Restrictive Connectivity in Four Color Theorem

TITLE PAGE
Research Paper

Restrictive Connectivity in Four Color Theorem

D. John Jabaraj1

Corresponding Author: D. John Jabaraj

MSI-Universiti Kuala Lumpur, 09000 Kulim, Kedah, Malaysia.

(Mail add: 449, Tmn Perdana, Jln Toh Kee Kah, 71000 P.Dickson, N. Sembilan, Malaysia.) (email: jojab77@yahoo.com)
(Tel: +60174194717)

Restrictive Connectivity in Four Color Theorem

Abstract
The four color theorem is analyzed by looking at the relationship between the regions in planar
maps in terms of connective availability and restrictions with each other. It is found that for any
arbitrary region in a planar map, the number of its bordering regions that are connected (share
borders) with each other can only be two or three. This implies that three colors are not sufficient
while five colors are not necessary. Hence only four colors are sufficient to color any planar
maps.

Keywords
Four color theorem; Planar map; Connectivity, Topology

Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC): 05C15

MANUSCRIPT TEXT

Restrictive Connectivity in Four Color Theorem

1. Introduction
The four color theorem states that a minimum of four colors are needed to sufficiently color
planar maps whereas three colors are inadequate and that five colors are not needed. In 1977,
Appel and Haken [1] constructed a computer program that used reducibility method to prove that
four colors suffice in coloring planar maps. However, parts of the proof were not be verified.
Then, Robertson et al [2] presented a better computer program that was subsequently verified.
Later, the theorem was further proven with general purpose theorem proving software [3].

In this study, the restriction and availability regarding the connectivity between bordering
regions in planar map are analyzed. Connectivity here implies sharing of borders. The maximum
numbers of possible connections are studied and utilized to construct the proof by contradiction.

2. Connection between elements

The connection between any two elements (in a collection of elements, n) depends on the
situation or restriction placed on them. For simplification, the elements are arranged simply in
line and then the connections between the elements are considered. The connections between
elements are visualized by connective lines. Several situations are thus analyzed.

a)

Connectivity in three-dimensional space

If the elements (n) are placed in a three-dimensional space, then the connections between
elements will have no restrictions. This is because every element can be freely connected

Restrictive Connectivity in Four Color Theorem

to each other. When visualized on a two-dimensional surface (i.e.: paper), the connections
between elements are allowed to crisscross each other (Fig. 1).

J (n r )

The total number of possible connections;

r 1

(1)

Fig. 1: An example of connectivity in three-dimensional space.

b)

Connectivity in two-dimensional space

If the elements (n) are placed in a two-dimensional space (i.e.: on paper), there exist a
restriction concerning connections between elements. The connections are not allowed to
interrupt each other. This means the connections must not crisscross each other when
visualized on a two-dimensional surface. Thus, not all elements can be connected to each
other in this situation (Fig. 2).

J 3( n 2)

The total number of possible connections;

(2)

Restrictive Connectivity in Four Color Theorem

Fig. 2: An example of connectivity in two-dimensional space.

c)

Connectivity in one-dimensional space

If the elements (n) are placed in a one-dimensional space (i.e.: on the edge of a paper or
continuous planar border), several restrictions exist. The connections between elements
must exist above the continuous line and are not allowed to crisscross each other. Thus,
many elements will not be connected to each other.

J 2(n 3 / 2)

The total number of possible connections:

Fig. 3: An example of connectivity in one-dimensional space.

(3)

Restrictive Connectivity in Four Color Theorem

.
3. The proof through restrictive connection perspective
Consider the statement:
In order to color any planar map with all bordering regions having different colors, four
colors suffice.

Proof A:
Let us disagree with the statement and say that four colors are not sufficient to color any planar
maps. This implies that a fifth color is needed. In other words, there exist a region where a fifth
color must be forced unto it.

A fifth color can only be forced unto a region if the region is connected (share boundaries) with
four other bordering regions that are in turn connected to each other.

A planar map can contain any number of regions. Now focus on an arbitrary region from the
planar map. The particular arbitrary region can be connected (share borders) with any number, n
of bordering regions. This can be simplified into a modal as shown here in Fig 4.

Fig. 4: Bordering regions (n) on an arbitrary region

Restrictive Connectivity in Four Color Theorem

Restrictions for this situation are then analyzed. It can be observed that the bordering regions are
placed on a continuous line of the perimeter of the arbitrary region. Hence, the bordering regions
will have the restriction of connectivity as in one-dimensional space.

Furthermore, all the bordering regions must be connected to each other so that a color can be
forced onto the arbitrary region. Hence to ensure maximum connectivity, the bordering regions
will have the restriction of connectivity as in three-dimensional space.

The two restrictions are then equated because the total connectivity of both restrictions must be
equal for certain number of bordering regions. Thus the equating of equations, E.1 and E.3
results in:
n

( n r ) 2( n 3 / 2)
r 1

n 2 5n 6 0
n 2@ n 3

So both the restrictions are satisfied only if the numbers of bordering regions (which are
connected to each other) are only two or three.

Thus a fifth color cannot be forced onto the arbitrary region because the number of its bordering
regions (which are connected to each other) that can exist on any arbitrary region is less than
four. This means that a fifth color will never be needed.

Restrictive Connectivity in Four Color Theorem

Proof B:
Let us agree with the statement and say that four colors are sufficient to color planar maps. This
implies that three colors are not sufficient which means a fourth color is needed. In other words,
in a planar map there exists at least an arbitrary region where a fourth color is forced unto it.

From the calculation in shown Proof A we can see that the numbers of bordering regions (that are
connected to each other) can only be three or two. Thus three colors are not sufficient because a
planar map can have regions with three bordering regions (that are connected to each other).
This forces the use of a fourth color.

4. Conclusion
In order to color any planar map with all bordering regions having different colors, four colors
suffice while five colors are unnecessary. This was proved through the perspective of restrictive
connectivity.

Acknowledgements

Restrictive Connectivity in Four Color Theorem

This work was conducted in MSI-UniKL. D. John Jabaraj thanks the Purple baby for bringing
joy into his life.
References
[1] Appel K, Haken W. The solution of the Four-Color Map Problem. Sci Amer, 1977, 237: 108121.
[2] Robertson N, Sanders D P, Seymour P D, et al. A new proof of the Four Colour Theorem.
Electron Res Announc Amer Math Soc, 1996, 2: 17-25.
[3] Gonthier G. Formal proof-The Four-Color Theorem. Notices of the AMS, 2008, 55(11):
13821393.