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International Journal of Geometric Methods in Modern Physics

Vol. 13 (2016) 1650059 (14 pages)
c World Scientic Publishing Company


DOI: 10.1142/S0219887816500596

Anisotropic open system cosmology

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Miguel de Campos
Physics Department
Roraima Federal University, Boa Vista
Roraima 69310-000, Brazil
miguel.campos@ufrr.br
Received 4 November 2015
Accepted 15 February 2016
Published 8 April 2016
In this work, we study a particle creation mechanism at the expense of the energy
stored in an extra dimension with the respective process of compactication, and hence
the emergence of 4D space. The spacetime resulting can be the FriedmannRobertson
Walker (FRW) type, but also can be the cosmological term plus cold dark matter
(CDM) type, depending on the models parameters. Concurrent with the compactication process we have also the homogenization process, since initially the spacetime
is anisotropic.
Keywords: Extra dimensions; particle production; general relativity; isotropization
process.
Mathematics Subject Classication 2010: 83C99, 83F05

1. Introduction
Currently, the emerging word has appeared frequently in the study of the gravitational interaction, usually associated with gravity as emerging from thermodynamic
principles. Moreover, there is also the emerging literature on the association of character related to our 4D spacetime, as emerging from a space of higher dimension,
through a compactication process (here we understand compactication from the
physics point of view, that means changing a theory with respect to one of its
spacetime dimensions). A crucial point in a theory with more than four dimensions
is to explain why we cannot observe it. In Ref. [1], the authors analyzed that all
the matter and entropy content of the universe comes from a result of a transition
from a 5D vacuum state to a 4D matter lled spacetime.
Mohammedi in his paper [2], states as unanswered, reason and because the
process of compactication happens. We recognize that the compactication mechanism, with the emergence of our usual spacetime with four dimensions, have not
been elucidated convenently (as noted in the Mohammedi work [2]), but, in our
work this process is associated with the non-conservation of the particles number.
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M. de Campos

In addition, both in Mohammedis work as in our work we do not have the need to
include dark energy as an additional component for the cosmic uid to explain the
acceleration of the expansion process of the universe.
An interesting question has already been raised earlier: why a given variety is
preferable than other in a decaying process from a spacetime with extra dimensions.
In the context of the KaluzaKlein theory, Chodos and Detweiler [3] consider the
additional dimension evolve in time to extremely small sizes. In our study, beyond
the compactication process, since we have an anisotropic spacetime with extra
dimensions, we have also, in parallel, an isotropization process.
For some time, the cosmological models whose uid does not conserve the number of particles, has been discussed in scientic literature in several aspects [4]. The
discovery of the rapid expansion process of the universe is one of these aspects,
where the model with particle creation is a viable alternative to the Cosmologic
term plus cold dark matter (CDM) model. Especially when coupled to the vacuum energy decay [4].
Presently, the CDM model can be considered as the standard model in cosmology due the ne correspondence with the cosmological experiments. Basically,
the model is constituted of cold dark matter with constant, and is spite of the
good description of the observed cosmos by the model, the inclusion of a term is
not destitute of problems (see for example [5]). We can cite as example, the data
obtained from observations from distant Supernova Ia, that indicates that the universal expansion is accelerated [610]. Indeed, dierent cosmological experiments
have pointed to the evidence of accelerated expansion process of the universe, such
as: cosmic microwave background radiation, baryon acoustic oscillation, weak lensing, and large-scale structure, also indicates a similar characteristic in respect to the
expansion of the universe. Out of the Einstein theory framework, we have modied
gravitational models that also looks to explain the acceleration process of expansion
(see for example [11]).
The adoption of the CDM as a paradigmatic, conceals several considerations,
such as example: the homogeneity and isotropy of the universe on a large scale; the
scope of study to be the theory of general relativity; and the presence of a small cosmological constant; scale invariants perturbations formed in the inationary period.
However, the rapid evolution of cosmological observational data have shaken the
hegemonic status of the cosmological principle, and consequently many inationary
models with deviations from the gaussianity [12] appear in the scientic literature
[1315]. In this work, we have two processes that occur simultaneously: the process
of reducing the number of dimensions and the isotropization process. In his rst
moments, our model for the universe is anisotropic, and as we progress to the usual
4D spacetime, our spacetime becomes more isotropic.
On the other hand, since the detection of the accelerated expansion process
of the universe, the cosmological model where the number of particles is not conserved has been presented with the qualities needed to explain the observational
data. In fact, long before the universal acceleration process has been observed,
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Anisotropic open system cosmology

Schrodinger [16], in the 30s, studied the inuence of particle production in the
dynamics of the cosmic uid. We have, for example, several works that explore the
connection between the process of creating particles and viscosity, that is an interesting association because it includes the irreversible feature to the process, and
therefore, the time direction. The adoption of these principles (irreversibility and
particle creation) resulted in the generalization of the usual FriedmannRobertson
Walker (FRW) model, trying to explain the entropic content of the universe and,
in some cases, avoid a singular beginning. In this line, we can mention the work of
Lima et al. [17], where they study the irreversible character of the particle production, irreversibility, the arrow of time, and a thermodynamic treatment in detail.
An example of a universe that borns without a singularity, is the pionnering work
of the Prigogine [18], where the energymomentum tensor is reinterpreted and the
sources of particles considered is proportional to the Hubble function square.
Giving a generous leap forward, Lima and Baranov in [19] discuss the thermodynamic of particles production process and kinetic counterpart, showing that
all results can be obtained macroscopically using the kinetic treatment. Recently,
adopting a phenomenological approach, Saha and Chakaborty [20] study the
entropy ow vector from Stewart and Israel [21, 22], with particle production, and
nish their work using a deceleration parameter redshift dependent, and the cosmological consequences arising. Resuming, the models that exist in the literature,
from the macroscopic point of view, will be associated the process of particle production with a cosmological term, scalar eld, viscous pressure, time dependent
light velocity and gravitational constant. However, with the source of particles
assuming time dependence distinct.
Keeping certain similarity to our work, in the paper [1] the authors study the
matter production and the entropy content of the cosmic uid as a result of the
transition 5D4D, when the transition can be associate with a breaking of Lorentz
invariance, and the source of particles is linked to a time dependent light velocity
and gravitational constant. In the midst of much that has been done considering
cosmological models with creation of matter, in our work we recover the original interpretation of Prigogine, where the particles are formed at expenses of the
energy stored in the gravitational eld. However, in our study, this feature is somewhat more evident due to the compactication process of the additional dimension.
On the other hand, concurrently with the compactication process, we have the
isotropization of the spacetime (in our model the anisotropic feature is mainly
linked to the primordial stage of the universe), with a rapidly evolving into the
usual world with four dimensions.
Hence, resuming the basic idea of our work: the eld and the thermodynamic
equations are formulated in a spacetime with extra dimensions, with adiabatic
production of particles in a cosmic uid held the expense of the energy stored in
the additional dimension. Pumping of energy stored in the eld associated with the
extra dimension, gives rise to a compactication of this additional dimension, and
we show that the 4D spacetime formed mimics the FRW model. With the same
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procedure we also will show that we can get a model clone of CDM model as
emerging from the compactication process of the extra dimension.
This work is organized as follows: In Sec. 1, we discuss main features of the
model, the process of isotropization and particle production; in Sec. 2, appear some
important thermodynamic relations, and the eld equation for our model; in Sec. 3,
we present two examples to illustrate the model; in Sec. 4, we put our nal commentaries.
2. Open System Cosmology in Higher Dimensions
In our model, we have a redenition in the energymomentum tensor via production
of particles, with direct consequence on the geometric side but specically in the
number of dimensions of spacetime.
In the scope of general relativity theory, the dynamics of the material content
and the features of spacetime geometry are related by the Einstein eld equations:
G = T .

(1)

The energymomentum tensor is denoted by T , and G is the Einstein tensor.

For simplicity, in this study we work with a unity system where the gravitational
constant is unitary. Although, considering a spacetime with extra dimensions this
constant is slightly altered (see for example [23]).
Let us consider the geometry of spacetime as being homogeneous with a at
extra dimension, which provides the anisotropic character. With these features, the
metric takes the following form
ds2 = dt2 R(t)2 {dr2 + r2 d2 + r2 sin()2 d2 } Y (t)2 dy 2 ,

(2)

where R(t) and Y (t) are time dependent functions, that at rst have dierent
temporal evolution rates. So that, the Einsteins tensor components are given by:

2
R
R Y
0
,
(3)
+3
G0 = 3
R
RY
G11

R
=2 +
R

R
R

2
+2

Y
R Y
+ ,
RY
Y

G11 = G22 = G33 ,

2

R
R
4
G4 = 3 + 3
,
R
R
where a dot denotes time derivative.
On the other hand, the higher-dimensional energymomentum tensor will be oriented by the eld equations of the general relativity theory, remaining the invariance
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of the spacetime isometry [24]. In our case, the energymomentum tensor has two
distinct parts. The rst part is the usual perfect uid, which is usually denoted by
T = u u + P h .

(4)

Indeed, we have an additional component for the energymomentum tensor,

dened by

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Tyy = gyy .

(5)

P is the thermodynamic pressure, is the energy density, u the usual four-velocity,

is the anisotropic part of the pressure, and h is the projection tensor.
In this context the T conservation results:
+ 3

Y
R
( + P ) + ( + ) = 0.
R
Y

(6)

We can show the correlation of this conservation equation with the rst law of
thermodynamics, making some observations regarding the work done by the uid.
We can see that, over the volume we have
dV = R3 dY + Y dR3 .
The two parties for the work are dierent and we can write it as
W = P Y dR3 + R3 dY.
The rst part of the work is due to expansion of the universe, while the second
part is due to the particle production. Since, the particle production is done at the
expense of the energy stored in the additional dimension. Thus, the rst law of
thermodynamics assumes the following aspect
d(R3 Y ) + P Y dR3 + R3 dY = 0.

(7)

Assuming a comoving observer the Einstein eld equations are summarized by:
R 2
R Y
,
+
3
R2
RY

R
R 2
Y
R Y
P = 2 2 2
,
R R
RY
Y
2

R
R
= 3 3 2 .
R
R
=3

(8)
(9)
(10)

Up this point, we have then ve unknowns and three equations. Usually in the
works dealing with the cosmological models, it is usual to consider a state equation
(P = ) to the set of equations. We will do the same, and in our work we consider constant. Naturally, one could adopt a similar procedure for the additional
dimension, by providing an additional state equation to alleviate the mismatch that
we have between the number of equations and unknown quantities.
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As we do not have an additional state equation, we go on a dierent path, but we

will see ahead that the paths can be similar. Taking into account that the number
of particles does not conserve, the continuity equation is written as

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(nu ); = ,

(11)

where n is the particle number density, and is the source of particles.

Considering the geometry dened by Eq. (2), the continuity equation assumes
the form



Y
R
n = .
(12)
n + 3 +
R Y
In our next step, we associate an anisotropic pressure one characteristic dissipative which is responsible for the non-conservation of the number of particles in the
cosmic uid. Thus, we have a negative pressure that is responsible for acceleration
of cosmic expansion process without the inclusion of dark energy term, and the
particle formation will take place at expenses of the energy stored in the additional
dimension.
Now, to complete our collection of basic equations of the model, the rest of this
section will be see the thermodynamic equations for the model, starting with the
rst law:
T dS = dU + P dV dN,

(13)

where T is the temperature; S the entropy; N the number of particles; and is the
chemical potential.
Comparing this expression of the rst law of thermodynamics with the one
that we wrote earlier, given by Eq. (7), we see that Eq. (13) has a term linked
to production of particles, involving the chemical potential. With the help of this
comparison, we can write the following relation
R3
(Y ),
(14)
N =

what clearly expresses the production of particles against decay the energy stored
in the additional dimension.
With some manipulation the rst law can be put in the form:
T nd = d dn T dn,

(15)

where is the specic entropy.

With help of Euler equation,
=

+ Pth
T ,
n

Eq. (15) can be written as

n
nT = ( + P ) .
n
Considering the particle production process as adiabatic ( = 0), or equivalently,
arming that the produced particles have identical velocity that the pre-existent
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[25], we determine the expression for the anisotropic pressure, namely:

=P

( + P )

n YY

(16)

where we made use of Eqs. (12) and (6).

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3. Emergent Four-Dimensional Spacetime

Let us begin this session by comparing two dierent expressions for the pressure
creation. The rst expression is obtained by substituting the expression for the
source of particle production in the equation obtained for the pressure creation,
given by Eq. (16), resulting:
2
+ HR HY },
= 3{HR
R
R

(17)

Y
Y

where HR =
and HY = . The second expression that we want to consider is
resulting from eld equation given by Eq. (10), which we write as:
2
,
(qR + 1)HR

(18)

RR
R 2

where qR =
is the deceleration parameter for the 3D sphere.
Watching the two expressions for the creation of pressure and taking into
account the type of power-law solutions for the scale factor, will result in a deceleration parameter constant. Consequently, it is expected to have a linear relationship
between the Hubble functions for the factors R and Y scale, that we can write as

R/R
= 1 Y /Y,

(19)

where is a dimensionless constant. With this choice we can rewrite Eq. (8) in the
form

2
R
= 3(1 + )
.
(20)
R
Also, note that this choice results in a direct relationship between the deceleration
parameter qR , qY and :
1 + qR
,
=
1 + qY
where qY is the deceleration parameter for the scale-factor Y (t), and qR for R(t).
Using Eqs. (20) and (9), rearranging the similar terms, we nd the following
dierential equation

2

R
R
2
= 0,
(21)
(2 + ) + [(1 + )(1 + 3) + ]
R
R
which integration process results
2+
R
= (t/t0 ) (1+)(2+3)+1+2 ,
R0
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0

0.5

1.5

2.5

2.5

2.5
Y(t)/Y

Scale factor

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R(t)/R

L(t)/L

1.5

1.5

0.5

0.5

0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

t/t0

Fig. 1. Evolution of the scale factor R(t), Y (t) and L(t). As we waited, the FRW model emerges
from the breakdown of additional dimension. Here, we use = 0 and = 1/2.

where the subscript 0 denote a specic moment (in Fig. 1, we show the graphic of
evolution of the scaling factors). To determine the scale factor of extra dimension,
we can substitute the expression for R(t) (Eq. (22)) in Eq. (19), resulting
(+2)

Y /Y0 = (t/t0 ) (1+)(2+3)+1+alpha2 .

(23)

In particular, if we consider
1 + 3
,
2
we can recover the usual solution of FRW model, that is given by R/R0 =
1+3
2
(t/t0 ) 3(1+) , and the scale factor for the extra dimension is Y /Y0 = (t/t0 ) 3(1+) .
Interestingly, substituting these expressions for the scale factors R(t) and Y (t) in
eld equation for the energy density, we obtain a solution of an empty universe,
considering the state equation for radiation (P = 13 ). In the future, this point we
must study more closely.
On the other hand, we cannot rule out that at any given moment in the evolution of the universe we have a framework that approaches the usual FRW model.
Similarly that happens with the usual FRW model, the deceleration parameter to
our model is positive, which indicates a universe with expansion, however, is not
accelerated.
In our case, the deceleration parameter is dened by

LL
qL (t) =
L 2
=

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that assumes the form

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qL (t) =

3(1 + )(1 )
,
(3 + )(2 + )

(24)

where the eective scale factor is given by L = (R3 Y )1/4 (see for example [26]).
Hence, the universe has an accelerated expansion since that we obey the condition
3 < < 2, and to obtain the collapse of the extra dimension, we have 2 <
< 0. So, we not reconcile the compactication of the additional dimension, and
consequently the isotropization process, with the process of acceleration of the
universe in this example.
Let us now take a slightly dierent source for particle production from the
previous choice. Although, the taken ansatz is slightly dierent, the path taken
leads us to a very dierent picture. So, lets consider the source of particles given
by
Y
,
(25)
Y
where is a dimensionless constant (see Eq. (12)). Making use of eld Eqs. (8)
(10) and substituting our new ansatz in Eq. (16), we can write a general dierential
equation

2

R
R
R
Y = 0,
Y + ( + 4) Y + +
(26)
R
R
R
= n

where = 3(1 + ) 2. Note that, if the term in brackets in Eq. (26) is constant
(const. = , that has dimension time2 ), the integration results a solution that
mimics the CDM model. Using other words, the solution of dierential equation

2

R
R
=
+
R
R
is given by
R(t) sinh{


1
(1 )t} 1 .

(27)

Substituting Eq. (27) in Eq. (26) results in a new dierential equation:

Y + f (t)Y + Y = 0,
(28)


where f (t) = +4
(1 ) coth[ (1 )t], and which integration results:
1


2+3
Y (t) sinh[ (1 )t] 2(1) Pba (cosh[ (1 )t]),
(29)

+4+20)
3+2
where a = 2(1)
, b = (1+2(1)
, and Pba denotes the Legendre function
of the rst kind.
We can get a solution that mimics the solution of the CDM model, even for
the dust case ( = 0). Using other words, we do not have the need to consider a
dark energy component with an exotic state equation.

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0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2
0.6

0.5

0.5

0.4

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.2

0.2

0.1

0.1

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

t
(a)
0.1

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

3.5

3.5

2.5

2.5

Y(t)/Y0

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R(t)/R0

0
0.6

1.5

1.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5
0.1

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

t
(b)
Fig. 2. Scale factor evolution.
We display the evolution for the scale factor R(t) and Y (t) versus

the dimensionless time t. We consider = 1/2.

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0

0.5

1.5

2.5

qR

q(t)

3
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

t
(a)
0

0.5

qL

qR
2

q(t)

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qL

0.5

t
(b)
Fig. 3. Evolution of deceleration parameter. In the left graph we consider = 1/2, and in the
graph at right we consider = 1/2. For this graphs we use Eqs. (27) and (29).

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In Fig. 2, we display the evolution for both scale factors. Doing a rudimentary
comparison to the evolution of the scale factor in our two examples, can even
appear that we deal with physical nearby situations. Although, we can see through
the deceleration parameter of the two cases are quite dierent. In the rst case,
we see that the deceleration parameter is constant (Eq. (24)); while in the second
case, although we have the analytical expression for qL (t), due to its complexity
we just build their graphics (see Fig. 3). As before, we will use for the deceleration
1
parameter an eective scale factor, given by L = [R(t)3 Y (t)] 4 , where we will follow
a similar procedure to that held in [26].
We present two examples illustrating our model, however, although the two
cases keep certain similarity, the evolution of the particle production process diers
substantially in each case. In both cases, the source of particles can be written as


R 2 R Y Y
,
(30)
+

R
RY Y
for the dust case ( = 0), where the constant of proportionality includes the mass
of the produced particles (m) and we can consider the valid relation = mn.
However, we show in Fig. 4 the prole for the source of particles for both
examples.
0.2

Source of particles ()

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M. de Campos

0.3

0.4

0.5

Case I
20,000

20,000

Case II

0
0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Fig. 4. Source for particle production. In both case we use Eq. (30). In case I, we use Eqs. (22)
and (23). To construct the graph for the case II, we consider Eqs. (27) and (29).
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4. Final Discussion
Discussed in this paper a study of thermodynamics involving particle production
process considering a 5D spacetime, i.e. the KaluzaKlein type. In our model, the
creation process is carried out at the expense of the energy stored in the additional
dimension.
Originally the metric that we use is anisotropic, however as the particle creation
process removes energy in the added dimension, consequently we have as a side eect
the homogenization process of spacetime.
We illustrate the model with two examples that show dierent results: in the
rst case we have to move towards a solution of the type FRW; while in the second example, the spacetime that emerges from the homogenization process and
compactication, mimics CDM model.
We wrote the rst law of thermodynamics, where explicitly appears the term
responsible for the production of particles (Eq. (7)); and in Eq. (14) makes clear the
decay of the additional dimension, concomitantly with production of particles. We
display the prole for the deceleration parameter, which makes clear the uniqueness
of our model.
Still, before the homogenization process take place, we have interesting features.
As an example, the two distinct moments where transitions occur in the acceleration
of the expansion of the cosmic uid for the eective scale factor (see Fig. 2(a)),
whereas R(t) does not show any transition.
To remove any doubt about the occurrence of singularities, we calculate the
scalar of Kretschmann, and write it in terms of geometrical quantities of the model:
 

2
HY
4
2
4
2
3qR .
K Hy [3 qY ] + HR 3
HR
While there may be points where the value of Kretschmann scale is too large, so
we have singularity only in t = 0.
Another point that worth mentioning refers to the distance of our model for
the CDM model. A quick way to answer this question is by using the statender
parameters, introduced by Sahni et al. [27]. For the CDM model the statender
pair is a xed point, namely (r, s) = (1, 0). As the model CDM responds well when
compared to observational data, the proximity of a particular model with this xed
point is a good indication of tness for what is observed.
Explicitly the pair (r, s) is given by
...
R
,
r=
RH 3
(31)
r1
s=
.
3(q 1/2)
Independent of what we use, the scale factor given by Eq. (27), or the eective scale
factor by Eqs. (27) and (29), the pair (r, s) is time dependent, but with the passage
of time, they will arrive to the constant value (r = 1, s = 0). Hence, in our model
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IJGMMP-J043

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M. de Campos

we can consider the statender parameters substituting Eq. (27) or the eective
scale factor (L(t)), considering that they are still valid for the eective scale factor.
Although they initially have a temporal evolution of the pair (r, s) with the passage
of time, they will arrive to the constant value (1.0). However, surely this point must
be better studied for the initial moments.

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