Chapter 1

SETS AND THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Collection of things such as books on a shelf, baseball cards, stamps, and toys are
common. Mathematics greatly relies on that notion of collection called a set. One of the most
important sets in algebra is the set of real numbers. Probably the first numbers with which most
ancient people became concerned were counting numbers. These numbers are just some of the
essential elements of the set of real numbers. This chapter deals mainly with the notations and
operations of sets, and the structure of the real number system, together with its properties and
operations.
1.1 SETS
One of the basic and useful concepts in mathematics is set. The basic notion of a set was
first developed by Georg Cantor toward the end of the nineteenth century. Both counting and
measurement lead to numbers and sets, and through the use of numbers and sets it is possible to
obtain much insight in every field of mathematics.

A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects.

The following are examples of sets:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

The set of real numbers.

The set of counting numbers less than 10.
The set of months of the year that has 31 days.
The set of even numbers between 3 and 25.
The set of students enrolled in Algebra and Trigonometry.

Each object of a set is called a member or an element of the set. The symbol is used to
indicate that an element belongs to a given set and the symbol to denote that an element does
not belong to the set.
Capital letters are often used to represent or stand for a set. If a is an element of set S, then a
belongs to S and is written a S . The notation a S means that a does not belong to S.
Methods of Describing a Set
1. Roster or Listing Method. The method describes the set by listing all elements of the set
separated by commas and enclosed in braces .
2. Rule Method or Set-Builder Notation. The method describes the set by enclosing a
descriptive phrase of the elements in braces.

Examples:
1. The following are sets in Roster Method.
a) If D is the set of vowels in the alphabet, then D a, e, i, o, u .
b) If B is the set of counting numbers between 2 and 7, then B 3,4,5,6.
c) If P is the set of letters in the word ELEMENT, then P E, L, M , N , T .
Note:
The elements of a set may appear in any order and are never repeated.
2. The above sets can also be described using the Rule Method as follows:
a) D x x is a vowel in the alphabet
b) B x x is a counting number between 2 and 7
c) P x x is a letter in the word ELEMENT

Note:
The vertical bar is read such that and x represents any element of the set.
Exercises: Write each of the following sets using roster method and rule method.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The counting numbers which are multiples of 3 and less than 20.
The children of your parents.
The single digits used in our decimal system.
The set of all odd numbers between 2 and 12.
The fractions whose numerator is 1 and whose denominator is a counting number less
than 5.

Cardinality of Set
The cardinality of a set S, denoted by nS or S , is the number of distinct
elements in the set.
Example:
The cardinality of the above sets are:
a) nD 5
b) nB 4
c) nP 5
1.2 KINDS OF SETS
Finite Set and Infinite Set

A finite set is a set whose elements can be counted; otherwise, the set is an infinite
set.
2

Null or Empty Set

A null or empty set, denoted by or , is a set that has no element.
The universal set, denoted by U, is a set that contains all the elements in consideration.

Examples:
a) A 2,4,6,8 is a finite set.
b) B 1,2,3,...,20 is a finite set.

c) C x x is an odd number less than 10 is a finite set.

d) D 1,3,5,... is an infinite set.
e) E x x is an integer is an infinite set.

f) F x x is a prime number between 19 and 23 is a null set.

g) 0 is a finite set.

Note:
The cardinality of a null or empty set is zero.
1.3 SET RELATIONSHIPS
A one-to one correspondence exists between two sets A and B if it is possible
to associate the elements of A with the elements of B in such a way that each element
of each set is associated with exactly one element of the other.

Example:
A a, b, cand B 1,2,3 are sets whose elements have a one-to-one correspondence
relationship.
Equivalent and Equal Sets
Two sets A and B are equivalent, denoted by A B, if and only if there exists
a one-to-one correspondence between them.
Two sets A and B are equal, denoted by A B, if the elements of A and B are
exactly the same.
Examples:
a) a, b, c, d 1,2,3,4
b) 1,2,3 2,1,3

Note:
Equal sets are always equivalent but equivalent sets are not always equal.
Joint and Disjoint Sets
Two sets A and B are joint if and only if A and B have common elements;
otherwise, A and B are disjoint.
Example:
Let A 2,4,6,7 , B 2,4,5,8 and C 1,3,5,8.
Then, A and B are joint sets; B and C are joint sets; A and C are disjoint sets.

Subset and Proper Subset

Set A is a subset of set B, denoted by A B , if every element of A is an
element of B. Set A is a proper subset of set B, denoted by A B , if A is a subset of
B and B has at least one element not found in A.
If there is an element of set A which is not found in set B, then A is not a subset of B,
denoted by A B .
Example:
If A 1,2,3 and
are found in set B.

B 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7, then A B since the elements 1, 2 and 3 of set A

Power Set
The power set of A, denoted by A , is the set whose elements are all the subsets
of A.

Example:
If A 2,4,6 , then A , 2, 4, 6, 2,4, 2,6, 4,6, 2,4,6.
Notes:
A null set is a subset of any given set.
Any set is a subset of itself.
There are 2 n subsets, where n is the number of elements, that can be formed for any given
set.

Exercises: For each of the following sets, determine which is finite and which is infinite. For
the finite sets, tell which are equivalent and which are equal.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The set of the first five counting numbers.

The set of all even numbers.
The set of distinct letters in the word CALCULUS.
The set of even numbers less than 5.
The set of points in a given plane that are exactly two units from a given point in that
plane.
6. The set whose elements are 2 and 4.

Venn Diagram
Venn Diagram is the pictorial representation in dealing with the relations
between sets, after the English logician James Venn.

U
B

A and B are disjoint sets.

A B and B A

U
B

A
A

A B, A U and B U

B A, A U and B U

1.4 OPERATIONS ON SETS

Union of Sets
The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A B , is the set whose elements
belong to A or to B or to both A and B. In symbol,
A B x x A or x B or x A and B
Examples:
a) If A 1,2,3 and B b, c, d , then A B 1,2,3, b, c, d .
b) If C 1,3,5,8 and D 2,3,4,5, then C D 1,2,3,4,5,8 .
Intersection of Sets
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A B , is the set whose
elements are common to A and B. In symbol,
A B x x A and x B
Examples:
a) If A 2,4,6,8 and B 0,1,2,3,4 , then A B 2,4.
b) If C 1,2,3 and D 5,10,15, then C D
Note:
Two sets are disjoint if their intersection is an empty or null set.
Complement of a Set
The complement of set A, denoted by A, is the set with elements found in the
universal set, but not in A; that is, the difference of the universal set and A. In symbol,
A' x x U and x A

Examples:
a) If U 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and A 1,3,5,7,9, then A' 0,2,4,6,8
b) If U 1,2,3,4,... and A 4,5,6,7,..., then A' 1,2,3
Difference of Sets
The difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A B , is the set whose
elements are in A but not in B, In symbol,
A B x x A and x B
6

Example:
If A 2,3,4,5 and B 1,2,3 , then A B 4,5
Cartesian Product of Sets
The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by AxB , is the set of
ordered pairs x, y such that x is an element of A and y is an element of B. In
symbol,
AxB x, y x A and y B
Example:
If A 1,2 and B a, b, then AxB 1, a , 1, b, 2, a , 2, b
Note:
AxB BxA
In the Venn diagram below, the shaded region represents the indicated operation.
U
A

U
AB

AB
U
A

AB

Examples:
1. Let U x x is a counting number less than 10

A x x is a positive odd integer less than 10

B 2,4,6,8
C 2,3,4,5
then,
a) A B 1,3,5,7,9 2,4,6,8 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
b) A C 1,3,5,7,9 2,3,4,5 1,2,3,4,5,7,9

c) B C 2,4,6,8 2,3,4,5 2,3,4,5,6,8

d) A B 1,3,5,7,9 2,4,6,8
e) A C 1,3,5,7,9 2,3,4,5 3,5
f) B C 2,4,6,8 2,3,4,5 2,4
g) A' 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 1,3,5,7,9 2,4,6,8
h) B' 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 2,4,6,8 1,3,5,7,9
i) C ' 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 2,3,4,5 1,6,7,8,9
2. A survey of 100 students revealed the following information as to the number of
students enrolled in Mathematics (M), Physics(P) and Chemistry(C):
Subject
M
C
P
M and C
M and P
C and P
M, C and P

Number of students enrolled

26
65
65
14
13
40
8

a) How many students are taking any one of the three subjects?
b) How many students did not take any of the three subjects?
c) How many students are enrolled only in Mathematics?
d) How many students are enrolled only in Chemistry?
e) How many students are enrolled only in Physics?
Solution:
Corresponding to the given data, we obtain the Venn diagram below.

M
7

20

8
6

32

19
C

Thus,
a. 7+20+19 = 46 students are taking any one of the three subjects
b. 100 (7+5+8+6+32+19+20) = 3 students did not take any of the three subjects
c. n(M) = 7 students are enrolled only in Mathematics
d. n(C) = 19 students are enrolled only in Chemistry
e. n(P) = 20 students are enrolled only in Physics
Exercises:
A. If U 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,
true?
1. 4 A
5.
2. 5 B
6.
3. A
7.
4. 2 A
8.

A 2,4,5,8 and B 0,2,5,8,9, which of the following are

B
A' 0,1,3,6,7
A B 0,2,4,5,8,9
A U A'

9. U B 1,3,4,6,7
10. U A' A
11. B
12. A B' 1,3,6,7

B. Tell whether each of the following statements is true or false for any two sets A and B.
1. A is always contained in A B
2. A is always contained in A B
3. B always contains A B
4. B always contains A B
C. If A 2,4 and B 1,3,5, determine
1. AxB
2. BxA
D. In a survey concerning the number of students enrolled in Mathematics, it was found out that
30 are enrolled in Algebra, Calculus and Trigonometry; 40 in Algebra and Trigonometry; 45
in Trigonometry and Calculus; 50 in Algebra and Calculus; 80 in Algebra; and 70 in
Calculus. If there are 130 students in all, how many students are enrolled in Trigonometry?
SET IDENTITIES:
Let A, B and C be any sets and U be the universal set in which A, B and C are defined.
1. Commutative Laws:
2. Associative Laws:
3. Distributive Laws:
4.
5.
6.
7.

Contradiction Law:
Identity Laws:
Domination Laws:
Idempotent Laws:

A B B A
A B B A
A B C A B C
A B C A B C
A B C A B A C
A B C A B A C
A A'
A A
A U A
A
A U U
A A A
A A A
9

8. Complementation Laws:
9. De Morgans Laws:

A'' A
A B' A'B'

U '
A B' A'B'

' U

1.5 THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Elements of the Set of Real Numbers
Natural numbers (N) is the set of the counting numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on.
Whole numbers (W) is the set of the natural numbers and zero.
Integers (Z) are the natural numbers along with their negatives and zero (e.g. -3, -2, -1, 0, 1,
2, 3).
Rational numbers (Q) are real numbers that are ratios of two integers (with nonzero
denominators). A rational number is either a terminating decimal or a non-terminating but
repeating decimal.
Irrational numbers (I) are non-terminating, non-repeating decimals. Irrational numbers
which cannot be expressed as quotient of two integers.
The Set of Real Numbers and Its Subsets
Real Numbers

Rational Numbers

Non-Integers
(Fractions)

Irrational Numbers

Integers

Whole Numbers
0, 1, 2, 3

Negative Integers
-3, -2, -1

Natural Numbers
1, 2, 3

Zero

10

1.6 PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS

Basic Properties of Real Numbers
Let a, b and c be real numbers. The following properties hold for the operations addition and
multiplication:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Property

Addition

Multiplication

Closure
Commutative
Associative
Distributive
Identity

a bR
ab ba
a b c a b c
a(b c) ab ac
a0 a

a b R
a b ba
a b c a b c

6. Inverse

a a 0

a 1 a
1
a 1, a 0
a

Note:
0 is the identity element for addition and 1 is the identity element for multiplication.
1
-a is the additive inverse of a and
is the multiplicative inverse.
a
Properties of Order of Real Numbers
Let a, b and c be real numbers. The following properties of order of real numbers hold.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Trichotomy Property of Order: Among a b, b a and a b , only one is true.

Transitive Property of Order:
If a b, b c, then a c .
Addition Property of Order:
If a b, then a c b c.
Multiplication Property of Order: If a b and c 0, then ac bc
If a b and c 0, then ac bc.

Properties of Equality
Let a, b and c be real numbers. The following properties of equality hold.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Reflexive Property:
Symmetric Property:
Transitive Property:
Substitution Property:

a=a
If a = b, then b = a.
If a = b and b = c, then a = c.
If a = b, then a can be replaced by b in any
statement involving a or b.

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1.7 FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS ON REAL NUMBERS

Absolute Value of a Number
The absolute value of a number a, denoted by a , is a nonnegative number
defined by
if a 0
a
a
a if a 0
Examples:
Applying the definition of a , then
a) 8 8
b) 10 10
c) 0 0
OPERATIONS ON SIGNED NUMBERS
Addition of Signed Numbers
To add real numbers with like signs, find the sum of their absolute values and prefix the
common sign
To add real numbers with unlike signs, find the difference of their absolute values and prefix
the sign of the number with greater absolute value.
Examples:
a) 5 + 6 =11
b) (-4) + (-5) = -11
c) 8 + (-4) = 4
d) (-12) + (9) = -3
Subtraction of Signed Numbers
To subtract two signed numbers, change the sign of the subtrahend and proceed as in addition
of signed numbers.
Examples:
a) (-7) (-3) = -4
b) (10) (-6) = 16
c) (-24) (15) = -39
d) (9) (14) = -5

12

Multiplication of Signed Numbers

The product of two or more signed numbers is positive or negative depending on whether the
number of negative factors is even or odd, respectively.
Examples:
a) (3)(5) =15
b) (-2)(-5)(-3) = -30
c) (4)(-3)(-5) = 60
d) (2)(-3)(-4)(-5) = -120
Division of Signed Numbers
The quotient of two numbers with like signs is positive while the quotient of two numbers
with unlike signs is negative.
Examples:

35
7
5

a)

24
4
6

c)

b)

45
5
9

d)

42
6
7

ORDER OF OPERATIONS
The steps to simplify expressions involving series of operations on signed numbers are as
follows:
1. Perform multiplication and division from left to right in the order by which they appear.
2. Perform addition and subtraction from left to right in the order by which they appear.
Examples:
a) 4 7 (6) 15 3 33
b) 30 5 6 8 4 10
c) 9 7 5 2 5
Exercises:
A. Name the property that justifies the following statements:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

3 x y; y 3 x
3a b 3a 3b
4 1 4
3 4 4 3
2 x 0 2 x
6a 6a 0

13

4 5 7 4 5 7
1
8. 5 1
5
9. 1 3 a 3 a
10. 2 y x x 2 y
7.

B. Perform the indicated operations:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

20

4 62
6 3 20 10
12 4 3 5
28 4 4 5 10
75 25 5 6 3
28 4 7 53 9
20 18 5 2 14 7 9 2 6
30 28 2 3 12 2 6
125 25 3 16 8 33 11 10 5

14

NAME:___________________________________
INSTRUCTOR:____________________________

DATE:_____________
SECTION:_________

Activity No. 1.1

Sets
A. Write each of the following sets using
a. Roster method
b. Rule method
1. The set of whole numbers less than 8
2. The set of odd numbers between 2 an 20 which is divisible by 5
3. The set of remainders when a positive integer is divided by 4
4. The set of the last digit of 4 n ,where n is a positive integer
5. The last digit of 5 n 4 n , where n is a positive integer
B. Tell whether the given sets are equal, equivalent, one is a subset of the other, or none of these
is true.
1. A 0

2. C a, b, c

D c, b, a

3. R 2,4,6

B 1,2,3,4,...

4. S

T x x is a real number satisfying x 2 4 0

5. M 6,12,24,48,...

N 3,5,7,9,...,25

C. Let A 2,4,6,7, B 1,3,5, C 1,5,7,9 and U 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 . Determine the

following sets:
1. A C
2. B C
3. A
' B'

15

NAME:___________________________________
INSTRUCTOR:____________________________

DATE:_____________
SECTION:_________

Activity No. 1.2

Sets
Let A 2,4,6,7, B 1,3,5, C 1,5,7,9 and U 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 . Determine the
following sets:
4. C A B'
5. A B'C
6. B'C A'
7. A'B' A B
8. U C ' A
9. U A' A'C'
10. B'C 'U B'
D. In a survey among moviegoers preferences, 60% like fiction, 55% like drama, 56% like
comedy, 25% like fiction and drama, 30% like fiction and comedy, 26% like comedy and
drama, and 5% like fiction, drama and comedy. Only 5% of the respondents do not prefer
any types of movies mentioned.
1. Draw a Venn Diagram corresponding to the given data.
2. What are the percentages of moviegoers who prefer
a. comedy but not fiction?
b. drama only?
c. fiction or comedy but not drama?
d. comedy and drama but not fiction?
A. Name the property of the set of real numbers that justifies the following equalities.
1. 2 + 4= 4 + 2
2. 5b + 0 = 5b
3. 3 (2x + 5) = 6x + 15
4. xy = a , a = xy
5. 2 + ( 5 + 6) = (2 + 5) + 6
1
6. 4 1
4
7. (-3) + 3=0
8. 1(a + b) = a + b
9. 2x + 1 = 1 + 2x
10. (5)1 = 5
B. Perform the indicated operations.
1. 5 8
2. 6 3 4 32 4
3. 25 12 3 4 6 18 6

16

4. 2 3 4 6 48 8 2
5. 3 3 14 7 64 8 4

17