AQA Core 4 Algebra

Section 2: Partial fractions

Notes and Examples
These notes contain subsections on
Fractions with linear factors in the denominator
Fractions with repeated linear factors in the denominator
Improper fractions

In Core 3, you practised adding and subtracting algebraic fractions.

e.g.

1
3
4x 1
.

x 1 x 2 ( x 1)( x 2)

Sometimes it is useful to reverse this process: i.e. to express a complicated

fraction as the sum of two or more simpler ones. This process is called finding
partial fractions.

Fractions with linear factors in the denominator

Any fraction of the form

px q
can be written in the partial fractions
(ax b)(cx d )

A
B

.
ax b cx d
There cannot be any terms in x in the numerators of the partial fractions, as
this would mean that the fractions would be improper.
form

To find the unknown constants A and B in the partial fractions, you first
multiply through by the common denominator to clear the fractions.
There are then two basic methods to find the constants:
substitute any two values for x to give two equations in A and B (by
choosing the values carefully you can make this very easy)
multiply out and equate coefficients.
Substitution is often the most efficient method, but in some cases equating
coefficients may be an easier way to find one or more of the unknown
constants.

Example 1
Express

x 9
in partial fractions.
( x 1)(2 x 3)

Solution
The partial fractions must be of the form

A
B

.
x 1 2x 3

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x 9
A
B
.

( x 1)(2 x 3) x 1 2 x 3
Multiplying both sides by (x + 1)(2x 3):
So

x 9 = A(2x 3) + B(x + 1)

This equation is true for all possible values of x.

This means that you can substitute any number for x and
get a true statement. Although any number will do, you can
make it easier by choosing carefully. By choosing x = -1,
the term in B will disappear, making it easy to find A.

Substitute x = -1

-10 = -5A
A=2
To find B, you could choose x =

3
2

so that the term in A

disappears. However, if you prefer to avoid using

fractions, you can choose any value for x and use the
fact that A = 2. Perhaps the simplest choice is x = 0.

Substitute x = 0

Hence

-9 = 2(-3) + B
-9 = -6 + B
B = -3

x 9
2
3

( x 1)(2 x 3) x 1 2 x 3

In some cases you may need to factorise the denominator before you start.

Example 2
Express

1
in partial fractions.
x x2
2

Solution
First factorise the denominator:

1
A
B

( x 1)( x 2) x 1 x 2
Multiplying through by (x 1)(x + 2):
Substitute x = 1
1 = 3A
A 13
Substitute x = -2
1 = -3B
B 13

1
1

.
x x 2 ( x 1)( x 2)
2

1 = A(x + 2) + B(x 1)

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Hence

1
1
1

( x 1)( x 2) 3( x 1) 3( x 2)

The same method can be used with any number of factors in the
denominator. You will only be given questions involving up to three factors in
the denominator.

Fractions with repeated linear factors in the denominator

This method needs to be adapted slightly when there is a repeated linear
px q
A
B
factor in the denominator. Trying to write
in the form

2
(ax b)
ax b ax b
px q
A B
does not work as this will just give
.

2
(ax b)
ax b
However, any fraction of the form

px q
can be written in the form
(ax b) 2

A
B
.

ax b (ax b)2

Example 3
Express

3x 1
in partial fractions.
x 4x 4
2

Solution
Factorising the denominator:

3x 1
3x 1

x 4 x 4 ( x 2)2
2

3x 1
A
B

2
( x 2)
x 2 ( x 2) 2
Multiplying through by (x 2):
3x 1 = A(x 2) + B
Substituting x = 2:
5=B
Equating coefficients of x: 3 = A
3x 1
3
5

Hence
2
( x 2)
x 2 ( x 2) 2

If there are other linear factors in the denominator, then treat them in the
px 2 qx r
same way as before. In general, any fraction of the form
can
(ax b) 2 (cx d )
A
B
C

be written in the form

, and this can be extended to
2
ax b (ax b) cx d
any number of factors in the denominator (although you will only be asked to
deal with a maximum of three factors in total).
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Example 4

2x2 7
Express
in partial fractions.
(2 x 1) 2 ( x 3)
Solution

2 x2 7
A
B
C

2
2
(2 x 1) ( x 3) 2 x 1 (2 x 1)
x3
Multiplying through by (2x + 1)(x + 3):
2x + 7 = A(2x + 1)(x + 3) + B(x + 3) + C(2x + 1)
Substituting x = -3: 18 + 7 = C(-6 + 1)
25 = 25C
C=1
1
Substituting x = 2 : 2 14 7 B( 12 3)
15
5
2 2 B
B=3
Substituting x = 0:
7 = 3A + 3B + C
7 = 3A + 9 + 1
3A = -3
A = -1
2
2x 7
1
3
1
Hence

2
2
(2 x 1) ( x 3)
2 x 1 (2 x 1)
x3

For extra practice in finding partial fractions of these types, try the interactive
questions Partial Fractions.

Improper fractions
An algebraic fraction is improper if the degree of the numerator is greater than
or equal to the degree of the denominator. Improper fractions can be
expressed as the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction (just as an
4
improper numerical fraction such as
can be expressed as the sum of a
3
1
whole number and a proper fraction, 1 ).
3
All you need to do is to decide what degree the polynomial must be. This is
not difficult. When you express an improper fraction as the sum of a
polynomial and a proper fraction, you are really dividing one polynomial by
4
another, with a fraction left over (just as
means 4 divided by 3, which is 1,
3
1
with left over).
3

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If you multiply a quadratic expression by a cubic expression you will get a
polynomial of degree 5 the sum of the degrees of the cubic and the
quadratic. So, if you divide a polynomial of degree 5 by a quadratic, you will
get a cubic. In general, when you divide one polynomial by another, the
degree of the resulting polynomial is the difference between the degree of the
numerator and the degree of the denominator.
So, for example,

2 x2 x 1
C
can be expressed as Ax B
x 1
x 1

Numerator has degree 2, denominator has

degree 1, resulting in a polynomial with
degree 1.

D
E
x4
can be expressed as Ax 2 Bx C

( x 1)( x 1)
x 1 x 1

x 1
B
can be expressed as A
.
x2
x2

Numerator has degree 4,

denominator has degree 2,
resulting in a polynomial with
degree 2.

Numerator has degree 1,

denominator has degree 1,
resulting in a polynomial with
degree 0 (i.e. a constant term)

The example in the textbook shows dividing first, and then putting the
remaining fraction into partial fractions. An alternative approach, using the
ideas above, is shown in the two examples below.

Example 5
x2 3
Express
in partial fractions.
x2
Solution
The numerator is of degree 2 and the denominator is of degree 1, which will produce
a polynomial of degree 1.
x2 3
C
Ax B
x2
x2
Multiplying through by x + 2:
x 3 = (Ax + B)(x + 2) + C
Substituting x = -2: 4 3 = C
C=1
Substituting x = 0:
-3 = 2B + C
-3 = 2B + 1
B = -2
Equating coefficients of x: 1 = A
x2 3
1
x2
Hence
x2
x2

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You may also need to use the techniques you have already learned for
dealing with repeated linear factors or quadratic factors in the denominator.
Example 6
Express

x3 1
in partial fractions.
( x 1) 2 ( x 2)

Solution
The numerator is of degree 3, and the denominator is of degree 3, which will produce
a polynomial of degree 0, i.e. a constant term.
x3 4
B
C
D
A

2
2
( x 1) ( x 2)
x 1 ( x 1)
x2
Multiplying through by (x + 1)(x 2):
x + 4 = A(x + 1)(x 2) + B(x + 1)(x 2) + C(x 2) + D(x + 1)
Substituting x = -1: -1 + 4 = -3C
3 = -3C
C = -1
Substituting x = 2:
8 + 4 = 9D
12 = 9D
D = 43
Equating coefficients is the easiest method of finding A and B,
since there is no value of x which can be substituted to find
either A or B easily. You could use any two values, which will
give you two simultaneous equations involving A and B, which
you can then solve. However, as shown below, equating
coefficients is a more efficient approach.

Equating coefficients of x:
Substituting x = 0:

Hence

A=1

4 = -2A 2B 2C + D
4 = -2 2B + 2 + 43
-2B = 83
B = 43

x3 4
4
1
4
1

2
2
( x 1) ( x 2)
3( x 1) ( x 1) 3( x 2)

The Mathcentre video Partial fractions looks at examples of finding different

types of partial fractions, including some which involve quadratic factors in the
denominator, which are not included in the C4 specification.

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