Chapter 2

Fluid Power Basics

Courtesy : Fluid Power Circuits and Controls,

John S.Cundiff, 2001

Introduction
One of the underlying postulates of fluid
mechanics is that, for a particular position
within a fluid at rest, the pressure is the
same in all directions.
A second postulate states that fluids can
support shear forces only when in motion.
These two postulates define the
characteristics of the fluid media used to
transmit power and control motion.

Introduction (contd..)

Traditional concepts such as static pressure,

viscosity, momentum, continuity,
Bernoullis equation, and head loss are used
to analyze problems encountered in fluid
power systems.

Hydrostatic Pressure

The product of fluid mass

density and the
gravitational constant is
the constant of
proportionality between
the depth of fluid in the
container and the pressure
acting at that depth in the
fluid.

P=*g*h
Where P = pressure
= fluid mass density
h = depth of fluid
g = gravitational constant

Hydrostatic Pressure (contd..)

The density of a fluid is often referred to in
terms of specific gravity.
Specific gravity, by definition, is the ratio of
the specific weight of the fluid in question
to that of water at standard conditions.

Hydrostatic Pressure (contd..)

Modify the static pressure equation and introduce

specific gravity as:
P = Sg wgh
Where Sg = specific gravity
w = density of water

Rearranging the terms we can solve for the

specific gravity of fluid in the column
Sg = P / wgh

Hydrostatic Pressure (contd..)

Cavitation occurs when the pump does not
completely fill with liquid.
The incoming fluid is a mixture of gas and
liquid.
An important application of fluid power is
the force multiplication that can be achieved
with a hydraulic jack.

Example Problem 2.1

The small cylinder of

the jack shown below
has a bore of 0.25
and the large cylinder
has a bore of 4. How
much can be lifted if
the jack handle is used
to apply 10 lbf to the
small cylinder (Fs = 10
lbf)?

Example Problem 2.1 (contd..)

Pressure developed: Ps = Fs / As
2
Where As = area of small cylinder (in )
2
2
As = 0.25 / 4 = 0.049 in
Ps = 10 / 0.049 = 204 psi

Example Problem 2.1 (contd..)

Pascals law: Pl = Ps
Where Pl = pressure on large cylinder
(psi)
Lift developed:
Fl = PlAl
2
2
Where Al = 4 / 4 = 12.56 in
Fl = (204)(12.56) = 2560 lbf

Example Problem 2.1 (contd..)

If the small cylinder bore is 0.125 in, how
much can be lifted?
2
2
As = (0.125) / 4 = 0.0123in
Ps = 10 / 0.0123 = 813 psi
Fl = (813)(12.56) = 10200 lbf
A 10 lbf produces a 10,000-lbf lift.

Fluid Statics
It is important to distinguish between gauge
and absolute pressures.
A height of 760 mm of mercury represents
standard atmospheric pressure at sea level.
Gauge pressures are always measured
relative to atmospheric pressure.
The mean value taken at sea level is termed
standard atmospheric pressure.

Fluid Statics (contd..)

If we are merely concerned with pressure
differences throughout a system, then
ignoring atmospheric pressure has little
effect on our analyses.
However, if we are to apply the equation of
state for an ideal gas, such as in the case of
analyzing gas-filled accumulators, then it is
essential to consider absolute pressure,
which is the sum of gauge and local
atmospheric pressure.
Pabsolute = Patmospheric + Pgauge

Figure 2.4

Conservation of Mass

Analytical approaches applied to fluid power

systems are based on the concept of conservation
of mass. The following equation describes flow in
and out of a control volume.
dM
dt

=
system

dV

CV

v * dA
CV

Where M = system mass

T = time
V = system volume
= fluid density
V = velocity normal to incremental area dA
A = area perpendicular to flow streamlines

Conservation of Mass (contd..)

If fluid density remains constant and the

boundaries of the control volume are fixed,
meaning that the control volume does not
expand or contract, the equation simplifies
to:

0 =

v * dA

CS

Conservation of Mass (contd..)

This equation means that the

total flow of mass out of the
control volume equals the total
flow in.
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 (refer Fig.2.6)
In a hydraulic circuit, where oil
pressures can rise to 6000 psi,
the fluid does compress (density
is not constant) and hoses do
swell (control volume
boundaries are not constant).
Flow out of a component
(valve, actuator, etc) will
always equal the flow minus
any leakage to a drain line.

Functions of a Working Fluid

The function of the fluid is to:

1.
Transmit power
2.
Provide lubrication
3.
Provide cooling
4.
Seal clearances

Functions of a Working Fluid

(contd..)
To provide lubrication and seal clearances
between moving parts, the fluid must be
able to establish and maintain a continuous
film between the parts.
High pressures and high relative velocities
affect the establishment and maintenance of
the film.
Friction is unavoidable and the resultant
heat raises the temperature of the fluid.

Functions of a Working Fluid

(contd..)
The main heat source is not friction but the
conversion of fluid energy to heat energy
when there is a pressure drop across a
restriction or along a conductor, and no
mechanical work is done.
Conversion of fluid energy to heat energy is
a key issue in the design of fluid power
systems.
Often it is the price paid for the excellent
control of load motion that can be achieved
with a fluid power circuit.

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Functions of a Working Fluid

(contd..)
Elevated temperature changes the properties
of the fluid and, because of thermal
expansion, changes the clearances between
moving parts.
It is estimates that 80% of all failures are
related to a fluid failure.

Fluid Properties
Viscosity
Viscosity is the fluids
resistance to shear.
Fluid velocity profile
- Top plate moves with
velocity v relative to
stationary bottom plate.
- The slope of velocity
profile established
between plates is
slope = v/y
y = distance between the
plates

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Fluid properties (contd..)

If the moving plate has area A and a force F
to keep moving it at velocity v, the Shear
stress in the fluid between the plates is
J =F/A
Dynamic viscosity Ratio between the
shear stress and the slope.
=F*y
v*A
Units of dynamic viscosity are g /(s . cm)
The name given these units is the poise.

Fluid properties (Contd..)

Kinematic viscosity Dynamic viscosity
divided by the fluid density measured at
same temperature as dynamic viscosity
v=/
= dynamic viscosity [g/s-cm)],
= density (g/cm )
Units for kinematic viscosity cm2/s or stroke.

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Fluid properties (contd..)

Standards ASTM D 2422 and ISO 3448

rates fluids based on viscosity at 400 c.

ISO grades have the letter VG( viscosity

grade)

SAE grades are based on tests run at 1000 c.

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Fluid properties (contd..)

The following equation can be used for
estimates of viscosity in centistokes.
v = 0.226t 195
32<t<100
t
v = 0.22t 135
t>100
t
where v= kinematic viscosity (cS) , and
t= time in SUS, which stands for Saybolt
universal seconds. The time the liquid takes
to drain through a Saybolt viscometer.

Fluid Properties (contd..)

Problems caused by use of oil with too low

viscosity :

Loss of pump efficiency.

Component wear

Breakdown of lubrication film, leading

to spot-weld condition.
Problems caused by oil with too high a viscosity :
Pump cavitation.
High pressure drops.

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Fluid properties (contd..)

Bulk modulus Degree of oil

compressibility is expressed by the bulk
modulus and is expressed as
= -P / (V/V)
= bulk modulus (psi)
P = change in pressure (psi)
V = change in volume when P is
applied
V = original volume.

Fluid properties (contd..)

Air and temperature effect on bulk modulus.

If air is entrained in the fluid, bulk

modulus is reduced significantly.

Temperature causes fluid to increase in

volume and affects bulk modulus .

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Fluid properties (contd..)

Specific Gravity The ratio of the density

of the fluid to the density of water at 40 c and
standard atmospheric pressure.
Sg = / w
where = density of fluid (slug/ft3)
w= density of water (slug/ft3)

Fluid properties (contd..)

Specific weight Weight per unit volume

= mg / V
m = mass , V = volume, g = gravitational constant
Since = m/V,

=g

Specific gravity can be written as

Sg = g / wg

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Fluid properties (contd..)

Oxidation : Reaction between the oil and
oxygen. The end products are referred to as
sludges and resins.
Corrosion and Rust Resistance : Defined as
chemical reaction between fluid and a
metal surface.
Fire Resistance : Key consideration in
hydraulic systems.
Parameters : Flash point , Fire point, AIT.

Flow in Lines

Flow is laminar if layers of fluid particles

remain parallel as the flow moves along the
conductor.

Flow is turbulent if the fluid layers break

down as the flow moves along the
conductor.

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Flow in Lines (contd..)

Flow is laminar if
layers of fluid
particles remain
parallel as the flow
moves along the
conductor.

Flow in Lines (contd..)

Flow is turbulent if the

fluid layers break
down as the flow
moves along the
conductor.

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Flow in Lines (contd..)

Flow dominated by viscosity forces is laminar and
inertia dominated flow is turbulent.
Reynolds number : Laminar flow is a function of
dimensionless parameter known as Reynolds
number.
NR = v D

v = fluid velocity
D = conductor inside diameter
= fluid mass density
= dynamic viscosity

Flow in Lines (contd..)

Reynolds number is a dimensionless ratio

of inertia force to viscous force.

Rules obtained from Reynolds tests:

1.
If NR < 2000, flow is laminar.
2.
If NR > 4000, flow is turbulent.
3.
The region 2000 < NR < 4000 is defined
as transition region between laminar
and turbulent flow.

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Flow in Lines (contd..)

When fluid flows, friction causes fluid energy to

get converted to heat energy.

Fluid power at the inlet to a conductor is

Phyd 1 = P1Q1
P1 = pressure at the inlet
Q1 = flow at the inlet

Fluid power at outlet is

Phyd 2 = P2Q2

Flow in Lines (contd..)

Friction results in a pressure drop in the line.

Darcys Equation provides a means to calculate
pressure drop :
hL = f (L/D) (v2/2g)

hL = head loss (ft)

f = friction factor (dimensionless), for laminar f = 64/NR
D = conductor inside diameter (ft)
L = conductor length (ft)
V = average fluid velocity (ft/s)
2
G = gravitational constant (ft/s )

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Flow in Lines (contd..)

Hagen Poiseuille Equation:

hL = 64/NR (L/D) (v2/2g)

(laminar flow)

Another form of Hagen Poiseuille Equation:

P = 128 L Q
D4
P = pressure drop
= absolute viscosity (lbs/s-ft)
L = length (ft)
Q = volume flow rate
D = diameter (ft)

Flow in Lines (contd..)

When flow is turbulent, the friction factor is
a function of

Reynolds number

Relative roughness of conductor

Relative roughness :
Rel. roughness = / D
= conductor inside surface roughness.
D = conductor inside diameter.

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Flow in Lines (contd..)

Blasius equation:
Friction factor in turbulent flow range can
also be calculated using Blasius equation.

f = 0.1364
NR0.25
for smooth conductors and a Reynolds
number less than 100,000.

Flow in Lines (contd..)

The Moody diagram below is often used for turbulent flow

in smooth pipes.

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Flow in Lines (contd..)

In applications like mobile machines, pressure drops

through other components (valves, fittings etc.) are
more significant than pressure drop in the conductor
itself.
Losses in Fittings:
- Tests show that head losses in fittings are
proportional to the square of the velocity of the fluid.
hL = Kv2 / 2g
hL = head loss (ft)
v = fluid velocity (ft/s)
g = gravitational constant (ft/s2)
K = fitting factor

Flow in Lines (contd..)

Typical fitting factors are:

Standard tee
Standard elbow
45 degree elbow
Return bend (u-turn)

K= 1.8
K= 0.9
K= 0.42
K= 2.2

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Flow in Lines (contd..)

Example problem 2.4

The circuit from example problem 2.3 has an
elbow (K = 0.9) at the motor. Fluid flows through
a hose to an elbow and on into the motor. What is
the pressure drop in this fitting for Q = 15 GPM?
Q = 15 GPM
v= 10.9 ft/s
hL = Kv2 / 2g
= 0.9(10.9)2 / 2 (32.2)
= 1.66 ft
P = 0.433 hL Sg = 0.6 psi

Leakage Flow

To understand leakage flow, consider the

following cases.
Spool-type valves have a cylinder with
grooves at intervals along the length. The
cylinder slides back and forth in a bore to
open and close passageways through the
valve. There may be leakage through the
annulus of spool and the bore.
Leakage between the piston and the
cylinder inner wall of a piston pump.

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Leakage Flow (contd..)

Consider an example of
spool-type valve: (Fig 2.13)
- The annulus has been
unwrapped from around
the spool.
- Distance a is the clearance
between spool and bore.
- w is circumference of the
bore.
- L is distance between
adjacent grooves machined
in the spool.
- Sections between grooves
are called lands

Leakage Flow (contd..)

Expression for leakage flow as a function of

pressure drop across the land (along L):
Q = wa3 P
12 L
Q = leakage flow
w = width of rectangular opening
a = height of rectangular opening
= absolute viscosity
L = Length of leakage pathway
P = pressure diff. across the land (along the
length L)

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Leakage Flow (contd..)

width w = D and absolute viscosity =v

Substituting this is the previous equation,
we get,
Q = Da3P
12 v L

Orifice Equation

The orifice equation states that flow through an orifice is

proportional to square root of the pressure drop across the
orifice
(P = upstream pressure downstream pressure)

Q = CA

( 2 g P)/

Q = flow (in3/s)

C= orifice coefficient (decimal)

A= area (in2)
g = gravitational constant (in/s2)
P = pressure (psi)

= specific weight of fluid (lbf/in3)

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Orifice Equation (contd..)

The previous equation simplifies to

Q = k
where

k = CA

P
2g /

Solving for P, Q becomes an independent variable , a form

that is useful for analysis of fluid power circuits.
P = Q2/k2 = keq Q2

where keq = 1 / k2 .
If Q is doubled, then the pressure drop will
increase fourfold.

Orifice Equation (contd..)

Technical data sheets

(tech sheets) supplied
by almost all valve
manufacturers have a
curve similar to the fig
2.14.

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Orifice Equation (contd..)

Classic problem to illustrates

influence of an orifice in a
circuit. (fig 2.15)

Fluid from accumulator

flows into cylinder. How
fast does cylinder extend?

Principle Inert gas is

compressed as fluid enters
into the accumulator.

Boyles law : P1V1 = P2V2

Orifice Equation (contd..)

Accumulators are devices used to store fluid
volume under pressure for later use.
The accumulator is precharged to some
pressure P1 and a control volume of inert gas

oocupies volume V1. Fluid is pumped into the

accumulator changing the gass pressure and
volume to P2 and V2 ,respectively.

Boyles law : P1V1 = P2V2

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Orifice Equation (contd..)

Analysis to illustrate use of orifice equation

(refer fig 2.15). The accumulator is charged to
2725 psi, and it takes 500 psi to lift load.
Directional control valve (DCV) has a keq = 32.5
x 10-4. So,

k =1/

k eq = 17 . 5

Using the orifice equation,

Q=k

P = 17 . 5 2725 500

= 825 in 3 / s = 214 GPM

Orifice Equation (contd..)

Suppose the cylinder bore is 3 in. If flow

from the accumulator is 825 in3/ s, the
resultant cylinder velocity is
v=Q/A
= 825 / ( 32 / 4) = 116.7 in/s
- This velocity is very high, it might be
described as an explosive extension of the
cylinder.

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Orifice Equation (contd..)

If we decreased the
cylinder bore by halve,
Flow was reduced ,
but cylinder velocity
increased 2.3 times.
Another option is
installation of a flow
control valve in the
circuit, shown in the
fig 2.17

Orifice Equation (contd..)

(Refer fig 2.17)

What keq value must be set for the flow

control to limit cylinder velocity to 2.4
in/s?
2
Q = A c v = ( 3 / 4) 2.4 = 4.4 GPM
- So, the required flow is about 2% of the
flow available when the DCV is opened
rapidly.

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Orifice Equation (contd..)

Pressure drops across the DCV for a flow of 17

in3/s is obtained using the orifice equation.

P = keq Q2
= 32.5 x 10-4 (17)2
= 1 psi.
Pressure drop is so low that DCV can be neglected
in analysis.
3
Assume that full P to limit flow to 17 in /s is
developed in the flow control valve.

Orifice Equation (contd..)

Then required kfc

k fc = Q / Pfc
k fc = 17 / 2725 500
k fc = 0.36

Flow control valve converts some of the fluid

energy to heat energy , thus reducing the energy
that flows in the cylinder. When the energy stored
in accumulator is required frequently, the energy
loss due to the flow control valve is accepted.

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Orifice Equation (contd..)

We can also use the

orifice equation to
analyze a pressure
reducing valve.

Orifice Equation (contd..)

Operation of Pressure
reducing valve. (Fig 2.19)
Spring provides downward
force (Fs) on spool.

Equal hydraulic force

exerted in both
directions by the inlet
pressure.

Hydraulic pressure is
applied to the bottom of
the spool by downstream
pressure. (Fhb)
Higher the downstream
pressure, the more the
valve displaces upward
and more the spool closes
the orifice.

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Orifice Equation (contd..)

Pressure reducing valve works well in this circuit, because

it automatically changes its spool position as accumulator
pressure drops.

Pressure reducing valve opens the orifice, thus reducing

pressure drop, as inlet pressure falls.

To ensure enough pressure is available for breakout,

pressure reducing valve should be chosen properly.

When cylinder velocity is low, a breakout force is required

to overcome friction and move the gate valve off its seat.

Flow control valve is included to provide a means for fine

tuning the flow to the cylinder.

END OF CHAPTER 2
THANK YOU

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