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11
INTRODUCTION
11.1
A bridge circuit in its simplest fonn consists of a network of four resistance arms
fonni.ng a closed circuit, wi th a de source of current applied to two opposite junctions and a current detector connected
A
tO the oU1er two junction~, as shown in
'/
':::-!._2
Fig. I I. I.
Bridge circuits are extensively
used for measuring component values
such as R, L and C. Since the bridge
circuit merely compares the value of
an unknown component with that of
an accurately known component (a
standard), its measurement accuracy
can be very high. This is b ecause the
readout of this comparison is based on
B
the null indication at bridge balance,
Fig. Ill Wheatstone's bridge
and is essentially independent of the
characteristics of the null detector.
The measurement accuracy is therefore directly related to the accuracy of the
bridge componen and not to that of the null indicator used.
The basic de bridge is used for accurate measurement of resistance and is
called Wheatstone's bridge.
I I .2
!CCI maT.Cr
Bridges 323
When SW 1 is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at point
A , i.e. I 1 and I2 . The bridge is balanced when there is no current through the
galvanometer, or when the potential difference at points C and Dis equal, i.e. the
potential across the galvanometer is zero.
To obtain the bridge balance equation, we have from the Fig. 11 .1.
II Rl = 12 R2
(ll.l)
ExR1
ExR2
Rl + Rl R2 +R4
Rl X (R2 + R4) = (RI + RJ) X R2
R1 R2 + R 1 R4 =R1 R2 + R3 R2
R4 = R2 RJ
Rl
Thls is tlle equation for tlle bridge to be balanced.
ln a practical Wheatstone's bridge, at least one of the resistance is made
adjustable, to permit balancing. When the bridge is balanced, tlle unknown
resistance (normally connected at R4 ) may be determined from the setting of the
adjustable resistor, which is called a standard resistor because it is a precision
device having very small tolerance.
R = R2 R3
Hence
..
(11.4)
RI
Example fl.l
Therefore
R2 R3
Rx=
IS k x 40 k
=
10k
60kil
324
flectronic lnstrumen!Orion
equiva!em vo!t&ge is
R1 +R3
. b,
and at pomt
ExR4
6 = ---"R2 +R4
Therefore, the voltage between a and b is the di.fference between Eu and Eb,
which represents Thevenin's equivalent voltage.
ExR
R, + R3
3
tit = Eub = E - Eb = - -"-
Therefore
=E (
R1 + R~
R3 _ R4 )
R, +Rl Rz +R.a
11 .3.
Bridges 325
The equivalent resistance of the circuit is R1//R3 in series with R2//R4 i.e.
R 111R3 + R/IR4
TL--------------4ob
E,~
R,~ + Rg
( 11.5)
Example11.2
An rmbafm,ced
Whearstone bridge is given in Fig.
/l.5. Calculme the current through
the ga/vanomete1:
Solution The Thevenin's equivalent
voltage between a and b is the difference of voltages at these points i.e.
,1, = 0
..
Eh=
E _ 6(
th -
Eb = Eh- ,..
R4
Rz + R4
R3 )
Rr + R3
10 k
2.5 k + 10 k
Fig.II.S
3.5 k )
I k + 3.5 k
R,,, =
R,h =
R1 + R3
+ --''-''R2 + R4
I k X 3.5 k
2.5 k
10 k
= 0.778k+2k
= 2.778 k
The equivalent circuit connected along
with the galvanometer is as shown in Fig.
R,h=2.n8k
-=-
Ech
o.132 v
Rg =3000
11.6.
The current through the galvanometer is
given by
Fig.ll.6
Equivalent circuit
E,h
0.132 V
=
.
A
42 88
g = R," + Rg - 2.778 k + 0.3 k
~
ExR
ExR
=-R +R
2R
E
2
E(R + D.r)
R + R + D.r
2R + D.r
ch
E - E
a
.!.)
D.r)
E (2R+2D.r-2R-M J
4R + 2D.r
- E ( 4R
~;D.r)
l'
Bridges
.-- - -a
Rtlr =
317
R X R _R...!..(R_+_D.J
~
)
+
R+R R+R + t.r
= R
+ _R-'(R_+
_ D.J....:..
)
2R + 6.r
bridge
R = -+- =R
th
Example 11.3
10V
Etlr =
4R
Ag.ll.9
10x35
= 4 X 700 = 0.125 V
Thevenin 's equivalent resistance is
R,, = R = 700 n
The current through the galvanometer is
E,h
O.l25V
0.125
lg= Rr~,+Rg =700 + 125= 825 = !Sl. 5 J.IA
If the detector is a 200 - 0 - 200 J.lA galvanometer, we sec that the pointer is
full scale for a 5% change in resistance.
ted "'1 a
328
Electronic Instrumentation
KELVIN'S BRIDGE
11.3
ooma!E.na
Bridges 319
Rd) R
-= - 1
R.b R2
(11.6)
and the usual balance equations for the bridge give the relationship
Rt
(Rx + R,b) = ~ (R3 +Rub)
( 11.7)
R,b Rt
R.b + R,b = Ryand -R =R
but
ob
Reb
R
+ } = -+}
Rob
R1
Rt +R2
= __,__.._
R2
Rl +R2
i.e.
Therefore
.-----tilt - - - - .
Ek
Hence
R = RI R3
x
R2
(J 1.8)
double bridge.
Elk= /me
R2
xE
( I 1.9)
But
E=
and
R2
11, = R
R
2
xI R3 + Rx +
(a+ b)R,.
a+b+ RY
(11.10)
b - [(a+b)Ry]J
Similarly, Etmc= I R3 + (
a +b a +b+Ry
(11.11)
But
1.e.
Rx+
(a+b)R>.
a+b+R>.
+R3 =
RR
1 1
- -
R2
+R3 +
hR1 R,,
bR>,
R2 (a+b+Ry)
+--..__a+b+Ry
R = R1 R3 +
bR1 R-"
+ bRY
x
R2
R2 (a+b+R>.) a+b+RF
R =
'
R R
bR1 R,.
R2
R2 (a+b+Ry)
1 3
--+
But
R1
a+b+R,.
R = R1 R3 +
bR1 Ry
x
R2
R2 (a+b+Ry)
R = R1 R3
bR_,,
"
R2 + (a+h+R,.)
(a+b)R_v
a+b+R>'
aRY
a+b+R>,
(RR
a)
b
Copyr ti!d ma r G
Bridges 331
Therefore,
This is the usual equation for Kelvin' s bridge. lt indicates that the resistance of
the connecting lead RY' has no effect on the measurement, provided that the ratios
of the resistances of the two sets of ratio arms are equal. In a typical Kelvin 's
bridge the range of a resistance covered is I - 0.00001 Q (10 J..lohm) with an
accuracy of 0.05% to 0.2%.
Example 11.4 If in
Fig. 11.12
the ratio ofRa 10 R h i.dOOO Q, Rt is
5 Q and R 1 = 0.5 R 2. What is the
vol11e ofRx.
-=-
Since
Rb = _1_
R0
1000
R 1 = 0.5 R2, R2 = 5/0.5 = 10 Q.
Therefore
n.
11.4
3 32 Elearonic lnstromentotion
.-------111
_____,..__ __.__~8~-----~-:-~
--------,
f-'
Standard
Resistors
9 Steps
of 0.001 0 each
Manganin Bar
with Sliding
Contact. 0.0011
fig.11.13
11.5
II
Bridges 333
Error
Signal
1
Fig. 11.14
Since R, varies by only a small amount, the amplitude of the error signal
is normally quite low. It is therefore amplified before being used for control
purposes.
Example 11.5
of
.
5
4
Resistance
in
3
6V
Signal
e,
'
1 - l . . .
---~----
.'
'
'
'
'
--~~---r---~----
I
--- ~- ---:----1--r---:----
(a)
I
I
I
1
I
I
40
60 80 100
Ag.II.IS
Solution
(i) The value of R, when the bridge is balance is calculated as
5 k.Q
Temperature c
(b)
5k
---1---~--------~---1---
I
I
I
I
R1
I
I
(0,0) 20
R,. = R2 RJ = 5 k X 5 k
, ,
I
I
I
kn
Error
'
, L ~- --
E/eCIJ'Onic Instrumentation
334
(ii)
e, = E ( R
= 6 (
=
=
=
5k
5 k + 5k
~ R..)
4.5 k )
5 k + 4.5 k
6 (0.5 - 0.4736)
6 (0.0263)
0.158 v
The error signal can also be determined by usmg the foJiowing
equation.
500 )
(tlr) 6 (4x5k
es = Erh=E 4R
es = 0.150 v
DIGITAL READOUT BRIDGES
11.6
The tremendous increase in the use of digital circuitry has had a marked effect
on electronic test instruments. The early use of digital ci.rcuits in bridges was to
provide a digital readout. The actual measuring circuitry of the bridge remained
the same, but operator error in observing the reading was eliminated. The block
diagram for a Wheatstone bridge with digital readout is shown in Fig. 11.16.
t\ote that a logic circuit is used to provide a signal to R3, sense the nuJI, and
provide a digital readout representing the value of Rx.
r----e--llll - - - - - - ,
R3
Programmable
Resistors
Fig. II.IG
Bridges 335
11.7
Digital computers have been used in conjunction with tes.t systems, bridges,
and process controllers for several years. In these applications, computers were
used to give instructions and perform OJ?Crations on the data measured. When
microprocessors were first developed they were used in much the same way as
digital computers. However, real improvements in performance occurred when the
microprocessor was truly integrated into the instrument. With this accomplished,
microprocessors cannot only give instructions about measurement, but also they
can change the way the measurements are taken. This innovation has given rise
to a whole new class of instruments, called Intelligent Instruments.
The complexity and cost of making analog measurements can be reduced
using a microprocessor. This reduction of analog circuitry is important, even if
additional digital circuitry must be added, !because precision analog components
are expensive. Also, adjusting, testing and troubleshooting analog circuits is time
consuming and often expensive. Digital circuits can often replace analog circuits
because various functions can be done either way.
The following are some of the ways in which microprocessors are reducing
the cost and complexity of analog measurements.
I. Replacing sequential control logic with stored control programs.
2. Eliminating some auxiliary equipment by handling interfacing,
programming and other system functions.
3. Providing greater flexibility in the selection of measurement circuits,
thereby making it possible to measure one parameter and calculate
another parameter of interest.
4. Reducing accuracy requirements by storing and applying correction
factors.
Instruments in which microprocessors arc an integral part can take the results
of a measurement that is easiest to make in a given circuit. then calculate and
display the value of some other desired parameter, which may be much more
difficult to measure directly.
For example, conventional counters can measure the period of a low
frequency waveform. This is then converted to frequency either manually, or
using extensive circuitry. On the other hand, such calculations are done very
easily by a microprocessor. Measurements of resistance and conductance,
which are reciprocals of each other offer another example. Some hybrid digital/
analog bridges are designed to measure conductance by measuring current. This
measurement is then converted to a resistance value by rather elaborate circuitry.
With a microprocessor based instrument, a resistance value is easily obtained
from the conductance measurement.
Many other similar examples could be presented. However, the important
thing to remember is that the microprocessor is an integral part of the measuring
instrument. This results in an inte'lligent instrument that allows us to choose the
easiest method of measurement and requires only one measurement circuit to
obtain various results. Specifically, one quantity can be measured in tenns of
Copyr!Qtllec. Male~ul
another, or several others with completely different dimensions, and the desired
results calculated with the microprocessor.
(One such microprocessor-based instrument is the General Radio model
I658RLC digibridge.)
Such intelligent instruments represent a new era in impedance measuring
instruments. The following are some features of these instruments.
I. Automatically measures R, inductance L, capacitance C, dissipation
factor D and storage factors for inductors Q.
2. 0 .1% basic accuracy
3. Series or parallel measurement mode
4. Autoranging
5. No calibration required
6. Ten bins for component sorting/binning (equivalent, binary number)
7. Three test speeds
8. Three types of display-programmed bin limits, measured values or bin
number.
Most of these features are available because of the use of a microprocessor,
e.g. the component sorting/binning feature is achieved by programming the
microprocessor.
When using the instrument in this mode, bins are assigned a tolerance range.
When a component is measured, a digital readout (bin number) indicating the
proper bin for that component is displayed on the keyboard control panel.
ACBRIDGES
11.8
zt
Zz
23
z4
-=Head
Phone
Fig.ll.17
ac Wheatstone's bridge
vopynghloo ma!E.na
Bridges 337
11.9
Detector
Ca
z, =R,
Z:z = R2
Z3 = R3 in series with C3 = R3 - j!OJC3
Zx = Rx in series with Cx = Rx- j!OJC,
The condition for balance of the bridge is
z, ~,= z2 z3
I.e.
R1
(R. -__l_C.)
{))
R, R- }R,
' (/) Cx
R1
(R, - ~ )
J'
{))
'"'J
R2 R3- jR2
(/) C3
Two complex quantities are equal when both their real and their imaginary
terms are equal. Therefore,
i.e.
R1 Rx = R2R3
and
--~--
R1
roCx
R2
ro C3
:.Rx =
c
X
R2RJ
R
I
~ C3RI
[ 11 .12(a)]
[11.12(b)]
Since R3 does not appear in the expression for C", as a variabie element it is an
obvious choice to eliminate any i11teraction between the two balance controls.
-~I' r1edf"1
338
Electronic Instrumentation
llc
R 3
2
I Ok
WO X I 0-6 = 20 ~
50 k
The equivalent series circuit is sb:own in Fig. ll.l9.
500 kQ
201!f
. _ _b
Fig. 11.19
Solution
Step 1:
Step 2:
2850
2000
R1
Step 3: Loss angle of the capacitor (a series RC circuit) is defined as the angle by
which current departs an exact quadrature from the applied voltage. 8' is the loss
angle of the capacitor and is given by tan 8.
tan 8
= XRx
roC:c"Dx = 2-'C
D
"J x"x
,r
Hence
~If= 0.06533
vC
Bridges 339
11.10
RI
R
x
R2R3
({11.13(b)]
R1
Example 11.7
An inductance comparison bridge is used to measure intluclive impedance at a freq uency of 5 KHz. The bridge constwJIS at balance
are L 3 = 10 mH, R 1 = 10 kQ, R1 = 40 Kfl, RJ = 100 KI2 Find the equiva/ew
series circuit ofthe unknown impedaJ1ce.
Solution Gi ven L3 = l 0 mH, R 1= I 0 kQ, R 2 = 40 kQ, R3 = 100 kQ. To find R,
andL,.
From balance equation,
Step I:
Rx =
R2 R3
R,
40 K x I 00 K
l OK
400 kQ
IOmH x 40 K
=40mH
lOK
Step 2:
--......JWVV---'
40mH
L..._-b
Fig.l1.21
MAXWELL'S BRIDGE
11.11
1.e.
Zx=
zz2z3
Detector
Ag.11.22
Maxwell's bridge
=~Z3 Y1
Where
rv
(11.14)
z1
I
22 = R2
23= R3
Zx = Rx in series with Lx = Rx + jwL_,
From Eq. (11.14) we have
R.r + Jwlx = R2 R3
+ jOJC1
R2R3
+ jw C 1 R2 R3
R,
Equating real terms and imaginary tenms we have
Rx + jOJLx =
--
,
R, R
Rx = - -- 3 andL_. = C 1 R2 R3
R,
Also
Q= wLX
=we; Rz R3 X R,
(11.15)
=we, RJ
Rx
R2 R3
Maxwell's bridge is limited to the measurement of low Q values (I - 10).
The measurement is independent of the excitation frequency. The scale of the
resistance can be calibrated to read inductance directly.
The Maxwell bridge using a fixed capacitor has the disadvantage that there is
an interaction between the resistance and reactance balances. This can be avoided
by varyimg the capacitances, instead of R2 and R3, to obtain a reactance balance.
However, the bridge can be made to read directly in Q.
vopynghloo mal!m~
I
Bridges
341
Example 11.8 (a) A Maxwell bridge is use~ to mf:asure w r inductive impedance. The bridge constrmis at balance are \
C, =0.01 pP. R1 = 470 kt2. 'R2 = 5.1 kQ an<( R1 = 100 ktl
Find the series equivalent ofthe rmlmown iml(edance.
Solution We need to find Rx and L .
R2 R3
I00 k x 5.1 k
R = -- =
=
470 k
Rl
I.O~kn
Lx= R2 R3 C 1
= 5.1 kx JOOkxO.O I !lf
= 5.1 H
=1.09 k
L, = 5.1 H
a - -JVWL---__J
fig. ll.23
Example 11.8 (b) The amrs of an ac J\llaxwe/1 's bridge are arranged as follows:
AB and BC are non-reac1ive resist01:~ of 100 Q each. DA a standard variable
reactor L 1ofresistance 32. 7 Q and CD consists ofa standard variable resistor
R in serie.~ with n coil ofun/..?ro,vn impedance Z. balance wasjound with Lt =
50 mH and Z = 1.36R- Find the Rand L of coil.
Solution Given: R 1 = 32.7 n, L 1= 50 mH
R2 = 1.36 Q , R3= 100 Q , R4 = 100 Q
Step 1: To find 'r' and L2 where r is the resistance of the coil
Given that
R4R1 = R3(R2 + r )
..
32.7 x 100 = 100 ( 1.36 + r)
100(32.7 - 1.36) = I 00 r
r = 32.7 - 1.36
r = 31.34 n
Step 2: To find L2 ,
L2
= L,
R4
100
=50 mH X R3
100
X -
L2 = 50 mH
342
Elearonic Instrumentation
HAY'S BRIDGE
11.12
The Hay bridge, shown in Fig. 11.24, differs from Maxwell's bridge by having a
resistance R 1 in series with a standard capacitor C1 instead of a parallel. For large
phase angles, R 1 needs to be low; therefore, this bridge is more convenient for
measuring high-Q coils. For Q = l 0, the error is I%, and for Q = 30, the error is
0.1%. Hence Hay's bridge is preferred for coils with a high Q, and Maxwell's
bridge for coils with a low Q.
Detector
2 1 2, = 22 23, where
At balance
2 1 = R 1 - j l wC1
22 = Rz
23 = R3
z.= Rx + jmL,
Substituting these values in the balance equation we get
(Rx + jmLx) = Rz R3
( R1 - _)_)
mc1
R , Rx+
LX me
jR, +jml..x
. ' R
zI
I=
R2 R3
R 1 R., +
R2 R3
(11.16)
mL R
(1 1.17)
and
.t
I
m,
C
Solving tor L, and Rx we have, Rx'"' ol L, C1 R1
R1 (m R 1 C1 L,) +
LX
G;'
=
R2 R3
vopynghloo ma!E.nal
Bridges 343
. .1
(ff
RI
cl
L.. +
cLX : R2 R3
I
at R~ q Lx+Lx = R2R3 c,
There 1iore,
C1
LX = I R2 2R3R2
c
+W
(11.18)
2
I
R
.
w C1 R1 R2 R3
1+W 2 R2
c 2
I
I
(11.19)
The term w appears in the expression for both L. and Rx This indicates that
the bridge is frequency sensitive.
The Hay bridge is also used in the measurement of incremental inductance.
The inductance balance equation depends on the losses of the inductor (or Q) and
also on the operating frequency.
An inconvenient feature of this bridge is that the equation giving the balance
condition for inductance, contains the multiplier 1./( I + !/~). The inductance
balance thus depends on its Q and frequency.
'
Therefore,
R R C
2 3 1
= --''--''---'":.t
I+ (I/ Q)2
For a value of Q greaterthan I 0, the tem1 1 /~ will be smaller than 1/ 100 and
can be therefore neglected.
Therefore Lx = R2 R3 C 1, which is the same as Maxwell's equation. But for
inductors with a Q less than 10, the 1 /~ term cannot be neglected. Hence tbis
-bridge is not suited for measurements of coils having Q less than I0.
A commercial bridge measure from I )l H - I00 H with 2% error.
Detecto
Fig.11.25
~
p r
ted ma
344
E.lectronic Instrumentation
. =
(J) z Rl R l R 3 Cl2
I+
(1)2 R2 Cl
I
(3000)2
10 k X 2 k X I k X (I X 10- 6 ) 2
I+ (3000) 2
(2
kl
(I X I0- 6 ) 2
180 X 103
1+36
= 4.86kQ
and from Eq. ( 11.18) we have,
L =
R 2 R3 C I
I + (1)2 R l2 e
x
=
ll
10 k X I k X (I X 10- 6 )
--~~:....:.;___.!.;,........;...;;_..:._...,.....,..
2
2
2
I + (3000)
(2 k)
(I X I 0~)
I0
10
= - = 0.27 = 270 mH
I +36
37
Solution
Step I:
(J) =
Step 2:
L = R 2 R 3 C41
I+ (J)2
Ci Ri '
L =
1
Step 3: R =
=
1
Ci R 4 R l R 3
I+ (1) 2
RJ
(J)l
Ci
(1)2
Bridges 345
(tJ
= 314 radls
Step 2:
CJ R4 R2 R3
I + w2 CJ RJ
R = W
x
SCHERING'S BRIDGE
A very important bridge used for tl1c
precision measurement of capacitors
and their insulating properties is. the
Schcring bridge. Its basic circuit
arrangement is given in Fig. I L.26.
The standard capacitor C3 is a bigh
quality mica capacitor (low-l.oss)
for general measurements, or an air
capacitor (having a very stable value
and a very small electric field} for
insulation measurement.
For balance, the general equation
is
11.13
Detector
c.
where
as
Copyr
ted r'1a
R X
_j_)
me,
R2 (- j} +
~ C,
R, (mCJ)
CJ
(11.20(a)]
CX = -R, C)
R2
[ 11.20(b))
_.
and
CJ
The dial of capacitor C 1 can be calibrated directly to give the dissipation factor
at a particular frequency.
The dissipation factor D of a series RC circuit is defined as the cotangent of
the phase angle.
D = -X' = mCX RX
X:
Also, Dis the reciprocal of the quality factor Q, i.e. D = 1/Q. D indicates the
quality of the capacitor.
Commercial units measure from I 00 pf- I J,lf, with 2% accuracy. The dial
of C3 is graduated in terms of direct readings for C.., if the resistance ratio is
maintained at a fixed value.
This bridge is widely used for testing small capacitors at low voltages with
very high precision.
The lower junction of the bridge is grounded. At the frequency nonnally used
on this bridge, the reactances of capacitor C3 and c;:, are much higher than the
resistances of R 1 and R2 Hence, most ofthe voltage drops across C3 and Cx> and
very little across R1 and R2 Hence if the junction of R1 and R2 is grounded, the
detector is effectively at ground potential. This reduces any stray-capacitance
effect, and makes the bridge more stable.
ac .bridge
has the following constants (refer
Fig. /J.27).
AnnAB- capacitor of0.5 J.lF' in
parallel with 1 k!2 resislance
A;m AD - resistance of2 k!2
Arm BC - capacitor of 0.5 J.lF'
Arm CD- unknown capacitor C,
and Rx in series
Frequency- I kHz
Determine the unknown capacitance and dissipation factor.
~-----1~o~et~e~ct~ot-----~ D
c.
Fig.lt.27
Bridges 347
Solution
c,
R = x
c3
R2 =
0.51.J.F
o.s f.LF x 2 k = 2 kQ
C = !i_ xC3 =
X
R2
~
x0.5"F
= 0.25"~<
2k
...
t-"'
D = mCx Rx
= 2 X 3.142 X I 000 X 2 k X 0.25 ).LF
= 4 X 3. 142 X 0.25
= 3.1416
Example 11.10 {b) A sample ofinsulation was placed in C/1'111 A 8 ofa Schering
bridge, when the bridge was balanced at a frequency of 50 Hz. the other arms
of the bridge were as follows
Arm BC- a non-inductive R of 100 Q
Arm CD- n noll-inductive R of300 Q i11 parallel with a capacitor of0.5 pF
Arm DA -a loss ji"ee capacitor of 100 pf
Determine the capacitance, egui1alent series resista11ce a11d PF of the
iusulation in test arm AB
Solution Given R3 = 100 Q
R4 = 300 Q, C4 = 0.5 I.J.F
C2 = 100 pf ,f= 50 Hz
Step I:
a>=2l!f= 2 X 3.14 X 50 = 314
R
300Q
C 1 = - 4 X C2 =
X I 00 pf = 300 pf
R3
100 Q
Step 3:
R =
c4
' c2
x R3 = 0 5 I.J.F x 1oo
100 pr
= mR4C4
= 314 X 300 X 0.5 X ( 0-6
5
= 314 X 309 X I-& X (Q-6
=4710x 10-6= 0.0471
'
. dma-
348
Jectronic lns[IUmentalion
Solution
Step I:
(I)= 2;rf= 2 X 3.14 X 50 =314
Step 2:
c, =
R:R
x C2 =
100
soo x w-'- =
300
Step 3: Dielectric loss angle is given by
tan o= toC4R4
. = 3.14 X 0.1 x I0-6 x LOO
= 3.l4 X lOX 10- 6
tan 6 = 0.03140
Hence
1.8
166.6 pF
o=
It is given that
d = th.ickness of sheet in metre= 4.5 x 10-3
.f= 50 Hz,
w =2'!(=2x3. 14x50=314
A =area of the electrodes in m2 = n-(6 x I0-2
- 1'
1000
C2 = LOS x 10 -, R4 = - - , C4 = 0.5~-tF, R3 = 260 Q
n-
Step 1:
c1 =
c,
R
- 4 x C, =
R3
1000
1000
x 105 pF=-- x 105 pf
1t X 260
8164
128.7 pf
Step 2: PF is given by
(J)R4C4
Bridges 349
1000
2 X :1:-1-+ X 50 X-- X 0.5 X I 0-6
w- o.5 = o.o5
J(
1x
KA
0
=
=
2 2
)
12
x3.14x36 x l0-4
579.15xto-s
1ooo.8s x 1o- (;
5.786
Example II.ID (e) A capacitor is tested by a Schering bridge which .forms one
arm AB ofthe bridge. The other arms are
AD- a non-inductive resistance of I 00 .Q,
DC - a non-1-eactive resistance of300 Q in parallel with a capacitor of0.5 f.1F,
BC- a stm1dard loss fi"ee capacitor of1Q,OpF.
Tlte supplyfl-equency is 50 Hz. The bridge is balanced.
Calculate the capacitor value and /he power factor ofthe capacitor under test.
R.s
300
C1 = - x C2 = x iOOpF
R3
100
c. = 300 pf
Step 2:
,.. = R3 X c4
c2
= R2 x ~ = 100 x
CJ
0 6 10
x -<i
100 X 10-12
6 MQ
R.
300
-P
Step 2: C, = - x C3 = - x I00 x I0 - = 300 pF
R2
100
x
C2
0.25 JlF
=
~x5kQ
25
=2ill
R
2ill
Step 2: CX = -R1 x c,, = - x 0.25 "J::
Sill
1-'-'
2
~cpyr
1100"'
Bridges 35 I
WIEN'S BRIDGE
The Wien bridge shown in Fig. 11.28
has a series RC combination in one
arm and a parallel combination in the
adjoining ann. Wien 's bridge in its
basic form, is designed to measure
frequency. It can also be used for the
measurement ofan unknown capacitor
with great accuracy.
The impedance of one arm is
Z, = R 1 -j/roC~;
T11e admittance of the parallel arm
is
11. 14
Detector
R _ R C
- 2 - - 1 +- 3
(11.21)
l
- -= wC3 R 1
(11.22)
Therefore
and
R4
R3
C1
we, R3
cJ -;: __1 _
(I)= ---;=:====:=~
Jc,R,C3 R3
as
w=2 7C/
l=
21e Jc, R, c 3 R3
( I 1.23)
The two conditi\)ns for bridge balance, (1 1.21) and (11.23), result in an
expression determining the required resistance ratio R21R4 and another expression
determining the frequency of lhe applied voltage. If we satisfy Eq. (11.21) and
also excite the bridge with the frequency of Eq. ( 11.23}, the bridge will be
balanced.
In most Wien bridge circuits, the components are chosen such that R 1 =
R3 = R and C 1 = C3 = C. Equation ( 11.21) therefore reduces to Ri R4 = 2 and
Eq. (11.23) to/= 112rrRC, which is the general equation for the frequency of the
bridge-circuit.
The bridge is used for measuring frequency in the audio range. Resistances R1
and R3 can be ganged together to have identical values. Capacitors C 1 and C3 are
normally of fixed values.
The audio range is normally divided into 20 - 200 - 2 k - 20 kHz ranges.
In this case, the res-istances can be used for range changing and capacitors C 1
and C 3 -for' fine frequency control within the range. The bridge can also be used
for measuring capacitances. In that case, the frequency of operation must be
known.
The bridge is also used in a harmonic distortion analyzer, as a Notch filter, and
in audio frequency and radio frequency oscillators as a frequency determining
element.
An accuracy of0:5%- I% can be readily obtained using this bridge. Because
it is frequency sensitive, it is difficult to balance unless the waveform of the
applied voltage is purely sinusoidal.
f=
2rr
f=
2rr
f=
21C
1=
Jc, R R
1
Js
Js
Js
C3
I
x 10-9 x 4. 7 x 103 x 1ox 10-9 x 1ox 1oJ
I
10- 10
105
2TC
4. 7
= 3.283 kHz
4.7
C-opyr
ted male
Bridges
353
Example11.12
R~ =
JOOkil
RJ = R4
R2
= 100 k ( 3 J k +
25 k
(15.7 1 k )2
I
)
3.1 k X {5.2 X I 0- 6 ) 2
= 12.41ill
Example 11.13
liJ2 '1 R1 R3
I=
2n~R1 C1 R2C2
= -=-2n-_J's===o==o=x=o=.5=J.l=:F=x=4==o=='o=x=t=J.L:==F
I
=--r============
12
2nJsoo x 400 x o.s x 10-
106
= -:2n
- -/t:8700:=x=2:=:070
10
= 1000kHz = 1000 _ 0.398 kHz
2nx400 2x3.14x400 314x8
C,
4
-2+ - = RI c2 R3
400
800
0.5 J.lF
I J.lF
1000
= -R
0.5+0.5= 1000
R
R = IOOOQ
WAGNER'S EARTH (GROUND) CONNECTION
11.15
Copyr ti!d ma r ~
Bridges 355
11.16
One arm of this bridge, shown in Fig. 11.30, consists of a series resonance circuit.
The series resonance circuit is formed by R11, C11 and L11 in series. All the other
Rb (Rd + j(J)Ld-
_1_)
(J)Cd
jRb
RbRd+j (J)LdRb- (J)C =RaRe
d
= R0 Rc
f=
I
21r ~Ld cd
(1 1.24)
MAXWELL-WIEN BRIDGE
11.17
Bridges 357
z,z3 =Z2Z4
But
.
Z1 = R//;Xc1,
I
I
1
.
I+ j(J)C1R1
=- + -.- = - + J{J)C1 = _.::....__,__,_
zt Rt ]XCI Rt
Rl
R,
Therefore,
Z 1= - - - ' - - - -
1+ }ID c, R,
Therefore, (
. R,
) (R3 + j(J)L.; ) =R1 R4
I+ J{J) C1 R1
Therefore,
R2 R~
--
R,
Therefore, L3 = C1R2R4
H ence the unknown resistance R3 and unknown inductance L3 can be
determined
Example 11.11
Prom F ig. 11.3 1'
R2 R~
RIRJ = R2R,j, therefore R, "'
T "'
600 x 400
1000
240 n
fig. ll.31(a)