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TOPIC 6
29/11/2015
Viruses:
Cannot become active outside living host cells. They simply exist as
inert virus called virions. Only when they invade a cell and take over its
metabolic machinery, can the virus carry out its living programme
Cell:
Cell remain alive as long as their metabolic reactions in the
cytoplasm are maintained. If metabolism is halted, the cell dies.
Entry of an enveloped virus into a cell:
1. Attachment- when a viral particle encounters the cell surface, it
attaches to the receptor sites of proteins on the cells plasma membrane.
2. Penetration- one the viral particle is attached, the host cell begins to
engulf the virus by endocytosis. This is the cells usual response to foreign
particles.
3. Uncoating- the nucleic acid core is uncoated and the biosynthesis of
new viruses begins. Mature virions are realised by budding from the host
cell.
The bodys defences:
The ability to ward off disease through the various defence mechanisms is
called resistance.
Non-specific resistance includes a first line of defence such as the physicl
barriers to infection (skin and mucous membranes)
Second line of defence (phagocytes, inflammation, fever and antimicrobial
substances)
Specific resistance is a third line of defence that forms the immune
response and targets specific pathogens. Specialised cells of the immune
system, called lymphocytes, produce specific proteins called antibodies
which are produced against specific antigens.
Specific and non-specific resistance:
Non-specific resistance comes under innate immune responses and it
means a degree of resistance in general to a group of organisms.
Specific resistance involves the activity of memory cells and are targeted
to a specific organism
Action of phagocytes:
Humans cells ingest microbes and digest them by the process of
phagocytosis are called phagocytes.
How a phagocyte destroys microbes: Detection/ Ingestion (microbe is
engulfed)/ Phagosome forms (encloses microbes in a membrane) / Fusion
with lysosome (enzymes that digest the microbe) / Digestion (microbes
are broken down by enzymes) / Discharge (indigestible material is
discharged from the phagocyte cell)
Inflammation:
Damage to the bodys tissue can be caused by a series of physical
agents, microbial infection, or chemical agents. The damage triggers a
defensive response called inflammation.
Stages of inflammation:
1. Increased diameter and permeability of blood vessels- increases
blood flow to the area of damage
2. Phagocyte migration and phagocytosis- the squeeze between cells
of blood vessel walls to reach damaged area.
3. Tissue repair- create new tissue to replace dead or damaged cells.
The lymphatic system:
Some tissue fluid returns back into the circulation through a network of
lymph vessels. This fluid, is called lymph, is similar to tissue fluid, but
contains more leucocytes. Has an important function in the immune
response. Lymph nodes are primary sites where the destruction of
pathogens and other foreign substances occur.
Lymph node- As lymph passes trough the nodes, it filters foreign particles
(including pathogens) by trapping them in fibres. Lymph nodes are also a
store of lymphocytes. Once trapped macrophages destroy the foreign
substances by phagocytosis. T cells may destroy them by releasing
various products, and/or B cells may release antibodies to destroy them.
The immune system:
The humoral immune response involves the action of antibodies secreted
by B cell lymphocytes. Protects the body against circulating viruses and
bacteria and their toxins.
The cell mediated immune response is associated with the production of
specialised lymphocytes called T cells. It is more effective against bacteria
and viruses located within host cells.
B cells:
Develop from stem cells located in the liver or foetuses and bone marrow
of adults. Mature in the bone marrow. B cells recognise and bind antigens.
Each B cell recognises one specific antigen. Helper T cells recognise
specific antigens on B cell surfaces and induce their maturation and
proliferation. B cells defend against bacteria and viruses outside the cell
and free antigens. Types: Memory cells and plasma cells.
T cells:
Develop from stem cells located in the liver or foetuses and bone marrow
of adults. Mature in the thymus gland. T cells responds only to antigen
fragments that have been processed and presented by infected cells or
macrophages. Types: Helper T cell, T cell for delayed hyper sensibility,
Suppressor T cell, Cytoxic T cell.
Antibodies and antigens:
HIV- rapidly mutate and change the proteins on its viral envelope so its
not detected by the immune system.
Able to reduce the production of specific immune proteins on the
surface of host cells. Reduces/prevents immune response to HIV.
Hides its antibody binding sites within valleys on its protein coat that
are too small for antibodies to reach.
Definitions:
Lysozyme- enzyme that tears contain. Kills bacteria by breaking down
their walls. Protects the body from harmful bacteria in the air we
breath or the food we eat and wash out foreign material.
Phagocytosis- often seen in association with inflammation. It involves
two groups of white blood cells, the neutrophils and macrophages.
These are both known as phagocytes as they ingest pathogens. The
phagocytes can sometimes be seen as pus where they accumulate.
Inflammation- often occurs when the infection is localised at a site.
When the tissue is damaged mast cells and damaged while blood cells
release histamine.
Interferon- when cells are invaded by viruses they produce a group of
chemicals called interferon. An interferon diffuses from the cell where
it is made into the surrounding cells. It then binds to receptors into the
surface membrane of uninfected cells. This stimulates a pathways
which makes the cells resistant to infection by viruses by stopping
them reproducing. This prevents the infection of more cells when the
virus breaks out of first cells.
Fever- when a pathogen invites the hypothalamus sets a higher
running body temperature. This reduces the pathogens ability to
reproduce quickly. The specific response system works better at
slightly higher temperatures so will be more successful at fighting
infection.
Histamine- released by mast cells/damaged white blood cells. Cause
the blood vessels to dilate causing local heat and redness. Locally
raised temperatures reduces pathogen reproduction. They make the
wall of the capillaries leaky, forcing plasma, white blood cells and
antibodies out of the capillary. This results in swelling and pain.