The

Cube of Light


Rodney G. Heydon

ii

iii

The Cube of Light
Rodney G. Heydon
Killara Australia 2071.
May 2016
dualaccount@bigpond.com

iv

Contents


Abstract 1
Introduction 1
Central Section 3
The Planck Radiation Law 4
A Method for Determining F 9
Discussion 11
Conclusion 14
References 13
Supplementary Reading 15
Figures 17

The Cube of Light.

Abstract

By the judicious use of a single frequency and a single temperature in the
equation for planckian radiation it is possible to arrive at a perfect cube of light
with a whole number edge of 299792458 m, within which time has been
frozen, suspended, stopped or struck. This perfect cube may be further
subdivided into additional perfect cubes, perfect rectangular prisms and finally
near-perfect cubes. But the planck length sets a natural limit to the number of
subdivisions: the edge of a near-perfect cube cannot be subdivided to less than
the planck length. Using this number it is possible to derive what are thought
to be the exact rational number values of the electric and magnetic constants.
Because the perfect cube of light has an edge that is a whole number, the
original equation for planckian radiation is brought within the purview of
number theory. The observations herein, describable through straight forward
arithmetic, geometry and algebra, were noticed when examining the historic
decision of 1983 to set the velocity of light to a whole number. Implications for
metrology continue.

Key words: quantum, metrology, fundamental, physics, planckian, cosmology,
number-theory, Pi, convergents, Watt-balance

1) Introduction
In 1983, Resolution 1 of the 17th CGPM (1983) (1) saw the distance light
travels in vacuo in one second fixed at exactly 299792458 m, so also fixing the
velocity of light at a value of 299792458 ms-1, each number being a whole
number and expressible without experimental error. Prior to this, in
November 1981 at Erice Sicily, a conference on Quantum Metrology and the
Fundamental Physical Constants(2) was held. It was a late international
gathering of metrologists and physicists prior to the adoption of Resolution 1
and is an important moment in the history of science for it records the final
views of those, and through them their antecedents, who contributed so
valiantly to its adoption. At the conference Petley (3) delivered a paper in
which he wrote to the effect:

The anticipated redefinition of the metre by CGPM in terms of
c = constant
therefore has profound implications for cosmology and indeed all
science

Petley wrote with conviction and as it is unusual to see such emotive language
used in science the words stuck, especially as they apply to cosmology. Initially
it was not apparent what these were, for such a step appeared merely
administrative. However, a sense of the profundity and Petleys ill ease is
revealed in the relation that consequentially connects the velocity of light c to
both the electric constant 0 F/m and magnetic constant 0, which is defined as
4x10-7 H/m.
(1) c 2 =

1

4 x10 7 0

Or
(2) c 2 x4 x10 7 0 = 1
Between 1958 and 1972 there were four important experimental
determinations of the velocity of light giving values of 299792500, 299792500,
299792462 and 299792460 m/s for an average of 299792480m/s and a
spread of 40 m/s (4). The spread of 40 m/s imposes an experimental
uncertainty on 0. By 1978 measurements of the velocity of light had improved
materially and a physics reference book (5) of that time gave
c=299792458(1.2) m/s and 0 = 8.85418782(7) with uncertainty 008ppm
F/m.

But the intent of Resolution 1 was to change equation 1 to become
(3) 89875517873681764 =

1

4 10 (8.854 187 871... 10 12 )
7

Petleys ill ease can be sensed in the following.

Should a hapless lay person at Erice that day, ill versed in the subtleties of the
SI units but determined to check the accuracy or otherwise of equation 3, use
the reference book value for 0 and select at random a value for from a listing
that runs to, say, 100 decimal places they would be hard put to ever reconcile
exactly the right hand side of equation 3 with the whole number appearing on
the left. Earlier on that November day, before hearing Petleys talk, the
uncertainty attached to c and 0 would allow the lay person to perform the
calculation and be satisfied that, within the uncertainty, the left and right sides
agreed identically; that is, hidden within the mist of uncertainty the same
number stood alone on each side of the equation. After Petleys talk the mists
evaporated: now there is nowhere to hide, the inequality becomes stark and
the lay person has cause to be concerned; is there an oversight in the new
definition? Or more interestingly, is there a fortuitous insight?

This essay arose while trying to sort out this hair splitting philosophical detail.
A solution comes through planckian radiation, but first it is necessary to set in
place some elementary arithmetic, geometry, algebra and metrology.

2) Central Section
Imagine a perfect cube hewn from a material that may be cut, melted and cast.
The cube has nine planes of symmetry and three of these are orthogonal to the
three 4-fold symmetry axes. These three planes divide the full cube into eight
smaller cubes, each with a volume equal to one eighth of its volume. To cut
from the full cube a cube one eighth of its volume is to excise a th cube, as
shown in figure 1. The mark up with compass and ruler of the edges and the
extraction of a th cube is self-evident, but suppose that in turn it is required
to extract from the th cube an arbitrary valued cube, say 3/13. The extraction
of this cube is explained with the following steps and figure 2. Using compass
and ruler, divide the edge of the th cube into 13 equal parts.
1) Through a plane parallel to the left face, cut the cube at the third mark.
The volume of the rectangular prism so formed is 3/13 of the volume of
the th cube.
2) When melted down and cast, the prism will fill a cubic mould of internal
edge 33/313 multiplied by the edge of the th cube, this being shown
by FGHE. Figure 2 shows the full cube and the th cube with its 3/13th
cube.
The result of these two successive reductions is to form a quite small cube
whose volume is (3/13 of 1/8) or 3/104 of the volume of the full cube, as
emphasized in figure 3, where three orthogonal axes are shown so divided.
The cubic mould of step 2) above cannot be determined exactly for 3(3/13) is
irrational having the value 0.6133748. However, if the product of the edge of
the th cube with 0.6133748. is truncated at any digit and rounded up the
mould will accommodate the prism with a little room to spare. The value
0.6133748 is of course (0.6133748)xAB=FG.
With e as the base of the natural logarithm, denoted by ln, the following
relation holds.
(4)

eln2=2

Finally, three practical examples demonstrate a little metrology.

Example 1. Imagine a brass shot putt dropped from a high altitude balloon. At
first it moves in Earths gravity with an accelerating velocity this being 9.8 ms-1
every second or 9.8ms-2. Eventually Earths atmosphere plays its part and air
friction reduces the putts motion to one of constant velocity measured in ms-1.
Metrologists formalise these operations using, amongst others, dimensions of
length L and time T.
Thus acceleration, ms-2, becomes LT-2 and velocity, ms-1, becomes LT-1. To
swap between the two involves the following
LT2.T=LT-1
Example 2. Imagine a 2kW electric bar radiator glowing red-hot and warming
a room. In one second it dissipates 2kJ of energy which then heats the
surroundings. If left running for one hour it consumes 2x60x60 or 7200kJ for

4
which the house holder will pay about $0.30. Swapping between power and
energy involves multiplying or dividing by time. An additional dimension mass
M is now needed. Power has the dimensions of ML2T-3 and energy dimensions
ML2T-2. To change from power to energy requires multiplication by time as
below.

MLT-3.T= MLT-2
Example 3, In dimensional notation:
1=T0= T-1/T-1= T-2/T-2= T-3/T-3. where the strike-out emphasizes that a
dimension,
time T in this example, has been struck out.

The observations in these three examples are helpful in what follows.

2.1) The Planck Radiation Law

The energy distribution law that bears Plancks name was first published in
1901 and a translation into English is found in (6), where it is written as.
(7) u =

8 h 3
1

h /k
3
c
e
1

u is energy density (7), h the planck constant, frequency, k the boltzmann

constant, the absolute temperature and c the velocity of light. Planck
expressed all numerical values in c.g.s units but SI units are used in what
follows. Thus h has the units J.s with dimensions ML-2T-1
It is convenient to rearrange the right hand side of equation 7 into three terms:
(8) u =

8 3
1

h h /k
3
c
e
1

Call them 1, 2 and 3 respectively. 1 is variable and dimensioned, 2 is a

constant, dimensioned but not variable and 3, in its entirety, is variable but
not dimensioned.
Within the third term, if is set to 1 Hz and the ratio of h.1 to k is chosen to
equal ln2 it reduces, through equation 4, to the dimensionless whole number
1. For a black body radiating at a temperature of h.1/kln2 or 6.924x10-57 K, the
third term reduces to 1 and the right hand side of equation 8 becomes.
8 3
(9) 1 . 2 = 3 h
c

For the immediate purpose, the third term may be ignored.

But to set =1 Hz in the third term is to set it equal to 1Hz in the first term.
Substitute =1 Hz into equation 9 to obtain
(10) 1 . 2 =

8 (1Hz)3
h
(299792458ms 1 )3

=6.181x10-58

5
But the SI unit for frequency is s-1 and for the velocity of light it is ms-1 so that
equation 10 becomes
(11) 1 . 2 =

8 x1s 3
h
(299792458m)3 s 3

Invoking example 3 and striking out s-3 in the numerator and denominator of
1 yields:
(12) 1 . 2 =

8 x1
h
(299792458m)3

(13) 1 . 2 =

8
h
(299792458m)3

In the denominator of 1, (299792458m)3 is a cube with edge 299792458 m. It

is the cube of light from which time has been struck. Devoid of time it stands
frozen, suspended freely in space; but it is a material object. It is central to this
essay; however, a very imaginative step must be taken to grasp its importance.
This is emphasized by showing a portion of it as a pictograph to the scale of
onlookers in figure 4. It is discernable through the lines making up its edges
and 1 m subdivisions of faces and interior, but is otherwise empty. Its only
material existence is the lines that form the three dimensional grid dividing it
into 1 m cubic cells, each with a volume of exactly 1 m3, of which there is a
total of
c3 = 26944002417373989539335912

Take 1 in isolation and rewrite it as
(14) 1 =

1

(299792458)3
8

Now focus attention entirely on the expression below the upper division line.
Call it D.
(15) D =

(299792458)3
8

(16) 1 =

1

D

D is a volume that is (1/8) of the volume of the cube of light. D will later be
expressed as a cube whose edge is yet to be determined. A method for
determining D is now described which in passing or incidentally, yields insight
into the planck length, the planck constant and delivers the exact rational
number values of o and o. The method is algebraically sound because once D
is known in equations 15 and 16, 1 is known in equation 14, as is the right side
of equation 10 so leading once again to the value 6.181x10-58. The only novel
feature is the interpretation given to the structure prior to its folding or
collapse from equations 16 to 14 to the right side of 10.

6
As previously, the extraction of the th cube yields the cube of edge
149,896,229 m. Guided by this cubic extraction, the next instruction for the
determination of D in equation 15 calls for the volume of the th cube to have
extracted or cut from it a cube with volume equal to 1/. Such a cube has an
edge of 149,896,229 x 3. Call it the 1/th cube. To proceed further, a value
for must be settled on, and here lies a problem, for is irrational and cannot
be expressed as the ratio of two whole numbers (rational) as was done in the
previous example. The best that can be hoped for is to select one of the many
series representation for , write out the series to as many terms as thought
appropriate, sum them and use the mixed fraction so obtained in place of to
determine D. But some series are rapidly converging others less so, making the
rational number representing rather arbitrary.
There is a far more systematic and compelling way to set as a rational, which
is to work with its convergents. The first seven convergents of , see reference
(8), are listed in OEIS notation in table 1 together with their decimal value
and a reference listing (9) for . The higher the convergent the higher the
number of decimal places of agreement before divergence sets in.

7

Reference listing for :

=3.141592653589793



Convergent

Rational number value

Decimal value

Number of
decimal digits
before
divergence sets
in
st
1
0/1
0
0
nd
2
1/1
0
1
rd
3
3/1
0
3
th
4
22/7
2
3.1428571428571
5th
333/106
4
3.1415094339622
6th
355/113
6
3.1415929203539
th
7
103993/33102
9
3.1415926530119

.
.
.
.
th
14
80,143,857/25,510,582
.
.
15th
165,707,065/52,746,197
.
.

.
.
.
.
th
69
To be
To be
To be
calculated
calculated
calculated
70th



(Last convergent
To be
To be
To be
giving
calculated
calculated
calculated

To be
calculated
.
.

To be
calculated
.
.

subdivision just
greater than
planck length)

71st
72nd
.

To be
calculated
.
.

Table 1. A list of the convergents of . The 14th convergent sees the 1/8th
cube of edge 149,896,229 m subdivided into lengths >1 m; the 15th to < 1
m. These values were read from listings in (10) and (11).

A demonstration of how these are now used is shown in figure 5 by way of the
fourth convergent, 22/7. Starting with a th cube of light with edge
149,896,229 m and adopting the compass and ruler method of section 1,
divide edge AB into 22 equal parts and mark off 7. The rectangular prism of
volume AJKD is then (7/22 of 1/8) of the cube of light or
188908016921617926775351384/176 m3. It reduces to the cube FGHE of
edge 149,896,229 x (37/322) or 102,333,028.5 m, this being the 1/th cube.
Strictly speaking the 1/th cube is the most finely divided or accurate cubic

8
mould whose edge after rounding up at any decimal point just accommodates
the melt of 149,896,229 x (37/322) with a little room to spare. That is
without spillover.
Proceed down the list of convergents in table 1 dividing AB into ever smaller
divisions and marking off an ever increasing number of them to form first the
relevant rectangular prism and then its matching cube.
Eventually these ever smaller divisions reach a limit that cannot be lessened;
the edge of the 1/th cube cannot be convergently subdivided to less than the
planck length. This is shown diagrammatically in figure 6 for the final and the
non-allowed divisions. Call the final convergent F.
(17) F=fn/fd fn and fd whole numbers.

Thus significance has been attached to the numerator of F, fn , but what is the
meaning of its denominator fd? It is connected to the permittivity of free space,
or the electric constant as it is now known, as follows. Return to section 1 and
equation 1.
The left side is the square of the velocity of light, but it is identically equal to
the area of a face of the cube of light from which time has been struck.
Rearrange equation 1 to read:
(18) 4c 2 =

1

x10 7 o

The left side is the sum of any four faces, a detail required for later use.
Substitute the value for c2 and rearrange yet again:
(19)

359502071494727056

o
= 1
10,000,000

But for both sides of equation 19 to identically equal 1, 0 must equal
10,000,000
. Using F for , equation 19 then becomes
359502071494727056x
(20)

359502071494727056 F

o
= 1
10,000,000

Where

(21) o =

10,000,000

359502071494727056 F

Finally, substituting equation 21 into equation 20 yields

(22) (359502071494727056 F
as required.

1
10,000,000
)(
) = 1
10,000,000
359502071494727056 F

9
F awaits exact computation, but once determined, the preferred way to issue
instructions to the lay public is to have them use equation 2:
c2x4x10-7x 0 = 1
10,000,000
so making both sides
359502071494727056 F
unequivocally equal, this being the whole number 1.

Where =F and o =

Apart from the exact computation of F, the misgiving alluded to in section 1 is

addressed. What follows explains the computation of the exact value.

2.2) A method for determining F.

fn and fd are available from listings in (10) and (11) respectively and the first
few entries as far as the 15th - of each are shown in the second column of
table 1.
fd runs to the 201st convergent; more than sufficient for the needs here.
Unfortunately fn ceases before the 30th: far short; but a method for extending
the listing can be found in (11).
Once computed F becomes available.
In the meantime a way around this inconvenience is suggested and is
illustrated with some arithmetic of limited accuracy. fn may be found from
table 2 where some successive values of fd are shown. When each fd value is
multiplied by an approximate value of , 3.141592653589793, an approximate
value of each fn is found as shown in the rightmost column.
The 14th convergent of in table 1 with the whole number 80,143,857 in the
numerator marks the last subdivision of the th cube, possessing edge
149,896,229 m, into smaller cubes each with edge greater than 1 m. It has the
edge value 1.870339594 m. The next convergent, the 15th, sees sub-metre
cube edges produced.
Continue forming subdivisions well into the sub-metre range and lengths
slightly larger than the planck length are eventually attained.
The CODATA value for the planck length is 1.616 199(97)x10-35 m. The ratio
(1.870339557 m)/(1.616 199(97)x10-35 m) is 1.15724585x1035 and this
dimensionless number marks fn. The next convergent is impermissible for it
would mean formation of a length less than the planck length which is not
possible.

10

Convergent
of
Denominator
of

.
.
65th
66th
67th
68th
69th
70th
71st
72nd
73rd
.
.

fd
.
.
2401122034267288979434999036822385
606906032696206294222889000028371
847018236122935192166388903710609
5689015449433817447221222422292025
6536033685556752639387611326002634
12225049134990570086608833748294659
67661279360509603072431780067475929
147547607856009776231472393883246517
362756495072529155535376567833968963

.
.

fn3.141592653589793 x fd
.
.
7.54334734322669E32
1.90665153373773E33
2.6609862680604E33
1.78725691421001E34
2.05335554101605E34
3.84061245522606E34
2.12564178171464E35
4.63534480895188E35
1.13963313996184E36
.
.

Table 2. The 70th convergent of fd yields the approximate value of the 70th
convergent of fn.

Perusal of the list reveals the complying convergent as the 70th. This can be
confirmed by studying the 71st convergent. (1.870339557
m)/2.12564178171464E35 produces 0.879894x10-35 m, which is less than
the planck length.

The situation so far is summarized in Table 3. fn awaits exact computation.

11
Quantity
fn

Value

3.84061245522606E34*

Numerator of
70th
convergent
of

fd
Denominator
of the 70th
Convergent of

12225049134990570086608833748294659

F=fn/fd

* .

. 3.84061245522606E34

12225049134990570086608833748294659

Volume of D
is 1/8 of the
volume of the
cube of light.
As a cube it
has edge:

149, 896, 229

3.84061245522606E34 *
m
12225049134990570086608833748294659

Table 3. Summary of quantities discussed so far as it applies to the 70th

convergent. Approximate values are marked * and await the exact
computation and listing of the value of fn, (sequence A002485).

3) Discussion
fn marks the final convergent edge of the 1/th cube, there can be no other. It has been
deduced from the 70th convergent. The final edge of the 1/th cube is then
149,896,229 x (3 fn /3 fd) m with rounding-up at any decimal point in the product. Call
th
this unique cube the 1 / 70
cube. (It reads: one Pi seventieth cube ). This fixes o
th
as 4 70
10 7 H/m, 70 being the 70th convergent of . Both o and o are now fixed as
th

exact rational numbers, as is F.

Further properties of the cube of light, especially the sum of any four faces, will be
discussed in a subsequent essay. The reciprocal of the planck length lies somewhere
between the 70th and the 71st convergents of .

It is helpful to show the planck length, with its stated uncertainty, in its full decimal form.
It lies between :

0.00000000000000000000000000000000001616102 and
0.00000000000000000000000000000000001616296.

The values in the right most column of table 2 can now be put to use. The 70th and 71st
convergent of the numerators are respectively:

384061245522606XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX and 212564178171464XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX

Now imagine a whole number line running up to, between and beyond these two
convergents as shown in figure 7. In a narrow region between them lies the reciprocal of

12

the planck length shrouded in the midst of its uncertainty. Its extremities can be
determined exactly using the following.

Start with the 70th convergent 3.84061245522606XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX and add
one. Take the reciprocal and examine the result searching for the appearance of
0.00000000000000000000000000000000001616102.

Now move to the second whole number beyond the 70th convergent by adding one more
and forming the reciprocal. Again examine the result.

Repeatedly do this for each whole number in the sequence running between the two
convergents. When the decimal number
0.00000000000000000000000000000000001616102 appears, note the location and the
whole number that delivered it.
Continue on until the decimal fraction
0.00000000000000000000000000000000001616296 appears and again note the
location and the corresponding whole number.

The whole number extremities of the reciprocal of the planck length are now fixed. If the
world is remotely ideal, the reciprocal of the whole number mid way between these gives
the planck length; and the derivation is dimensionally sound. It is suggested that this
whole number occupies a special place in the realm of whole numbers and that a numbertheoretic argument will explain its uniqueness and independently yield its value.
Assuming this to be so and combining it with the independent and separately determined
listings of Noe (10 ) and Povolotsky (11 ) is to provide a tautology free derivation of the
planck length. This would have important consequences for cosmology because the ratio
of the planck constant to the planck length is 41.002. Is there an alternative route to the
planck constant?

The other seven th cubes may be similarly divided and the eight th cubes reassembled
to once again form the full cube of light. Interesting consequences follow and these will be
discussed on another occasion. In the meantime an irresistible speculation arises from
figure 7 and the recurrence of 8 and 1/8. The peak lies 13.5% of the way between the 70th
and 71st convergents. When the experimental results called for by CIPM/104-9 are in it is
suggested the peak will be centered on 12.5% or 1/8th. The eight reassembled 1/8th cubes
each carry with them this 1/8th remainder so that the full cube contains one whole unit of
some unknown entity.

Matters pertaining to the left hand side of equation 7 were not discussed in depth as it
was thought prudent at this point to leave them as whatever reference (6) means them to
be. Had the factors 8 appearing in equation 7 been written as 8 the possibilities
expressed here would not have been as obvious.

4) Conclusion
It is remarkable that almost thirty four years after Petleys prescient lecture the paradox
hinted at has not been resolved. In the intervening years 1983 to the present day, o was
fixed at the exact value of 8.854 187 871 x10-12 F/m, now it is proposed to again set it
experimentally with a standard relative uncertainty of 0.032 parts per hundred million

13

(12); the philosophical wheel has turned full circle, the reason being recent
improvements in the watt balance (13) are soon to deliver an experimental value for the
planck constant with a relative standard uncertainty of no more than 20 parts in 109 or
better. This will be used to fix the planck constant permanently and along with it the
planck length, meaning that several base SI units dependent on it are also permanently
fixed. Science is again living in an interregnum; but before the legal promulgation the
thoughts expressed here are offered for consideration. In particular that if is set equal to
th
F, that is as 70
, then the electric and magnetic constants 0 and 0 are also exactly fixed so
reducing by two the number of constants in (12) that require experimental
determination.

Finally, a solution to Petleys paradox expressed allegorically:

In the frantic instant before the release of the javelin or the response to the starters gun,
the athletes muscles obey the physiological law set by a Nature that will expend no effort
beyond the attainment of the 70th convergent of in all those places where is written as
a mathematical symbol in describing the working of an electromechanical machine.


References:

(1) Resolution 1 of the 17th CGPM ( 1983 ) BIPM Bureau International des Poids et
Measures.
http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/17/1/

Retrieved 29.7.2015
(2) Cutler P. H. and Lucas A. A. (Editors); Quantum Metrology and Fundamental
Physical Constants, NATO ASI Series: Physics, Vol. 98. Plenum Press, New York
1983.

(3) Petley B. W.; The Significance of the Fundamental Constants, Quantum
Metrology and Fundamental Physical Constants, NATO ASI Series: Physics, Vol. 98.
pp 333-351 Plenum Press, New York 1983.

(4) Baird K. M.; Speed of Light, Historical Review to 1972, Quantum Metrology and
Fundamental Physical Constants, NATO ASI Series: Physics, Vol. 98. p178. Plenum
Press, New York 1983.

(5) Weast Robert C.; (Ed) CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 59th Ed.
p F-250, CRC Press, Florida 1978.

(6) Shamos, M. H.; (Ed.), Great Experiments in Physics, p301-314. Dover Publications
1959.

(7) Ibid. 6, p. 310.

(8) Weisstein, Eric W. Pi Continued Fraction. From MathWorldA Wolfram Web
Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PiContinuedFraction.html

14
Retrieved 11.8.2015
(9) Alfeld P.; pi to 10,000 digits, Department of Mathematics, University of Utah.
http://www.math.utah.edu/~pa/math/pi.html

Retrieved 11.8.2015

(10) Referenced as T.D. Noe, Table of n, a(n) from n=0 201 found in

https://oeis.org/search?q=convergents+of+pi&sort=&language=&go=Search

Also at:

https://oeis.org/A002486/b002486.txt

Retrieved 8.10.2015

(11) A002485 as a simple table On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences.
https://oeis.org/A002485/list

Table comes from a conjecture by Alexander R. Povolotsky April 2012, OEIS.org
https://oeis.org/search?q=0%2C1%2C3%2C22%2C333%2C355%2C103993%2C&
sort=&language=english&go=Search
Based on the work of:
S.K. Lucas Integral proofs that 355/113>, Gazette, Aust. Math. Soc. 32 (2005),
263-266.
Retrieved 8.10. 2015

(12) Mills, I.M., Mohr, P. J. et al Adapting the International System of Units to the
twenty-first century. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. A: Mathematical, Physical and
Engineering Sciences, 369 (1953). p.12, table 3.
http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/369/1953/3907

Retrieved 10.8.2015

(13) The BIPM watt balance. BIPM Bureau International des Poids et Measures.

http://www.bipm.org/en/bipm/electricity/watt_balance/wb_principle.html
Retrieved 28.7.2015

15




Supplementary Reading

(1) A concise summary of the International System of Units, the SI. BIPM Bureau
International des Poids et Measures.
http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/si-brochure/download.html

Retrieved 6.8.2015

Gives a concise summary of the seven base SI units as proclaimed in 1983 and still in
effect today, i.e. August 2015

(2) Mills, I.M., Mohr, P. J. et al Adapting the International System of Units to the
twenty-first century. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. A: Mathematical, Physical and
Engineering Sciences, 369 (1953). p. 12, table 3.

http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/369/1953/3907

Retrieved 10.8.2015

This is reference 11 above repeated. Table 3 on page 12 delivers the following
information:
Relative standard uncertainties for a selection of fundamental constants in the
current SI and the New SI, multiplied by 108 (i.e. in parts per hundred million).
Constant
h
0
0

Current SI
4.4
0
0

New SI
0
0.032
0.032

From which it can be seen that instead of 0 and 0 being exact they are to become
experimentally determined. Also, instead of h being experimentally determined, it is to
become exact.
(3) FAQs: Frequently Asked Questions about the New SI., Bureau International des
Poids et Measures BIPM.
http://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/new-si/faqs.html
Retrieved 9.8.2015
Question and answer to commonly asked questions about the New SI. States that the
Planck constant is to be set exactly with no experimental error.
(4) What changes are proposed. Future revision of the SI BIPM Bureau International
des Poids et Measures.

16
http://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/new-si/what.html

Retrieved 4.8.2015

Gives a succinct summary of the proposed changes to the seven base SI units. In
particular, gives links to formal texts of the adopted resolutions hoped to be
proclaimed on or about 2017.

(5) New value for the Planck Constant May Hasten Electronic Kilogram. National
Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersberg MD, 20899
http://www.nist.gov/pml/div684/planck_constant_value.cfm
Retrieved 1.8.2015
Shows the author of the article at work on the NIST watt balance. Shows photograph
of NIST 3 watt balance. Gives a very instructive drawing of the new NIST-4.
(6) CIPM/104-09. Published 25 March 2015.
Decision CIPM/104-9 is quoted in full below.
The CIPM revised its Decision CIPM/103-30 and decided that experimental results to
be used by the CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Constants in the evaluation of
the fundamental constants to the fixed values for the defining constants of the new SI
should be accepted for publication by 1 July 2017.
(7) The BIPM watt balance. BIPM Bureau International des Poids et Measures.
http://www.bipm.org/en/bipm/electricity/watt_balance/wb_principle.html
This is reference thirteen above repeated. It also shows plans for a future generation
of cryogenic watt balances. Contains an extensive list of references pertaining to the
watt balance.
(8) Chao, L.S., Schlamminger, S.; et al A LEGO Watt Balance: An apparatus to
determine a mass based on the new SI.
http://arxiv.org/abs/1412.1699
Retrieved 28.8.2015
A very instructive source. Describes a watt balance via a working table-top model
that employs LEGO parts in its construction. Measures a gram-sized mass to 1%
relative uncertainty and shows how the balance may be used to determine the Planck
constant.

17

Figures

18

th
Figure 1. Extraction of a 1/8 cube from a
cube of arbitrary volume. See text.

19
.

Figure 2. ABCD is an end on view of the 1/8th cube.

Extraction of a 3/13th cube FGHD from the 1/8th cube to form
the fraction 3/104 of the full cube follows. The very small corner
cube at D represents the smallest cube in the subdivision of
ABCD, see figure 3 for further explanation.

20

D
G

Figure 3. Formation of the fraction 3/104 by the extraction of 3/13th cube

th
th
th
from 1/8 cube. Top: Full cube. Middle: 1/8 cube, DABC. Bottom: 3/13
cube, EFGH. The very small corner cube at E represents the smallest
th
subdivision of the 1/8 cube.

21

1m

299792458 m

Figure 4. Onlookers examining the cube of light

22

149, 896, 229 m

SCALE

(a)

(b)
E

(c)

Figure 5. (a) ABCD is the 1/8th cube of light end-on and marked up with 22
th
subdivisions. Prism AJKD is 7/22 of the 1/8 cube of light. (b) When melted down and
cast the prism, to a good approximation, becomes the cube with face FGHE. (c) Shows
th
mark-up ready for extraction of the fourth convergent of the 1/ cube of light.
th
The very small corner cube at E represents the smallest subdivision of the 1/8 cube.

23


.

333/106
355/113
103993/33102

1/fn%x%1m

planck length

Figure 6. Final convergent. One more convergent

sees edge of smallest cube fall far below the planck
length. This next convergent is therefore forbidden.
.

24

.
2.12564178171464E35

th
70
Convergent

2.12564178171464E35-1
2.12564178171464E35-2

01

23

3.84061245522606E34

st
71
Convergent

3.84061245522606E34+1
3.84061245522606E34+2

1
0.00000000000000000000000000000000001616296

1
0.00000000000000000000000000000000001616102

1
0.00000000000000000000000000000000001616199

Figure 7. Whole number line 0 to infinity depicting the numerator portion

th
st
between the 70 and 71 convergents. The bell shaped curve
represents the normal distribution of the reciprocal of the planck length
between its stated uncertainty limits. The mid point is shown boxed, the
calculation of which gives the planck wave number as 6.187353(16)x1034
-1
m . It lies [(6.18-3.84)/(21.2-3.84)]x100 or 13.5% of the way between the
th
st
numerators of the 70 and 71 convergents.