CHP 1 Hypersonics

Advanced
Hypersonic Aerothermodynamics
Iain D. Boyd
Dept. Aerospace Eng.
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, MI
Graham V. Candler
Dept. Aerospace Eng. & Mech.
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN
Hypersonic Educational Initiative
1. Hypersonic Gas Dynamics

1.1 Introduction
Outline (1)
1. Hypersonic Gas Dynamics (4.0 hours)
1.1 Introduction and Examples
Vehicle trajectories and properties
1.2 Hypersonic gas dynamic processes
Shock waves / boundary layers wakes
1.3 Fundamental equations of gas dynamics
Boltzmann / Euler / Navier-Stokes Equations
Outline (2)
1. Hypersonic Gas Dynamics (4.0 hours)
1.4 Real gas effects:
Quantum mechanics + statistical mechanics
Perfect gas
Vibrational activation
Chemical reactions nonequilibrium vs. equilibrium
Ionization, radiation
1.5 Shock wave analysis
Perfect gas
Iterative approach for equilibrium gas
1.6 Transport phenomena
Outline (3)
2. Hypersonic Aerodynamics: Pressure (1.0 hour)
2.1 Exact and approximate equilibrium gas solutions:
Stagnation points
Cones and wedges
2.2 Mach number independence
2.3 Newtonian and Modified Newtonian aerodynamics
Outline (4)
3. Hypersonic Aerothermodynamics: Heat Transfer
(2.0 hours)
3.1 Introduction:
role of aerodynamic heating
hypersonic boundary layers
3.2 Boundary layer equations, similarity transformation
3.3 Flat plate / wedge / cone solutions
3.4 Stagnation point solution and scaling
3.5 Laminar and turbulent boundary layers; transition
3.6 Wall catalysis
Outline (5)
4. Viscous Interactions (1.0 hour)
4.1 Leading edge interactions
4.2 Effect on high-altitude L/D; scaling for vehicles
4.3 Shock-BL interactions, shock-shock interactions
5. Thermal Protection Systems (1.5 hours)

5.1 Passive:
Re-radiative cooling, equilibrium wall boundary condition
Role of wall temperature, material properties
5.2 Ablative
Surface ablators
Pyrolyzing ablators
Outline (6)
6. Computational Analysis (2.0 hours)
6.1 Continuum CFD methods
Requirements for aeroheating predictions
Approaches for real gas effects
Current code capabilities
6.2 Non-continuum method - DSMC
7. Experimental Testing (1.0 hour)

7.1 Types of facilities:
Blow-down tunnels
Vitiated-air facilities
Impulse facilities
7.2 Overview of measurement techniques
Outline (7)
8. Aerothermodynamics of Hypersonic Vehicles
(1.5 hours)
Ballistic entry
Lifting capsule re-entry: Apollo
High-lift re-entry: Shuttle
Aerocapture / Aerobraking
Airbreathing scramjets
What is Hypersonic Flow?
Working definition of hypersonic flow:

M = (U / a) >> 1
Hypersonic aerothermodynamic phenomena:

strong shock waves with high temperature
not calorifically perfect (variable )
chemical reactions
significant surface heat flux
several different types of vehicles:
missiles, space planes, capsules, air-breathers
Hypersonic Examples:
I. Missiles
Mission: high-speed delivery of explosives

Aerodynamics: slender body with blunt nose
Propulsion: rockets, ramjets
Examples: AMRV, SCUD, Patriot, Hy-Fly
II. Space Planes
Mission: orbital re-entry

Aerodynamics: gliders with thermal protection
Propulsion: none (except small control thrusters)
Examples: Space Shuttle, Buran, Hermes
III. Air-breathing Systems
Missions: launch, cruise, orbital re-entry

Aerodynamics: slender with integrated engines
Propulsion: ram/scram-jets, rockets, turbojets
Examples: X-15, NASP, X-43, X-51
IV. Planetary Entry
Missions: EDL, aero-braking, aero-capture

Aerodynamics: very blunt, thick heat shield
Propulsion: none (sometimes RCS)
Examples: Apollo, MSL, CEV (Orion)
Hypersonic Vehicle
Historical Overview
Flight vehicles:
WAC Corporal missile (1949, M~8)
Vostok I (1961, M~25)
X-15 (1963-1967, M~7)
Space Shuttle (1981-???, M~25)
HyShot (2002, M~8)
X43 (2004, M>7)
Hy-CAUSE (2007)
Recent programs without flight:

NASP, Hermes, AFE, AOTV (1990)
VentureStar-X33 (2000)
Some Current
Hypersonic Programs
Falcon (DARPA)
HyBoLT (NASA/ATK)
Orion
(NASA)
X51
(AFRL)
Hypersonic Tales of Woe
Hypersonics produces unexpected phenomena
X15 test flight with dummy scramjet installed:

unexpected shock interactions generated
burned holes in connection pylon
First re-entry of Space Shuttle (STS-1):

larger than expected nose-up pitch generated
required near-maximum deflection of body flap
Shock-shock interactions:
heating amplified significantly
leading edges, cowl lips,
engine flow paths
Re-entry Trajectories
Trajectory equations for Earth centered system:

U"
L $ U 2'
T, U
=
# & 1#
cos(
"
)
)
g
W % gR (
T U D
" =
+ sin(# )
W g W
D
W
Ballistic missiles:
mission: short flight, fast impact
rocket launch, ballistic entry
no thrust or lift during entry (T=0, L=0)
fixed flight path at large angle (=const)
Re-entry Trajectories
Space Shuttle:
mission: orbital return
rocket launch
equilibrium glide entry
no thrust, L/D~1, ~0 (shallow entry)
Air-breathing vehicle:
missions: cruise, orbital return
completely reusable
powered take-off and entry
1
2
"
U
constant 2
for engine efficiency
Flight Velocity
Stagnation Point Heating
Stagnation Point
Temperature
Deceleration Levels
1.2 Hypersonic Gas Dynamics
Goal of hypersonic gas dynamics analysis:

predict flow field around a hypersonic vehicle
predict properties on vehicle surface (pressure,
shear stress, heat transfer)
hence predict aerodynamic and thermal
performance of a vehicle
Three main gas dynamic flow phenomena:

shock waves
boundary layers
wakes
1.2.1 Shock Waves
Formed when an object is placed in supersonic flow:

Mach number M = U / a (a~330 m/s at STP)
supersonic: M > 1
A shock wave is an extremely thin layer of fluid across

which there are significant changes in properties:
at STP, thickness ~ 10-7 m
T, p, all increase; M, U decrease
variable- = compressible; high-T=real gas
Several different types:

normal (strongest), oblique, bow
1.2.2 Boundary Layers
Thin fluid layer formed next to vehicle surface:

created by friction between gas and wall
Boundary layer (BL) determines surface properties:

pressure (nearly constant across BL)
shear stress and heat transfer
flow separation
Different types with very different properties:

laminar
turbulent
transition between the two
1.2.3 Wakes
Region of flow in the rear of the vehicle:

smaller influence on aerothermodynamics
Often involves strong expansion processes:

T, p, all decrease; M, U increase
Recompression:
leads to increased heating on a capsule backshell
base pressure effects on missiles
flow may become turbulent
complex vortex dynamics
1.3.1 Boltzmann Equation
Consider gas flow at the molecular level:

molecule has position x, velocity C
enormous volume of information (at STP, there
is about 1026 air molecules per cubic meter)
adopt a statistical approach
velocity distribution function, VDF:
f(t, x, C) dx dC
probability of finding a particle at time t, in
physical space element dx, and in velocity
space element dC
1d VDFs
VDF is affected by:

particle transport across dx due to C
particle transport across dC due to a
scattering in/out of dC due to molecular collisions
Leads to the Boltzmann Equation:
" (nf )
" (nf )
" (nf )
+ C#
+a#
=
"t
"x
"C
'' n { f (C') f (Z') $ f (C) f (Z)}g%d&dZ
n=number density, a=acceleration (force), g=relative

velocity, =collision cross section, =solid angle,
C=particle velocity after collision, Z=velocity of
particle with which C-particle collides
Equilibrium solution:
no net change in VDF, f, requires LHS = RHS = 0
RHS = 0 satisfied by
f (C) f (Z) = f (C') f (Z')
log[ f (C)] + log[ f (Z)] = log[ f (C')] + log[ f (Z')]
!thus, log[f] is a linear combination of collision

invariants (mass, momentum, energy)
leads to Maxwellian (equilibrium) VDF
# m &3 / 2
* m
2
2
2
f (C)dC = %
exp
)
C
)
u
+
C
)
u
+
C
)
u
(
(
)
(
)
(
)
1
1
2
2
3
3
,+ 2kT
$ 2"kt '
/.dC
Very difficult to obtain solutions:

seven-dimensional space
non-linear collision integral on RHS
expensive computations required
Solution only required for strongly nonequilibrium flow:

Knudsen number: Kn = / L
at Kn < 0.01, f is close to Maxwellian
for L=1 m, Kn~0.01 at h=90 km in atmosphere
for small Kn, Boltzmann equation can be used to
derive sets of macroscopic transport equations
1.3.2 Method of Moments
Take moments of Boltzmann Eq (Maxwell):
"n Q "n CQ
+
= # [Q]
"t
"x
Q=Q(C) is a particle property, e.g. momentum mC
[Q]=rate
of change of Q due to collisions
!
Q = " Qf (C)dC
Assumptions for f, Q lead to sets of partial differential

equations describing macroscopic flow
1.3.2 Euler Equations
Assumptions:
local thermodynamic equilibrium
VDFs are Maxwellian everywhere
use Q=m, mC, 0.5mC2 for which [Q]=0
leads to 5 PDEs: the Euler equations
"# "#u
"#u "# CC
"u
+
=0
+
= 0 = # + #u $ %u + %p
"t
"x
"t
"t "x
" 0.5 # C 2
"t
" 0.5 # CC 2
+
!
"x
=0=
3 "p 3
+ $ % pu + p$ % u
2 "t 2
no viscosity, no thermal conductivity

!
1.3.3 Navier-Stokes Eqns.
Chapman-Enskog distribution:
VDF is small perturbation from equilibrium
f (C)dC = "(C) f M (C)dC
where (C)=1+F(Kn)=1+F(heat flux, shear stress)

!
Navier-Stokes equations from transfer equation:
same five relations as Euler Equations
also: Q=mCiCj, mCiCjCk (15 further relations)
replace heat flux tensor by heat flux vector
derive and substitute linear transport relations
Again, a set of five PDEs:

"
"
"
"
U+ F + G+ H = 0
"t
"x
"y
"z
%
)
"u
'
'
2
"
u
+
p
#
$
xx
''
''
"uv # $ xy
F =&
*
'
'
"uw # $ xz
'
'
'(( "E + p # $ xx ) u # $ xy v # $ xz w + qx '+
#"'
% %
%% "u %%
U = $ "v (
% "w %
% %
%& "E %)
%
)
"v
'
'
"
uv
#
$
yx
'
''
!
!'
2
"v + p # $ yy
G=&
*
'
'
"vw # $ yz
'
'
'(( "E + p # $ yy )v # $ yx v # $ yz w + qy '+
%
)
"w
'
'
"
uw
#
$
zx
''
''
"vw # $ zy
H=&
*
'
'
"w 2 + p # $ zz
'
'
'(( "E + p # $ zz ) w # $ zx u # $ zyv + qz '+

Stress tensor modeled using Stokes hypothesis
for Newtonian fluid:
$#u #v '
'#u 1
*
" xy = " yx = & + )
" xx = 2) $ % & u,
%#y #x (
(#x 3
+
= viscosity coefficient
!
!
Heat flux vector modeled
using Fouriers Law:
qx = "#
$T
$x
= coefficient of thermal conductivity
!
1.4 Real Gas Effects
In low-speed flows, air is a perfect gas:

simplified thermodynamics, no chemistry
In most hypersonic flows, air is a real gas:

mainly due to high temperatures
complex thermodynamics, chemical reactions
Requires us to consider:
quantum+statistical mechanics
vibrational activation, chemistry
equilibrium and finite rate processes
ionization and radiation
1.4.1 Quantum Mechanics
An atom / molecule has several energy modes:

translation (due to 3D motion)
rotation (gyration of atoms in a molecule)
vibration (oscillation of atoms in a molecule)
electronic (arrangement of electrons in orbits)
Quantum mechanics provides energy states:

solution of Schrodinger equation
separate analysis for each energy mode
each atom / molecule may only occupy certain
quantized energy states in each energy mode
Translational energy:
h2
2
2
2
"t =
n
+
n
+
n
2
3)
2 ( 1
8mL
h=Plancks constant, L=dimension, m=mass
n1, n2, n3 are translational quantum numbers
t ~10-38!
J so continuum can be assumed
Rotational energy (rigid rotor):
"r = k# r $ J(J + 1)
k=Boltzmann const, r=char. temp. for rotation

J=rotational quantum number
for air, r ~10-23 J so continuum OK
Vibrational energy (harmonic oscillator):
"v = k# v $ v
v=characteristic temperature for vibration
v=vibrational quantum number
for air, v ~10-20 J so quantum effects important
Electronic energy:
energy levels determined by spectroscopy
each atom, molecule, ion has unique structure
generally, for air species, electronic states only
excited in very high temperature flows
hence, ground electronic state usually assumed
1.4.2 Statistical Mechanics
Each atom / molecule has an enormous number of

possible energy levels:
degenerate energy states for each energy level
Large number of atoms/molecules in a gas:

huge volume of information
Statistical mechanics:
distributions of particles across energy states
macroscopic thermodynamics via
integration/summation of atomic/molecular
behavior
Boltzmann energy distribution:
f ("i ) =
gi exp(#"i /kT )
$ g exp(#" /kT )
i
gi=degeneracy of energy level i

summation in denominator is partition function, Q
Overall partition function: Q = Qt " Qr " Qv " Qe

# 2"mkT & 3 / 2
Qt = V %
(
2
$ h '
Qv =
!
1
1" exp("# v /T )
!
Qr =
T (diatomic)
"r
Qe = g0 + g1 exp("#1 /T ) $ g0
Internal energy (thermodynamics):
e = et + er + ev + ee
3RT e = RT
et =
r
2
R" v
ee " 0
ev =
exp(" v /T ) #1
Specific heats:
!
2
*
! # "e & 3R
) v /2T
!
cv = % ( =
+ R + R,
/
$ "T ' v 2
sinh(
)
/2T)
+
.
v
cp
"=
cv
c p = cv + R
!
!
!
Specific heats (non-reacting):
1.4.3 Perfect Gas
Assumption often invoked in hypersonics:

no vibrational activation, no chemistry
cp, cv, are all constants
p = "RT
h = c pT
"R
" #1
R
cv =
" #1
For air:
!
e = c vT
cp =
!
7R
cp =
2
!
5R
cv =
2
!7
"=
5
!
1.4.4 Vibrational Activation
At high temperatures (T>1,000K) air molecules

become vibrationally activated:
equilibrium (infinite rate) results provided by
quantum mechanics + statistical mechanics
finite rate activation modeled using
dev e*v (T) " ev

=
dt
#v
where e*v=equilibrium value at temperature T

v=vibrational relaxation time (Millikan & White)
!
1.4.5 Air Chemistry
Analysis of Earth hypersonic vehicles at U<8km/s:

5-species air model sufficient: N2, O2, NO, N, O
Reactions:
Dissociation-recombination:
!
!
!
Zeldovich exchange:
!
!
N2 + M " N + N + M
O2 + M " O + O + M
NO + M " N + O + M
N 2 + O " NO + N
NO + O " O2 + N
Rate Processes
For illustration, consider:

2-species: N2, N
Each reaction proceeds at a finite rate:

kf1
kf 2
N2 + N2 " N + N + N2
kb1
!
N2 + M " N + N + M
N2 + N " N + N + N
kb 2
Forward rate coefficients measured experimentally, kf (T)
Backward rate coefficients from equilibrium constant:

!
k f "Qproducts
Ke =
=
kb "Qreactants
partition functions Q from quantum+statistical mechanics
Rates of Change
Net rate of change in concentration of a species:
contributions from forward and backward directions
d[N 2 ]
= "k f 1[N 2 ][N 2 ] " k f 2 [N 2 ][N] + kb1[N][N][N 2 ] + k b 2 [N][N][N]
dt
Chemical equilibrium:
final state reached instantaneously
production of each species balanced by its destruction
analytical solution for our system:
"2
m QN2
=
exp(#% d /T)
1# " $V QN 2
=mass fraction, m=atom mass, =density, V=volume,

d=dissociation temperature
!
Infinite Rate of Reactions

Chemical equilibrium:
O2 dissociates before N2 (has lower d)
fewer atoms at high pressure (more recombination)
Finite Rate of Reactions

Chemical nonequilibrium:
equilibrium end state reached only after finite time
in a flow field, this translates as finite distance
Nonequilibrium
Impact of chemical nonequilibrium:
chemical composition mainly affects energy of flow
endothermic reactions consume energy
catalysis: fraction of atoms reaching the vehicle
surface may recombine releasing heat
scaling:
nonequilibrium flow occurs at lower density
and/or smaller body length scales
#$U$ L
small Re "
$
#$
1
large Kn "
%
L &$ L
Ionization
Very high temperature reacting air (U>8km/s):

N2, O2, NO, N, O, N2+, O2+, NO+, N+, O+, e-
Reactions:
dissociation-recombination:
N2 + M " N + N + M
exchange:
N 2 + O " NO + N
associative Ionization:
direct Ionization:
!
N + N " N 2+ + e#
"
"
N+e #N +e +e
"
Ionization
Equilibrium solution (Saha) for [N, N+, e-] system:
"2
T 5/2
=C
exp(#$ i /T)
2
1# "
p
=ion mole fraction,

C=constant,
p=pressure,
i=ionization
temperature
Ionization
Significance:
plasma causes communications blackout
highly catalytic ions are source of heating
Radiation
Another important process at high temperature:

activation-deactivation: N + e" # N * + e"
spontaneous emission: N * " N + h#
analysis is complex, no closed form expressions
!
research area, e.g. NEQAIR (NASA-ARC)
Radiative heating!important at U>12km/s:

e.g. stagnation point heating correlation (Martin)
q rad " RNU 8.5 #1.6

also proportional to shock layer thickness
Stardust: radiation provides 10% of total heating
1.5 Post-Shock Conditions
Perfect-gas shock relations:
Density ratio asymptotes to:
Pressure and temperature are quadratic in M
Makes sense: energy is conserved

Post-Shock Conditions
Post-Shock Temperature:
Temperatures rapidly
become huge!
Variation of air internal energy with T:
10% departure from

calorically perfect gas
equation of state =
onset of hypersonic flow
More fundamentally 1D gas dynamics:
Plus equations of state:

Thermally perfect,
calorically imperfect
General equilibrium
gas mixture
No exact solutions
Hypersonic limit:
Can solve for the

thermodynamic state
Note that post-shock enthalpy and pressure only

depend on upstream conditions in hypersonic limit.
Iterative solution to shock relations:
Guess a value of = i and iterate:
Use tables, NASA CEA, etc.
Equilibrium Air
Temperature (K)
Z = Compressibility
Example: M = 12 at 30 km altitude:
Imperfect
Perfect
Perfect-gas vs. equilibrium post-shock conditions:
Difference is due to
energy storage in
internal energy
modes + chemistry
Post-shock pressure has weak dependence on nonideal gas effects (just through (1- ))
Post-shock temperature and density have strong Mach
number (free-stream speed) dependence
Density ratio > ( + 1)/( - 1) = 6
Temperature decreases significantly
Concept of no longer has much meaning; if:
Matlab code:
ftp://ftp.aem.umn.edu/users/candler/HEI/mollier.m
1.6 Transport Phenomena
Generated by gradients in flow properties:

dCA
diffusion (Ficks Law):
J A = "#DAB
dy
DAB=diffusion coefficient
du
" =
dy
viscosity (Newtonian fluid):

= viscosity coefficient
!
thermal conduction (Fouriers Law):

= thermal conductivity
! coefficient
dT
q = "#
dy
Diffusion
Affects continuity and energy equations
Influences transport of species to surface
Coefficient evaluation:
3 #mi kT
for simple gas (self diffusion) Dii =
8 " #$(1,1)
ii
for gas mixture
(1,1)
ij
"
kT (mi + m j )kT 1
Dij "
p
mi m j
#$(1,1)
ij
are diffusion collision integrals
averaged binary coefficient

D1m often used
!
Diffusion
Depends on temperature, pressure, species
Viscosity
Affects momentum and energy equations
Influences surface shear stress
for simple gas
various mixing rules
(2,2)
are
ij
"
5 "mi kT
i =
16 "#(2,2)
ii
(2,2)
= ("(1,1)
,"
)
ij
ij
!
viscosity collision integrals
Viscosity
1.5
T
#6
=
1.458
"10
air
Sutherland law
T + 110.4 kg/m/s
depends on pressure at high T due to chemistry
Thermal Conductivity
Affects energy equations
Influences surface convective heat flux
5 #mi kT 1 %
9 (
for simple gas (Eucken) " i = 16 #$(2,2) M '&c v + 4 Ru *)
ii
i
various mixing rules
(2,2)
" = " (#(1,1)
,#
)
ij
ij
"(2,2)
are again viscosity collision integrals
ij
curve fits for collision
! integrals from the literature
Thermal Conductivity
1.5
T
$3
"
=
1.993
#10
air
Sutherland law
T + 112
complex behavior due to chemistry
W/m/K
Prandtl Number
Often used to evaluate thermal conductivity:
c p
Pr =
"
Euckens relation:
4"
Pr =
9" # 5
!
monatomic gas: Pr=0.67
diatomic gas (=1.4): Pr=0.737
!
Prandtl Number
Real gas:
again, complex behavior due to chemistry

CHP 1 Hypersonics

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Hypersonic Educational Initiative

1. Hypersonic Gas Dynamics

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

5. Thermal Protection Systems (1.5 hours)

7. Experimental Testing (1.0 hour)

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

What is Hypersonic Flow?

Working definition of hypersonic flow:

Hypersonic aerothermodynamic phenomena:

Mission: high-speed delivery of explosives

Mission: orbital re-entry

Missions: launch, cruise, orbital re-entry

Missions: EDL, aero-braking, aero-capture

Recent programs without flight:

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Tales of Woe

Hypersonics produces unexpected phenomena

X15 test flight with dummy scramjet installed:

First re-entry of Space Shuttle (STS-1):

Trajectory equations for Earth centered system:

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Stagnation Point Heating

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

1.2 Hypersonic Gas Dynamics

Goal of hypersonic gas dynamics analysis:

Three main gas dynamic flow phenomena:

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

1.2.1 Shock Waves

Formed when an object is placed in supersonic flow:

A shock wave is an extremely thin layer of fluid across

Several different types:

1.2.2 Boundary Layers

Thin fluid layer formed next to vehicle surface:

Boundary layer (BL) determines surface properties:

Different types with very different properties:

Region of flow in the rear of the vehicle:

Often involves strong expansion processes:

1.3.1 Boltzmann Equation

Consider gas flow at the molecular level:

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

1.3.1 Boltzmann Equation

VDF is affected by:

Leads to the Boltzmann Equation:

'' n { f (C') f (Z') $ f (C) f (Z)}g%d&dZ

n=number density, a=acceleration (force), g=relative

1.3.1 Boltzmann Equation

!thus, log[f] is a linear combination of collision

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

1.3.1 Boltzmann Equation

Very difficult to obtain solutions:

Solution only required for strongly nonequilibrium flow:

1.3.2 Method of Moments

Take moments of Boltzmann Eq (Maxwell):

Assumptions for f, Q lead to sets of partial differential

Hypersonic Educational Initiative