EMR caused by
showering arc is independent of the
alloy composition of the contacts.
2. In the normal arc, the EMR is roughly inversely proportional to the
frequency in the range of O.l-IOMHz,
while in 25-20OMHz, the maximum of
EMR appears at about 70MHz. In the
showering arc, the frequency characteristics of EMR are similar to
those in normal arc.
623
114
s5
.T. Neessen
and P. Rijsdijk
Abstract
The electromagnetic
field
generated by video
is
investigated
at
units
(VDUs)
display
frequencies
above 30 MHz. This
type
of
data
generates
a radiated
equipment
processing
frequency
spectrum
consisting
of
two major
emission
in
the
Narrowband
components.
frequency
spectrum of
the
radiated
field
is
predominantly
generated
by the
VDUs clock
whereas the most powerful
broadband
circuitry,
emission
originates
from the circuits
for video
From the broadband emission
signal
processing.
of a VDU a TV receiver
will reproduce the image
ow screen.
displayed
on a VDU screen
on -its
This
phenomenon is more severe if a coherence
exists
between
the
broadband
and narrowband
emission.
1. Introduction
and assumption
The use of
square
wave signals
and fast
circuits
in digital
equipment leads
switching
fields
electromagnetic
radiation
of
to
containing
frequency
components up to far above
As the radiation
resistance
of
the VHF region.
inside
the
equipment
leads
interconnecting
increasing
frequency,
the
high
increases
at
frequency
parts
of
the
signals
in
digital
efficiently,
quite
equipment may be radiated
with
broadcast
reception.
and may interfere
generated
by
The electromagnetic
field
equipment
generally
consists
of
a
digital
narrowband
isolated
combination
of
linear
distances
on the frequency
signals
at regular
from the
axis,
and random noise originating
in
the
signals
random
binary
various
equipment.
We now confine
ourselves
to the interference
that
may be produced
in TV reception
due to
In general
there
will
these types of signal.
be no relation
between a broadcasted
TV signal
When a video
and the
interfering
signal.
display
unit
(VDU) is
incorporated
in the
digital
equipment this may no longer
be true.
In a VDU the information
is displayed
on the
screen using the same techniques
as in
a TV
receiver.
Therefore
there
is
a rather good
similarity
between the video signal
in
a VDU
and that
in a TV receiver.
In most VDUs even
the
same horizontal
and vertical
synchronused
as
in
TV
frequencies
are
ization
As the video signal
in a VDU is
a
receivers.
each harmonic of
impulses,
stream
of
square
this signal shows a remarkable similarity
with
a broadcasted
TV signal.
PTT
- Netherlands
Theory
figure
Overview
of
624
display,
the
bit duration
in the video signal
is shorter
than 50 ns in
most
VDUs.
Between
two
Success1 ve
bits
the
video
signal
is
generally
equal to zero.
This is
accomplished
by multiplying
the initial
video
signal
v(t)
with bit duration
Tb (< 100 ns) - with a square
wave
of
period
I,,,
using
a logic
AND. This
square
wave is called
the video-dot-clock.
The
video-dot-clock
is
already
available
in the
VDD, because
it is used for synchronization
of
the parallel
to serial
conversion
to obtain
the
initial
video
signal
v_(t).
Assuming
the
information
displayed
is
non-repetitive
the
initial
video
signal
v(t)
may be approximated
by a random binary
signal.
Now let
the
probability
af
v(t)
having
an
then
consequently
amplitude
equal
to A be
p,
the probability
of the amplitude being equal to
For a VDU
screen
full
of
0 is equal to l-p.
text
about
10% of the pixels
are white,
thus p
is generally
smaller than 0.1.
The autocorrelation
function
Rxx(7)
of
the
after
final
video
signal
x(t)
- obtained
multiplication
of v(t)
and the
video-dot-clock
An expression
for the
is given in figure
2.
power spectral
density
of the signal
x(t)
can
be obtained
by computation
of
the
Fourier
transform
of Rxx(~)
according
to
the
scheme
R,,(T) is decomposed into
given
in
figure
2.
the sum of two auto correlation
functions.
The
transform
of both functions
sum of the Fourier
is the power spectral
density
S,,(f)
of x(t).
2
sin(nfTb/2)
S&(f )=;A Tb(p-$)+pzk> 6 (f-k/T,,)
i.=
W&l:!
)[
I
In the above expression
we may
respect
to p, because
p < 0.1.
From the obtained
expression
neglect
and
knowledge
in
3. Verification
figure
Srheme for
comp~lf;~tion of
F&f)
Measurement set-up
For verification
of
the
reconstruction
of
TV
information
by a normal
the
radiated
according
to
set-up
receiver
a measurement
figure
4 was realised.
(Singer
NM 37/57,
The measuring
receiver
30-1000
MHz) is set to an IF banduidth
of 1 MHz
and the IF signal
is fed into
a TV broadcast
after conversion
of the frequency
to
receiver,
an arbitrary
VHF channel.
possible
In this
set-up
measurements
are
the TV broadcast
bands and the ambient
outside
fieldstrength
can be compared to
the
received
The effective
bandwidth
of the
image
quality.
1 MHz.
Thus
the
TV receiver
is reduced
to
readability
of
the received
image is reduced.
Measurements
proved
that
the picture
is
still
the
detection
bandwidth
is
readable
when
of the pixels
reduced
to 1 MHz. The stretching
on
the TV screen
can easily
be compensated
for
by adjusting
the clipping
threshold,
as
shown
in figure
3.
As the
video
signal
in
a VDU does
not
contain
synchronization
information
the
horizontal
and vertical
synchronization
signals
have
to
be
brought
into
the
TV receiver
seperately
to carry out the
measurements.
In
this
set-up
the
synchronization
signa Is are
reconstructed
from the magnetic
field
in
t,he
the VI%.
II-II c field
is gener;,tt.tA,i
II I cinity
of
114
-L
s5
black
white
-__--
ehreshold
_-
-et
black
white
-L
+t
frequency
domain
of I impulse
figure
Reconstruction
representarion
of
the video
signal
Overview
of
the measurement
setup
Measurement results
Reconstruction
of the displayed
information
the
received
interference
from
signal
is
generally
possible
in the
following
frequency
regions:
- at almost any frequency
between 30 and
300 MBz,
- at almost any harmonic of l/Tb
between
300 and 500 MHz, and
- at some frequencies
above 500 MHz.
The distance
between
the
VDU and
the
receiving
biconical
antenna may be as large as
reconstruction
of
50 metres
before
the
information
is
impossible.
displayed
This
refers
to
measurements
carried
figure
out
within
the
TV broadcast
bands, using only the
TV receiver
for reception.
For a VDU in metal
covering
this distance
is generally
reduced to
about 5 metres.
The fieldstrength
measured
at
1
MHz
bandwidth
is
independent
from the number of
characters
displayed
on the
VDU screen,
in
contrast
with the results
expected from theory
Additionally
it
was
p and p*).
(S,,(f)
::
noticed
from
the
fieldstrength
measurements
that there are more narrowband components
that
these
could
not
be
however,
expected,
large
distinguished
very
well
due to
the
video
signal
in a TV receiver
detection
bandwidth (I MHz).
Screening
of the circuits
for
video
signal
and disconnecting
the
CRT had no
processing
drastic
effect
on the
measured
fieldstrength
the
reconstructability
of
on
the
nor
information.
To explain
the
origin
of
the
unexpected
measurement results
a more detailed
analysis
of
the interference
from a VDU was performed.
4. Explanation
figure
TV receiver
of
results
Measured fieldstrength
as a function
of display
contents
In the theoretical
contemplation
of
chapter
2 it was assumed that the video signal
x(t) is
the most powerful source of
radiation
yn the
assumption proves to be inadequate
VDU.
This
for
explanation
of
the
measurement
results
obtained.
The radiation
originating
from the
video
be very
powerful
due to
the
signal
may
amplification
of more than 26 dB, however,
the
total
power is spread over the entire
frequency
axis.
In comparison to other broadband signals
it
will
be the
most powerful source in most
Narrowband
cases.
signals
such
as
the
video-dot-clock
and the microprocessor
system
clock
(see figure
I) may be radiated
as well.
but
less
These
signals
can still
strongly.
cause
high
levels
in
the
measured
power
spectral
density
of
the
radiated
field
at
discrete
frequencies,
since the total
power is
concentrated
in equidistant
spectral
lines.
This could perfectly
explain
why narrowband
spectral
components
are
measured
at
small
frequency
intervals,
the
level
of
which
is
independent
of the number of charachters
on the
VDU screen.
To verify
this
assumption
measurements
of
the
interference
produced by a one single
VDU
The video4ot-clock
of
the
were carried
out.
VDU chosen is equal to 11.004 MHz. The system
clock
frequency
is
equal
to
1.57
MHz, so
may be expected in the
narrowband
components
radiated
spectrum at 1.57 MHz intervals.
Two types of measurement were carried
out:
interference
available
- The maximum
on The mains
power cord
was
power
using
the
CISPR
absorbing
measured
clamp.
- The electric
field
radiated
by the
VDU
in
the
direction
of maximum radiation
626
i
f--I
:!
1%
3Q
40
60
80
140
IQ0
290
220
240
figure
hb
260
Fieldstrength
radiation at
Bandwidth
frequency
I
30
40
60
80
140
100
figure 6
160
280
in direction of maximum
pal)
I meterdisfance.(hor
10 km,
in MHz
180
200
220
240
300
260
280
628
S,,(f)
is
obtained
through
convolution
of
S,,(f)
and S,,(f):
It can easily
be seen that the video
signal
only
modulated
on the
narrowband
is
not
components
but
to
all
cOmpOnetItS
k/Tb ,
i / (n+m )Tn (which includes
all components k/T, ) .
Because of the structure
of the video signal
density
of the broadband
the
power spectral
simple
the
obey
will
not
components
sine-function
assumed in chapter 2, as can also
be seen from figures
5 and 6.
In most VDUs a square
wave with
period
to
clock out the video
(n+m)Tb
is
necessary
successive
memory to obtain the coding for the
arrays to be changed into a video signal
pixel
by parallel
to
serial
conversion
(see
also
This parallel
to serial
conversion
figure
1).
is synchronized
by the video-dot-clock
signal.
Since the signal
with period
(nun)Tb is in many
VDUs in the range l-2 MHz it is often also used
incorporated
as
the
system
clock
for
the
Therefore
the narrowsystem.
microprocessor
band components in the radiated
electromagnetic
with
the
radiated
video
field
are
coherent
signal.
exists
it
has
a large
If this coherence
effect
upon the
demodulation
of the received
5.
Conclusions
Reference
Papoulis,
A. :
and stochastic
Probability,
random
processes,
McGraw-Hill,
variables
1965.
OVERVOLTAGE
629
115
PROTECTION
S6
CIRCUITS
W. Biichler
Meteolabor
8620
Wetzikon,
This
paper
deals
with
protection
measures
against
overvoltages
in electrical
conductors
resulting
from NEMP or lightning.
Measurements
recorded
for discharge
elements
and protection
circuits
under NEMP conditions
will be presented in addition
principles.
to
generally
applicable
Switzerland
basic
of
Overvoltage
given
to
the
protection
following
circuits
is the
combinations
name
of primary
and secondary
protection
elements
which have at
least one longitudinal
element
for de-coupling
various
voltage-limiting
elements.
The scope
of this paper is limited
to arrangements
which
as far as possible
are universally
applicable.
Basic
principles
Protection
conductors
of overvoltage
against
overvoltage
is achieved
the
parameters
are:
sibly li2qdt.
di/dtmax,
Requirements
of
overvoltages
imax,
not
time
during
destroyed
appreciably
Residual
which
and
/i .d,t and
for discharge
in electrical
by dischar-
phase
does current
to flow.
Important
Discharge
elements
are
to the following
criteria:
as
the
elements
assessed
1:
are
is
not
changed.
voltage
clear
Data on the maximum
energy absorption
capadity
(J) are not useful criteria
as it is not
to absorb energy,
rather to prevent
its conduction, i.e. to reflect
it. The ideal protective
element
(short circuit)
absorbs no energy whatsoever.
is
made
between
two
phases
,max
I
I
Fig.
function
element
values
most
important
task
of a protective
Equally
useless
are certain
data
over delays'
by protective
elements.
according
certain
discharge
its electrical
pos-
the
second
begin
I).
differentiation
(fig.
of
during
the
significance
Discharge
capacity
The
flow of current
in principle
discharge
Only
any
protection
ging
energy
pulses
to chassis
(Faraday
cage)
and
ultimately
to earth.
Discharge
elements
such as gas-filled
surge protectors,
varistors,
protective
diodes
etc. are used for this purpose.
In
AG
Voltage
protector
and
imax
flow
'spark-
The manufacturers
of protective
diodes
often
give a
switching
time
of less than IO-12
seconds.
This value
applies
only to the semiconductor
chip.
Zt has practically
no significance
for a
protective
element as a whole.
2.Phase
current
on
element
in
a gas-filled
surge
In many practical
applications
the protec-"
tive value of a discharge
element
is not detkrmined by the theoretical
characteristics
of the
element,
rather
by the skill with which it is
installed.
Therefore
one should
pay as much
attention
to this aspect as to the evaluatian,
of a component.
630
discharge
manufacturers
of
Unfortunately
elements
issue little or no useful data on the
performance
of their products
under NEMP condi-
- Each
ways
manufacturer's
230V surge protector
alhad the lowest
dynamic
sparkover
vol90V
or
900V
surge
protectors
have
tage.
higher
of gas-
- The
values.
dynamic
after
sparkover
powerful
voltage
discharge
in
attenuates
the
specified
range.
Gas-filled
surge protectors
- Gas-filled
minimum
Make
Fig.
2:
Coaxial
pulse
voltage
for
generator
a du/dt of
4kV/ns
A
sure
coaxial
was
specimen
to
spark
used
the
maximum
as
gap
under
switching
sparkover
steepness
normal
gap.
voltage
du/dt
gap
On
air
the
prestest
in a voltage
protectors
values
lay
do
between
Specif.
discharge
cap.
(8/20)
kA
not
always
Table 1: Dynamic
sparkover
__-
covering
dard
range
60
1.4kV
and
3.7kV.
Sparkover
voltage
max.
X
min.
(kV)
1.4
2.0
2.1
0.24
0.14
10
20
IO
II
III
was adjusted
of 2-3kV. A commercially
available
coaxial holder was used for the test specimen.
The bandwidth was 400MHz
which is equal to a rise time
of approximately
0.9ns. Fig. 3 shows a typical
voltage curve for a particularly
high sparkover
level,
surge
sparkover
at the same voltage
under
uniform
test conditions
(this depends
on the momentary
ionization
level of the gas).
Table
1
shows
the
results
of 60 dynamic
sparkovers
using
230V
surge
protectors.
Maximum
and
The dynamic
sparkover
voltage
was measured
in the test arrangement
shown in fig. 2.
2.3
2.5
3.7
voltage
sparkovers.
range
X:
1.8
2.4
3.1
(du/dt
mean
0.32
=
value,
4kV/ns)
s:
stan-
fluctuation.
energy
when
which
voltage
smaller
than
lightning).
with
Overvoltage
Overvoltage
Fig.
3:
Voltage
small
curve
div.,
t:
for
9ov
Ins/small
surge
protector. u: 5oov/
div.
principle
makes in detail,
as follows:
the
results
can be summarized
protected
- NEMP)
overvoltages
protection
-
protection
of such
is
(e.g.
circuits
circuits
are a combi-
coerse
protection
Fig.
of
The longitudinal
to
Ooutput
4: De-coupling
rent through
and enables
an arrangement.
ZL
input 0
di/dt
value
Altogether
110 specimens
from three ceramic
8x8mm
series
(static
sparkover
voltage:
9OV,
23OV, 9OOV) from three different
manufacturers
were
tested.
Between
the
initial
and
final
sparkover
tests,
pulse tests
were carried
out
which loaded the surge protectors at the highest
discharge
impulse
current
specified
by
the
manufacturers.
Without
examining
the individual
slower
the
rapidly
nation of primary
(coarse) and secondary
(fine)
protection
elements.
Fig. 4 showstheinvariable
A voltage
rise and drop
of approximately
4kV/ns was recorded.
We can assume that with
a
higher
bandwidth
a
somewhat
higher
peak
voltage
would
have
been measured. The second,
smaller
pulse
is due to the inductive
voltage
drop at the surge protector.
The maximum
recorded
here was over lOOkA/vs;
the peak
f at 300A.
reaches
increases
primary
and
element
fine
protection
secondary
protection
2~ limits
the
cur-
the secondary
protection
element
the increase
in input voltage
up
sparkover,ifa
gas-filled
used at the input.
surge
protector
is
Fig.
5 shows
the equivalent
circuit
for a
protective
circuit with a 9.1V protective
diode
of the 1.5kW type in conductive
condition.
631
115
These
components
are
designed
units
in a Faraday
cage which
tion protection.
The protected
sides
are
Secondary
Bipolar
thus
optimally
5:
Equivalent
9.1V
circuit
protective
LL largely
of
diode
a
in
protection:
protective
circuit
conductive
diode
with
fail-safe
Secondary
Capacitor
RL
must
than
be
the
at
frequency
inductance
least
of the
so large
that
table
protection:
.
Q-d
unprotected
0
1
diode.
even
protected
0
1
23ovprotector
with
a slow increase
in input voltage the protective
diode
is not destroyed
up to just below
the
static sparkover
voltage of the surgeprotector.
Normally,
RL is designed
for a pulse of I-IOms
The
time-to-half-width
value
of a
duration.
(see
lightning
current
is approximately
Ims
also
protected
condition
high
Fig.
7: Diagrams
wiring
to
show
diagrams
Dstand
off Ppeak
(Ims)
90V
a bipolar
RL min
surge
230V
protectors
n
6.63
12.9
2.1
3.6
6.5
0.83
1.45
surge
protectors
n
26.8
6.63
12.9
600
600
600
1500
1500
IN6051
26.8
1500
2.6
7.5
5KP7.0
7.0
13.0
5000
5KP13
0.22
0.40
0.58
1.1
5KP28
28.0
0.69
2.1
various
5000
5000
longitudinal
2: Minimum
primary
NEMP
protection
Fig.
tection
some
principle
commercial
and
block
protection
cir-
2).
P6KE8.2
PbKE16
P6KE33
IN6037
IN6044
Table
operating
of
cuits
Diode-versions
Prot.
diode
characteristic
;3J"
be-
larger
the
with
determines
protection
as feed-through
provides
radiaand unprotected
de-coupled.
unprotected
Fig
S6
shows
circuit
and
resistances
secondary
circuits
a
for
3.9
using
RLmin
protection
for signal
commercial
5.3
9.6
18.7
2.1
elements
lines
single-wire
universal
application
pro[I],
ting
(6/12/24V,
protective
voltage
diode
of +6.6V,
see
fig.
7)
for a maximum
+12.9V,
+26.8V
have
operaas
re-
quired.
These models are designed
for the protection
of signal
inputs
and outputs
without
For inputs
and outputs
electrical
isolation.
with
electrical
isolation
the protection
circuit with capacitor
output
(C-type)
is recommended.
The
low-pass
cut-off
frequency
(3db
drop) lies at approximately
18OkHz.
Because
of
the large gap between
the probable
useful frefrequency
range) and
quency
range
(e.g. voice
the cut-off
frequency,
the protection
circuit
has
no
useful
circuit
influence
on
line
termination
frequency
range.
Thus
the
is universally
applicable.
in
the
protection
Faraday
side.
cage
voltage
surges
The radiation
is not affected
occur
on the
attenuation
by installing
pro-
of
such
a component.
surge protector
younding
disk
cted
case
Fig.
6:
Internal
protected
Fig.
6:
Protection
circuit
(series
USSl)
coupled.
construction
and
of
unprotected
protection
sides
are
circuit.
The
ideally
de-
632
9 shows
the frequency
response
curve
Fig.
(50Q
insertion
transmission
loss) of a C-type
protection
circuit.
The uniform
curve over the
whole
cut-off
range is due to the good shielding between
the input and output, the low parallel capacitance
of the impedance
coil.
In both
With
slow
voltages
traces
of really
high
put
voltage
rates-of-rise
in general
higher.
are
circuit
OdE
cases
frequen-
cy voltages
at the outputs were practically
imperceptible
(the upper cut-off frequency
of the
oscillographs
was 400MHz).
this
not
can
in the
connected
approximately
worst
to
earth)
the
With
case
attain
output
C-type
(filter
out-
a value
of
550V.
[VI
600
50dE
500
400
300
lo-500MHz
200
100
OdB
n
1
"0
Fig.
11:
C-type
du/dt
With
50dB
input
5051
insertion
type
protection
Fig.
10
set-up
Fig.
transmission
shows
conditions.
It
to that
output
of
voltage
5
for
loss
of
a commercial
C-
circuit
the
was
shown
output
measured
in fig.
voltage
under
NEMP
in a similar
test
2.
WI
different
input
of
the
less
low-pass
unhindered.
The
than
25OV/vs
filter
output
the
can
pass
voltage
peak
0,5-2,4GHz
9:
the
rates-of-rise
signal
practically
Fig.
circuit,
at
voltage
With models
using diodes the output voltage
can, in the worst case, attain twice the maximum permissible
operating
voltage.
If voltage
increases
slowly to just below sparkover
of the
surge
jected
protector
the
to the
greatest
protective
diodes
are
sub-
stress.
The
discharge
capacity
of these
types
of
protection
circuit
is 25kA
(waveform
8/2Ops).
With a single pulse of 40kA (waveform
8/2Ops),
lasting
changes
to data
can arise,
although
basic operation
(normal operation
and switching
functions)
is not affected.
10a
Conclusion
Fig.
Gas-filled
surge protectors
are highly
suitable as primary protection
elements
even under
NEMP conditions.
Unlike
previous
concepts
with
separately
mounted
surge
protectors
and filmodern
protection
circuits
in
which
ters,
coarse-protection,de-coupling
and fine-protec-
lob
and
space-saving
other and
more comsolutions.
Bibliography
under
Fig.
voltage
output
Fig.:
lob:
output
NEMP
voltage
conditions
for
diode-type
(24V)
circuit
conditions
for
C-type
circuit
under
NEMP
Biichler,
W.
Bosshard:
"Blitzschutz
elektronischer
Get-ate und Anlagen",
Eigenverlag Meteolabor
AG, 8620 Wetzikon
[II
w.
[2]
Meteolabor
AG: "UeberspannungsDatenblstter
spannungsschutz",
Schutzschaltungen
und Starkauflicher
633
116 ST
Abstract
The results of computer simulation
study of phyrsicalprocesses taking
place Sn the iterative interference
canceller (IIC) are reported. The
canceller irrdescribed and arimulation
resulta are given in the form of
threahold CUTVC(J.The data obtained
prove8 an IIC capability to separate
reliably two FM signalersharing the
aame bandwidth.
Introduction
The development of devicea for
separating two 'FMsignal8 sharing a
common bandwidth would significantly
improve electromagnetic compatibility
(EXC) of the existing FM communication
Prystems[I and lead to novel communication ayai ems transmitting two FM
signalerover a common bandwidth with
high noise immunity retained. Iterative interference canceller is one of
much promising devioos. The theoretical investigation at S/N exceeding
the IIC threslholdlevel iarpresented
in 12 . The theoretical analyaim of
the I4C operation near a threahold
area is rather complicated, and because of thiar,the computer simulation
of phylricalprocearee occurring in IIC
waa chosen for our study. This method
is very attractive, Princeit provide@
a complete analysis of the IIC operation near and above a threlrholdlevel.
IIC Description
A block-diagram of the IIC under
study is ahom in Fig.1. The canceller
includea a number of iteration atepa.
Two demodulatora of the 1-th step,
DW
and DEM21, extraot merxrages
and weak FM signalar.
from?atrong
Each
Dmi;S
Simulation alnorithm
Basic relationship which are neC)e#aary for the IIC lemulation are given
below. A arignalat the IIC input h'arr
the form
W(t)=Im(A,exp[j(U,t+a,+Y,))+
A2eXP[j(W2t+a2+~2)]+n(t)exp(jqt~],(1)
- 634
W~~ft)=Im(Aiexp[j(Wit+ai+Q_+
9;r +Eil)l) 9
wherenW=W2-U,, k=A2/A,< 1,
(3)
Y/2l(t)"Im(ln{l~
(4)
l
Aa=a2al,
Av=(P2 -$$
2)
3)
I.*.._..___
635
116 ST
Simulation results
The program developed was used to
obtain the relationship,E. (p),
between a mean power of in?.&modulation product, resulting from the
evaluation of the i-th signal at the
LF output of the IIC 1-th step and
S/N-p at the IIC input. The dependence, &. (p), agrees well with the
theoretic&& results at the area above
the threshold level (21.
naln and IIC. Fig 2 presents this
dependence for the case of an ideal
LPI?,in IIC,when f =fb2, m,=m2,
Fig.2, that
kxO.1. It is meen &om
the separation of two FM signals
takes place,when p>pn . The value
ofp, may be called a threshold for
IIC. The analysis of curves for
strong FM signals reveals that from
the second step of iteration there
are two values of p (p,, pn; with
), above which the signal rec&$8$% is markedly improved.
This results from reaching a
threshold in the first (p,) and in
the second (p ),frequency discriminator, It may b& shown, that the IIC
threshold may be estimated by the
following approximation formulae,(dB)
636 -
P=-20
, when k)0.5
Pn =-20 lg(l-k)
This estimation is supported by
the curves of the figures presented.
Fig.2 show&that extraction of
desired messages in XIC becomes
greatly improved (by lo+15 dl3)at
p>>l, when l-2, rather than l=l.
However, the use of l--3instead of
1~2 does not significantly increase
noise immunity at the mentioned
values ofp . This results from the
fact, that after the second step of
iteration, the level of interfering
signals
is lower than the level of
thermal noise. Because of this, at
the subsequent steps of iteration the
;;;;z $&lo;;;;
$;i~~;;~;o;Yb~e
reduced by increasing the number of
iteration steps. Consequently, an
additional step of iteration is effieient,only if at its input the level
of an interfering signal is higher
than that of thermal noise.
Simulation results reveal an improvement in the IX! noise immunity
at p>>l and rise in m. This is conditioned by the widening of the
bandwidth occupied byY/. (t). If the
L3?Fpassband ia fixed, %&en this
leads to 3
reduction.
SimulHtion of IIC at ml=ms=md
has shown that two FM signa s
not be separated at any modulation
indices, but only if mb2.5. When
m<2.5, the aeparation of two FM signals does not occur in IIC.