Muslim Slavery and Slaving A Bibliography PDF

Slavery & Abolition
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Muslim slavery and slaving: A bibliography

Joseph C. Miller
To cite this article: Joseph C. Miller (1992) Muslim slavery and slaving: A bibliography, Slavery &
Abolition, 13:1, 249-271, DOI: 10.1080/01440399208575060
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Muslim Slavery and Slaving: A Bibliography
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JOSEPH C. MILLER
The western-language historiography of Muslim slavery and slaving began

by following broad outlines set by politicians and propagandists and by
later scholars working in similar tones on the history of slavery and the
slave trade elsewhere in the world, particularly in the Americas. Studies
have moved only recently toward concentrating on issues and concepts
specific to the multiple cultures and histories of the Islamic lands.
Western writing on Muslim slavery arose from the British-led abolitionist
campaign against slavery around the globe. Nineteenth-century liberals
castigated Muslims in general terms, sometimes distinguishing them only
slightly from Arabs in particular, as inveterate 'master slavers" and drew
the attention of shocked readers in Europe and America to continuing
exchanges of human beings, under various legal subterfuges, in African
colonies and in the territories of the Middle East from the 1920s on.
An exculpatory counterthrust arose from a few western-educated Muslims
and from a larger number of orientalist-inclined western sympathizers.
The western apologists focused on the variety of personal statuses available
to slaves, or ex-slaves, under Muslim religious law to moderate the image
of cruelty implicit in the liberal-abolitionist critique.2 The approach to
Islamic slavery through religio-legal institutions resonated with the parallel
western tradition of studying slavery in ancient Rome through Roman law
and, more remotely, with the law-based first generation of comparisons
among American slave systems typified by Frank Tannenbaum's famous
Slave and Citizen?
Before the 1970s, when the relationship of slavery to racism animated
scholarly debate in the Americas, academic defenders of the Islamic faithful also excused Muslim slave-holding by alleging that blacks, and certainly
the descendants of Africans enslaved there, seemed to have suffered less
racial oppression than the survivors of black slavery in the New World.
The confusion of racial issues with those of slavery on both sides added
little clarity to the discussion of either. In addition, apologists emphasized
the exotic and - by western standards - anomalous military4 and harem
slaves often found in Islamic states. These comfortable and even powerful
slaves struck westerners as unusual, if not unique, compared with the
poverty and oppression that characterized the New World slavery familiar
to them.
250
THE HUMAN COMMODITY
A modern wave of corrective scholarship formed with publication of

Bernard Lewis's Race and Color in Islam, which drew together the evidence
of racism - and the cruelties of slavery - among Muslims.5 Subsequent
studies viewed Islamic slavery beyond the Arab and Turkish heartlands
to Muslim Africa, to India, and to south-eastern Asia, without the rosecoloured glasses of the older generation of orientalists. The image of Islam
as a unified civilization, rooted in the early reliance on legal sources,
disintegrated, and Muslim merchants, warriors, desert nomads, planters,
and urban bourgeois family heads emerged as a highly varied range of
masters behind the exotic veil of religious culture imposed by westerners.
Slavery among Muslims, seen as a social and economic institution, became comparable with American bondage, particularly where capitalistic
plantation forms of production prevailed.6 Others emphasized slave
revolts,7 or assessed the significance of slaves in the specific historical
circumstances in which they had become prominent in Islamic lands, as
elsewhere in the world.
With the general tendencies of slavery becoming clearer in this new
comparative scholarship, it became possible to distinguish the peculiarities
of Muslim slavery and to explain them in terms of historical and cultural
features particular to the Islamic lands. The first efforts in this vein
retained a modified tone of Muslim exceptionalism. The slave soldiers
and harem women came to be seen as an elite minority of the many individuals, of numerous origins and occupations, nearly all of them humble
and oppressed, whom Muslims held in bondage. But Daniel Pipes explained
the propensity of Muslim rulers to employ slaves as soldiers as a product
of the moral failings, and consequent popular abandonment, of secular
rulers inevitable in a theocratic society: people in power, but unable to
rule, called on outsiders, particularly slaves, for support.8 Patricia Crone
saw these Stoves on Horses as a logical response to political weakness
rooted in the fragility of factions ruling states divided by parochial
interests of family and sect.9 Cooper, in Plantation Slavery, set slavery
in Muslim Zanzibar in a more open comparative context by focusing on
the strength of patron-client ties throughout Islamic society to explain
the apparently - but only apparently - less harsh features of slavery in
Islam. Elsewhere, and particularly among Africanists, issues specific to
the regional historiography became the major analytical focus of work
on slavery in Islamic areas and thus removed the discussion even further
from the peculiarities, orientalist and neo-orientalist, of Islam.10
Emphasis on the slave trade has always characterized African historiography, particularly on the Atlantic side of the continent where most
of the captives taken to the Americas originated. The study of Muslim
slaving in the Indian Ocean grew as an extension of these studies on slave
MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY
251
trading from Africa rather than from the central concerns of Islamic
history." Similarly, the trans-Saharan trade and its origins in Sudanic
Africa12 and slaving in the Red Sea area13 arose more from Africanist
concern with numbers, as in the scholarship on Atlantic slaving in the
1970s and 1980s, and economic history. Although these concerns dominated
the scholarship attempting to sketch the trades that supplied slaves to the
Islamic Middle East, the most comprehensive single study, Ehud Toledano,
The Ottoman Slave Trade and Its Suppression, concentrated also on
institutions and on the trade's diplomatic and legal frameworks.
Recent studies of slaves and slave trading among Muslims, still in
tandem with the principal currents of scholarship on slavery elsewhere
in the world, have blended with general work on the social and economic
history of the specific regions where slaves originated, were transported,
and were put to work. Islamic law is no longer the determinative framework, nor is the culture of the masters a transcending constant. Muslim
masters, like Romans, or Brazilian planters, turned to slavery where the
opportunity presented itself, and slaves contested the Islamic conditions
of their bondage according to momentary and local circumstances. Either
side may have drawn where it could on Islamic ideals, but they did so
in the midst of numerous other concerns. From this more historical
perspective, slavery and Islam both become aspects of the general histories
and cultures of particular times and places. There were many kinds and
experiences of slavery in Muslim lands, even as there were - and are many versions of 'Islam'. In these circumstances, the specific bibliography
of works focused on slavery is blending almost indistinguishably into
other streams of scholarship on Islam.
The following bibliography covers secondary writings published since
1900 in western European languages on slavery or the slave trade anywhere
in the Muslim world: monographs, notes and articles in scholarly
periodicals, substantial reviews and review essays, conference papers, and
chapters in edited volumes and Festschriften focused primarily on slavery
or slave trading. It does not include important materials on slavery in
Islamic lands found in writings focused on other subjects, for example,
the history of Muslim agriculture, theological treatises on jihad, the
abolitionist movement in Europe, the general commercial history of the
western Indian Ocean, or the place of slavery in the political economy of
sudanic Africa.
The entries in this bibliography appeared first in Joseph C. Miller,
Slavery: A Comparative Teaching Bibliography (Waltham, Mass.: Crossroads Press, 1977) and in annual installments in Slavery and Abolition
(London: Frank Cass, Vol. 1, 1980). All materials through the 1983 supplement were corrected, consolidated, reorganized, and indexed in Joseph
252
THE HUMAN COMMODITY
C. Miller, Slavery: A Worldwide Bibliography, 1900-1982 (White Plains,

N.Y.: Kraus International, 1985). Additional materials appeared in the
1983 supplement (with Larissa V. Brown) in Slavery and Abolition, 4, 2
(1983), 163-208 (Part I), and 4, 3 (1983), 232-74 (Part II), including
unverifiable references accumulated to that date. 'Slavery: Annual Bibliographical Supplement (1984)' and 'Slavery: Annual Bibliographical
Supplement (1985)' (both with James V. Skalnik), and 'Slavery: Current
Bibliographical Supplement (1986)' and 'Slavery: Current Bibliographical
Supplement (1987)' (both with David F. Appleby) appeared in Slavery
and Abolition, 6, 1 (1985), 59-92; 7, 3 (1986), 315-88; 8, 3 (1987),
353-86; and 9, 2 (1988), 204-42. 'Slavery: Current Bibliographical
Supplement (1988)' (with Randolph C. Head) is in 10, 2 (1988), 231-71,
'Slavery: Annual Bibliographical Supplement (1989)' (with Jena R. Gaines)
is in 11, 2 (1990), 252-309, and a supplement for 1990 will appear in
the volume for 1991. Full 'annual' versions of the abridged 'current'
supplements for 1986, 1987, and 1988 ('Slavery: Annual Bibliographical
Supplement [1986]', 'Slavery: Annual Bibliographical Supplement [1987]'),
and 'Slavery: Annual Bibliographical Supplement [1988]') exist in manuscript. Plans are under way to consolidate all materials compiled since 1983
in a new single-volume indexed bibliography to be prepared in about 1991.
NOTES
Items marked with an asterisk (*) have not been verified in detail.
1. Still today, John Laffin, The Arabs as Master Slavers.
2. For example, the well-known summary of slave law by R. Brunschvig in the Encyclopedia
of Islam (v. 'Abd'), the most accessible survey of this genre.
3. New York: Knopf, 1947.
4. For example, David Ayalon, Gunpowder and Firearms In the Mamluk Kingdom: A
Challenge to Medieval Society.
5. New York: Harper and Row, 1971 (rev. edn.). A good recent summary is Hunwick, 'Black
Africans in the Islamic World'. Also see Murray Gordon, Slavery in the Arab World.
6. Frederick Cooper, Plantation Slavery on the East Coast of Africa.
7. Alexandre Papovic, Rvolte des esclaves en Iraq, or, for Africa, Paul Lovejoy, 'Fugitive
Slaves'.
8. Slave Soldiers and Islam.
9. Crone, Slaves on Horses.
10. Fisher and Fisher, Slavery and Muslim Society in Africa; papers in Meillassoux (ed.)t
L'esclavage en Afrique; ako the studies of Jan S. Hogendorn and Paul E. Lovejoy.
11. For example, Gervase Clarence-Smith (ed.), The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave
Trade in the Nineteenth Century'. A general comparative work on this, and the transSaharan and Atlantic, slave trades is Patrick Manning, Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
12. For example. Fisher and Fisher, Slavery and Muslim Society in Africa, and this
collection. See also Austen, 'The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade' and updates.
13. Austen, 'The Islamic Red Sea Slave Trade'; Ewald, 'The Nile Valley System and the
Red Sea Slave Trade'.
253
1. General and Comparative

Abdallah, Fadl. 'Islam, Slavery, and Racism: The Use of Strategy in the Pursuit of Human
Rights', American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 4, 1 (1987), 31-50.
Ahmad, Shafiq. L'esclavageau point de vue musulman. Cairo: Imprimerie Nationale, 1891.
Arafat, W. 'The Attitude of Islam to Slavery', Islamic Quarterly, 10,1-2 (1966), 12-18.
Barbour, Bernard, and Michelle Jacobs. 'The Mi'raj: A Legal Treatise on Slavery by Ahmad
Baba', in Willis (ed.), Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: Vol. 1, 125-59.
Bashir Ahmad, Mirza. Islam and Slavery. Qadian, Punjab: Book Depot Talifo- Isha'at,
1935.
Bousquet, G. H. 'Des droits de l'esclave: fragment extrait de l'lh'ya de Ghazali', Annales
de I'Institute d'dtudes occitanes, 10 (1952), 420-27.
Brunschvig, R. 'Abd\ in Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd edn.) (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960),
Vol.1, 24-40.
Burton-Page, J. 'Habshi', Encyclopedia of Islam (new edn.) (Leiden and London, 1971),
Vol.3, 14-16.
Colin, G.S. 'Hartini', in Encyclopaedia of Islam (new edn.) (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1960),
Vol.3, 230-31.
Davis, David Brion. 'Slaves in Islam', New York Review of Books (11 Oct. 1990), 35-38.
El Wahid Wafi, Ali Abd. 'Human Rights in Islam', Islamic Quarterly, 11, 1-2 (1967),
64-75.
Ewald, Janet. 'His Freer Fettered a Hand: Manumission in the Lands of the Red Sea in
the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries' (Paper presented at American Historical
Association Annual Meeting, Cincinnati, 1988).
Farias, Paulo Fernando de Moraes. 'Models of the World and Categorial Models: The
'Enslavable Barbarian' as a Mobile Classificatory Label', in Willis (ed.), Slaves and
Slavery in Muslim Africa: Vol. 1, 27-46.
Fisher, Humphrey J. 'Of Slaves and Souls of Men (review essay: Willis (ed.), Slaves and
Slavery in Muslim Africa)', Journal of African History, 28, 1 (1987), 141-49.
Forand, Paul G. 'The Relation of the Slave and the Client to the Master or Patron in
Medieval Islam', International Journal of Middle East Studies, 2, 1 (1971), 59-66.
Ghoraba, Hammouda. 'Islam and Slavery', Islamic Quarterly, 2, 3 (1955), 153-59.
Goldstein, Ferdinand. 'Die Sldaverei in Nordafrika und im Sudan', Zeitschrift fur Socialwissenschaft, 11 (1908), 352-69.
Gordon, Murray. Slavery in the Arab World. New York: New Amsterdam, 1989.
Translated as L 'esclavage dans le monde arabe: Vlle-XXe siecle (Paris: Robert Laffont,
1987).
Greenidge, C.W.W. 'Slavery in the Middle East', Middle Eastern Affairs, 7, 12 (1956),
435-40.
Haas, Samuel S. 'The Contribution of Slaves to and Their Influence upon the Culture of
Early Islam' (PhD diss., Princeton University, 1942).
Halfdan, Endresen. Als Sklave verkauft: Sklaverei und Sklavenhandel im heutigen Afrika
undArabien. Basel: Friedrich Reinhardt Verlag, n.d. "Translation of Solgt som slave:
om slaved og slavenhandel iAfrika og A rabia i vart arhundre. Stavanger: Nomi Forlag,
n.d.
Hambly, Gavin R. G. 'Islamic Slavery: An Overview' (Unpublished paper, 1972).
Hambly, Gavin R. G. 'Slavery in Islam' (Unpublished paper, Yale University, 1973).
Hunwick, J. O. 'Black Africans in the Islamic World: An Understudied Dimension of the
Black Diaspora', Tarikh, 5 (1978), 20-40. Reprinted in The African Diaspora: Africans
and their Descendants in the Wider World to 1800 (Written and edited by The Black
Diaspora Committee of Howard University) (Lexington, Mass.: Ginn Press, 1986), 65-79.
Revised as 'Black Slaves in the Mediterranean World: Introduction to a Neglected
Aspect of the African Diaspora'.
Isaac, Ephraim. 'Genesis, Judaism, and the "Sons of Ham"', in Willis (ed.). Stoves and
Slavery in Muslim Africa: Vol. 1, 75-91.
254
THE HUMAN COMMODITY
Juynboll, Th. W. 'Eunuch (Muslim)', Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (Edinburgh:

T&T Clark, 1908-27), Vol.5, 584-88.
Kessel, Joseph. Marches d'esclaves. Paris: Editions de France, 1933. Reprinted Paris: Union
Ge'ne'rale d'Editions, 1984.
Laffin, John. The Arabs as Master Slavers. Englewood, N.J.: SBS Publishing, 1982.
*Laffin, John. 'The Arabs as Slavers', in Case Studies in Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976), Vol.4, 431-59.
Leader, Jonathan M. 'Slavery in Islam: Based on the Qur'an, the Madhaib and the Hadith',
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Colonists, and Slaves: Essays in Memory of Charles H. Fairbanks (Gainesville: Florida
Journal of Anthropology, 1985), 117-35. (Special Publication, No. 4).
Leckie, J. D. 'Slavery in Mohammedan Countries', Chambers's Journal, 7th sen, 15 (1925),
276-77.
Levtzion, Nehemia. 'Slavery and Islamization in Africa: A Comparative Study', in Willis
(ed.), Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: Vol.1, 182-98.
Lewis, Bernard. 'The African Diaspora and the Civilization of Islam', in Martin L. Kilson
and Robert I. Rotberg (eds.). The African Diaspora: Interpretive Essays (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976), 37-56.
Lewis, Bernard. 'Ali b. Muhammad al-Zandji', in Encyclopedia of Islam (Leiden: E. J.
Brill, 1960), Vol. 1,388-89.
Lewis, Bernard. Race and Color in Islam. New York: Harper and Row, 1971. Rev. edn.
Lewis, Bernard. Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. New York:
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Lugard, Frederick D. 'Mohammedan Slavery', Encyclopaedia Britannica (14th edition)
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Marmon, Shaun E. 'Slavery, Islamic World', Dictionary of the Middle Ages (New York:
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Muhammad, Akbar. 'Contemporary Arabic Writing on Pre-Modern Slavery/Servility in the
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Muhammad, Akbar. 'The Image of Africans in Arabic Literature: Some Unpublished
Manuscripts,' in Willis (ed.), Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: Vol.1, 47-74.
Reprinted in The African Diaspora: Africans and their Descendants in the Wider World
to 1800 (Written and edited by The Black Diaspora Committee of Howard University)
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Miiller, Hans. Die Kunst des Sklavenkaufs, nach arabischen, persischen und tiirkischen
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Miiller, Hans. 'Sklaven', in B. Spuler (ed.), Handbuch der Orientalistik, Abt. 1: Der Nahe
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Miiller, Hans. 'Zur Erforschung des islamischen Sklavenwesens', Zeitschrift der deutschen
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255
Roberts, Robert. DasFamilien-, Sklaven-, undErbrecht im Qoran. Leipzig, 1908. (Leipziger

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*Sanagustin, F. 'Un aide-memoire a l'usage de l'acheteur d'esclaves' (PhD thesis, University
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256
THE HUMAN COMMODITY
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Forand, Paul Glidden. 'The Development of Military Slavery under the Abbasid Caliphs
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Ayalon, David. L'esclavage du Mamelouk. Jerusalem: Israel Oriental Society, 1951.
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Collister, Peter. The Last Days of Slavery: England and the East African Slave Trade
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Glassman, Carla. 'The Illegal Seagoing East African Slave Trade, 1873-1900: A Strategic
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Kelly, John B. 'A Quantitative Assessment of the Arab Slave Trade of East Africa, 177018%', Kenya Historical Review, 5, 1 (1977), 71-91.
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12. Slave Trade: Red Sea
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13. Slave Trade: Trans-Saharan
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THE HUMAN COMMODITY
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Azevedo, Mario J. 'Precolonial Sara Society in Chad and the Threat of Extinction Due to the
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Bedis, Yunes. 'Tales of the Wadai Slave Trade in the Nineties', Sudan Notes and Records,
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Brett, Michael. 'Population, Culture and Race in Egypt, the Sahara and North Africa*
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Chater, Khelifa. 'La traite du XlXeme siecle d'apres des sources tunisiennes' (Unpublished
paper. Workshop on the Long-Distance Trade in Slaves Across the Sahara and the
Black Sea in the 19th Century, Bellagio, Italy, December 1988).
Cordell, Dennis D. Dar al-Kuti and the Last Years of the Trans-Saharan Slave Trade.
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Ewald, Janet J. 'The Nile Valley System and Red Sea Slave Trade 1820-1880*. Slavery and
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Fisher, Humphrey. 'From Paradigm to Pilgrimage: Forced and Voluntary Mobility'
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Slavery & Abolition

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Muslim Slavery and Slaving: A Bibliography

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The western-language historiography of Muslim slavery and slaving began

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THE HUMAN COMMODITY

A modern wave of corrective scholarship formed with publication of

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MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY

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THE HUMAN COMMODITY

C. Miller, Slavery: A Worldwide Bibliography, 1900-1982 (White Plains,

MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY

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1. General and Comparative

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THE HUMAN COMMODITY

Juynboll, Th. W. 'Eunuch (Muslim)', Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (Edinburgh:

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MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY

Roberts, Robert. DasFamilien-, Sklaven-, undErbrecht im Qoran. Leipzig, 1908. (Leipziger

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THE HUMAN COMMODITY

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MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY

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THE HUMAN COMMODITY

MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY

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MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY

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THE HUMAN COMMODITY

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MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY

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THE HUMAN COMMODITY

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MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY

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THE HUMAN COMMODITY

MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY

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THE HUMAN COMMODITY

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MUSLIM SLAVERY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY

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14. Slave Trade: Other

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