BFC 31802

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
Chapter Two

HIGHWAY MATERIALS

A typical flexible pavement structure:

Wearing course
Binder course
Base
Sub-base
Sub-grade

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Granular Materials
In road construction, one or more layers of material are placed immediately above
the subgrade.
The unbound pavement course ensures that the courses above are adequately
supported so that their full potential is achieved.
Unbound pavement courses are extraordinarily strong when properly compacted
and confined.
The unbound pavement courses are the:
BASE COURSE
SUB-BASE COURSE

BASE COURSE
The base course lies immediately above the sub-base.
If a sub-base course is not used, the base is placed immediately above the subgrade.
This course usually consists of granular materials such as crushed stone, crushed
or uncrushed slag, crush or uncrushed gravel and sand.
The specifications for base course materials usually include stricter requirements
than those for sub-base materials, particularly with respect to their plasticity,
gradation and strength.

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Materials that do not have the required properties can be used as base materials if
they are properly stabilised with Portland cement, asphalt or lime.
In some cases, high-quality base course materials may also be treated with asphalt
or Portland cement to improve the stiffness characteristics of heavy-duty
pavements.
The base course helps to distribute the load.
While distributing the load, the base course itself must not be a cause of failure.
Therefore, it must be strong enough to carry the load without shear failure and
resultant rutting.

In order to ensure that its strength is maintained, the base course must allow water
drainages to the sides of the pavement structure.
If the base becomes saturated, high stresses may be created in the water
occupying the pore spaces, resulting in less frictional strength between particles.
The materials must be durable, that is, resistant to degradation or breakdown to
smaller sizes from wear and weathering.
The base course must also prevent infiltration of sub-grade material.

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The base material shall be:

crushed rock or crushed gravel, or a mixture of crushed and

natural aggregates,
which are:

hard, durable, clean and essentially free from clay and other
deleterious materials.

The material shall conform with the following physical and mechanical quality
requirements:

The plasticity index

shall be not more than
6.

The aggregate crushing

value shall be not more
than 30.

The weighted average

loss of weight in the
sodium sulphate
soundness test (5
cycles) shall be not
more than 12%.

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The flakiness index

shall be not more than
30.

The material shall have

a CBR value of not less
than 80 when
compacted to 95% of
the maximum dry
density.

Not less than 80% of

particles retained on the
B.S 4.75 mm sieve shall
have at least one
fractured face.

The gradation shall

comply with the
envelope shown in
Table 2-1 for type
specified.

Table 2-1: Gradation Limit for Crushed Aggregate Road-Base

B.S Sieve
50.0 mm
37.5 mm
28.0 mm
20.0 mm
10.0 mm
5.00 mm
2.36 mm
2.00 mm
600 m
425 m
75 m

% Passing by Weight
Type I

Type II

100
95 100
60 80
40 60
25 40
15 30
8 22
08

100
85 100
70 100
60 90
40 65
30 55
20 40
10 25
2 10

TESTING
The materials used to construct this layer are consists of the mixing of
crushed aggregates with the size from 50 mm to dust.
All road base materials shall fulfill the testing listed below:

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California
Bearing
Ratio (CBR)

Plasticity
Index (PI)

Aggregate
Impact
Value (AIV)

Flakiness
Index (FI)

Soundness

Sieve

SUB-BASE COURSE
Located immediately above the sub-grade, the sub-base component consists of
material of a superior quality to which is generally used for sub-grade construction.
The sub-base must drain readily.
Strength is not as important, however, since the course is lower in the pavement
structure and therefore is subjected to much smaller loads.
The requirements for sub-base materials are usually given in terms of the
gradation, plastic characteristics and strength.

The functions of sub-base are:

To support the base layer and distribute load from vehicles.
As a drainage layer (if the materials used are capable of
draining the water)
Used as a temporary road during the construction
To protect the sub-grade from failure due to climatic effect
As a barrier layer to avoid the mixing of sub-grade and
base materials

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TESTING
When the quality of the sub-grade material meets the requirements of the
sub-base material, the sub-base component may be omitted.
In cases where suitable sub-base material is not readily available, the
available material can be treated with other materials to achieve the
necessary properties.

The most suitable sub-base materials should meet these requirements:

The liquid limit shall
be not more than
25%.

The material shall have

a CBR value of 30 or
more when compacted
to 95% of the maximum
dry density.

The plasticity index

shall be not more
than 6%.

The gradation shall conform to one of the

envelopes shown in Table 2-2 with the
fraction passing the B.S. 75 m sieve not
greater than 2/3 of the fraction passing the
B.S. 425 m sieve.

Crushed aggregates
with the size
ranging from 75 mm
to dust and the CBR
value > 30%

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The aggregate
crushing value shall
be not more than
35%.

For laterite
sand
CBR value
> 20 %

Sub-base material should fulfill the test of

CBR, Liquid Limits, Plastic Limits,
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV), Los
Angeles Abrasion (LAA) and Sieving

Table 2-2: Gradation Limits for Sub-base Material

B.S.Sieve Size (mm)
50.0
25.0
9.5
4.75
2.0
425 m
75 m

% Passing By Weight
A

100
30 - 65
25 55
15 40
8 20
28

100
79 95
40 75
30 60
20 45
15 30
5 20

100
50 85
35 65
25 50
15 30
5 20

100
60 100
50 85
40 70
25 45
5 - 20

100
55 100
40 100
20 50
6 20

100
70 100
55 100
30 70
8 25

Soil
SUB-GRADE
The sub-grade is the part of embankment or
natural soil under the sub-base.
This layer is the first phase of the road
construction. The surface of sub-grade is
identified as a formation level.
The formation level is the soil surface after the earthwork, consolidation,
compaction and stabilisation works are completed.
The primary function of the sub-grade is to support load from the surfaces above.

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The selection of suitable soils to be used as the foundation for the highway
pavement surface is of primary importance in the design and construction of any
highway.
A good sub-grade should have these properties:

Should be
stable under
vehicle loading
and climatic
conditions.

The strength
should remain
throughout the
design period.

Should have the

ability to drain
water.

There are some soils which are identified as unsuitable materials for the subgrade and road embankment.
These materials are not capable to sustain load from the above layer and traffic.
Unsuitable soils include:

Soils which consists of organic clays or silts.

The value of Liquid Limits (LL) > 80 % or Plasticity Index (PI) > 55 %
The value of Loss On Ignition (LOI) > 2.5 %
Soils consist of roots, grass or other plants, toxic, peat or mud.

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Material for the top 300 mm of sub-grade shall have a minimum California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) as required in the specification when compacted to 95% of the
maximum dry density determined in the B.S 1377 Compaction Test.
Throughout the top 300 mm of sub-grade, the material shall be compacted to not
less than 95% (for cohesive material) or 100% (for cohesionless material) of the
maximum dry density.
In cut area, the top 300 mm of the sub-grade shall be scarified and re-compacted
to 95% (for cohesive material) or 100% (for cohesionless material) of the maximum
dry density.

However, for the sub-grade in its natural state possesses a density exceeding the
requirements, then the surface of the sub-grade shall be trimmed and rolled to
obtain smooth finish.
Where the material in cut area is found to be unsuitable for use in the top 300 mm
of sub-grade, it shall be removed and replaced with suitable material which shall be
compacted as indicated above.

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TESTING
The factors which influence to the strength of the sub-grade are listed as follows:
Types of soils The most suitable soil are granular soil and the most unsuitable
material for the sub-grade is the peat soils.
Water content the suitable moisture content of soil is determined through the
laboratory compaction test.
The method and compaction effort the strength of soil also depends on these
factors and at site the type of machinery used for the compaction and the
number of repetition of compaction also been considered.

Therefore, testing need to be conducted to the soil to determine the suitability of

soils as a sub-grade.
The tests which are usually conducted to the soils for sub-grade and road
embankment are listed as follows:

Loss On Ignition (LOI) BS 1377: Part 3: 1990

Liquid Limit (LL) and Plastic Limit (PL) BS 1377: Part 2: 1990
Compaction BS 1377: Test 13: 1975 (Part 4: 1990)
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) BS 1377: Test 16: 1975 (Part 4: 1990)

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Asphalt (Bitumen)
In Malaysia, the term of asphalt refers to the binder
material, which is produced from crude oil.
The mixture of asphalt and aggregates is called
asphaltic concrete (AC).
The chemical
composition of
asphalt:

Minerals

Percentage Content (%)

Carbon

80 85

Hydrogen
Sulfur

10
15

Nitrogen

Oxygen

<1

Asphalt can be obtained from two main sources:

Natural sources asphalt which is located in geological stratum and can be
obtained in the hard and soft form.
Petroleum asphalt in colloidal form obtained from crude oil (widely used in road
construction).
Asphalt can be classified into four types as listed as follows:

Penetration
asphalt

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Cutback
asphalt

Emulsified
asphalt

Blown asphalt

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Penetration Asphalt
The grade of penetration asphalt classified according to the

penetration test : 40 300

viscosity test: 5 40

Cutback Asphalt
Cutback asphalt is produced based on the asphalt with the percentage ranging
from 50 80 % mixed with the petroleum-based solvents. When it is mixed with
aggregate, the petroleum will evaporate and it allows for the asphalt to bind with
the aggregate.

Cutback asphalt can be classified into three types according to the rate of
evaporation:
Rapid
Curing
(RC)

Medium
Curing
(MC)
Produced by
mixing asphalt
with petrol.
Used for tack
coat and
surface
treatment.

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Slow
Curing
(SC)
Produced by
mixing asphalt
with kerosene.
Used for
prime coat
and cold mix
for patching
work.

Produced by
mixing
asphalt with
diesel.
Used for
prime coat
and cold mix
for patching
work and dust
control.

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Emulsified asphalt
Emulsified asphalt is produced by mixing the asphalt (55 65%) with water
and an emulsifier in a colloidal rotor.
This will reduce the viscosity of asphalt and allow them to be used at the low
temperatures.
The type of asphalt depends on the emulsifying agent used.
The two types of emulsified asphalt are:
1) Anionic
2) Cationic

Anionic
Contains the negative asphalt globule.
This asphalt is produced when a positive emulsifying agent is used alkali.
It is suitable to be used with the aggregates that have positive charges like
limestone.
Cationic
Contains the positive asphalt globule.
This asphalt is produced when a negative emulsifying agent is used acid.
It is suitable to be used with the aggregates that have negative charges like
sand, quartz and silica.

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Emulsified asphalt can be classified into three categories based on setting time:

Rapid
Setting
(RS)

Medium
Setting
(MS)
Used for
surface
treatment and
tack coat.

Slow
Setting
(SS)
Used for
Macadam
penetration
and open
graded cold
mix.

Used for tack

coat, dense
grade cold
mix, crack
patching and
slurry mixture

Emulsified asphalt is most widely used compared to cutback asphalt due to

several factors:
Environmental regulation emulsified asphalt contains water while cutback
asphalt contains materials which can evaporate and pollute the air when it has
been used.
The wastage of petroleum cutback asphalt uses petroleum solvents.
Safety emulsified asphalt is safer to be used.
Low temperature of mixing this reduces the cost of fuel consumption.
Besides that, emulsified asphalt can be used on damp surfaces while cutback
asphalt needs dry condition.

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Blown asphalt
Produced by heating the asphalt at high temperature. Air is allowed through the
asphalt, making the asphalt harder.
Used for building materials especially for roofs.

TESTING
In order to ensure the asphalt fulfills the specification, a series of tests is
conducted as follows:

Penetration

Softening
Point

Loss on
Heating

BDD/HANDOUT/2A

Ductility

Thin Film
Oven Test

Flash and
Fire Point

Specific
Gravity

Viscosity

Solubility

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Asphaltic Concrete
The bituminous pavement layer is constructed of
asphaltic concrete, which is the mix of aggregates
and binder (asphalt).
The surface layer consists of two layers known as the binder course and the
wearing course. The surface layer should be able to:

Withstand high
tyre pressure

Resist the
abrasive force
due to traffic

Provide a skidresistant driving

surface

Prevent the
infiltration of
surface water

The quality depends on the mix design of the asphalt concrete used.
The materials used to construct this layer are aggregates, asphalt and filler.

Aggregates

BDD/HANDOUT/2A

Asphalt

Filler

Asphalt
Concrete

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Aggregates provide interlocking structure, and supports and distributes load

to the layer beneath.
Asphalt the binder material that binds the aggregates to produce a strong
and stable mixture.
Filler fills the voids in the mix, improves the elasticity of the asphalt to
produce a durable mix, and reduces bleeding of the bituminous mixture.

Binder Course
This layer is used to distribute load to the
road base and provide a flat surface for
the construction of the wearing course.
The maximum size of aggregates used
is 28 mm.

Wearing
Binder

The asphalt content of the mix generally

ranges between 4 and 6 %.

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Wearing Course
The top layer that functions to:
Provide skid
resistance

Sustain abrasion
from traffic

Protect the road

surface

Provide a safe and

comfortable riding
surface

Act as a drainage system by

providing a waterproof layer, and
eliminating surface run-off to the
side drain.

The maximum size of aggregate is 20 mm and mixed with asphalt with the
percentage ranging from 4.5 7 %.

Aggregates
Most of the aggregates used in road construction are natural aggregates.
Aggregates can be classified into three groups according to the size as follows:
Coarse aggregates retained on the sieve 2.36 mm.
Fine aggregates passing sieve 2.36 mm and retained at 75 m sieve size.
Filler the dust passing sieve size 75 m (eg. quarry dust and Portland cement).

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Coarse aggregates shall be screened crushed hard rock, angular in shape and
free from dust, clay, vegetative and other organic matter and other deleterious
substances.
In order to ensure the properties of aggregate fulfill the requirement of bituminous
mixture, they need to satisfy the following requirements:
The aggregated
crushing value shall
be not more than 30.

The weighted average loss of

weight in the sodium sulphates
soundness test (5 cycles) shall
be not more than 12%.

The water absorption

shall be not more than
2%.

The flakiness index

shall be not more than
30

The polished stone value shall

be not less than 40 (only
applicable to aggregates for
wearing course)

Fine aggregates shall be clean natural sands, screened quarry fines or mining
sand. Mining sand shall be thoroughly washed before use.
They shall be non-plastic and free from clay, loam, aggregations of material,
vegetative and other organic matter and other deleterious substances.
They shall conform to the following requirements:
The weighted average loss of weight in the
sodium sulphate soundness test (5 cycles) shall
be not more than 12%.

The water absorption shall be not

more than 2%.

Notwithstanding compliance with the requirements, limestone aggregates shall

not be permitted for use in wearing course.

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The gradation of the combined course and fine aggregates, together with ordinary
Portland cement added as an adhesion and anti-stripping agent and if necessary
any other mineral filler shall conform to the appropriate envelope shown below:
Mix Type

Wearing Course

Mix Designation
B.S. Sieve Size
37.5 mm
28.0 mm
20.0 mm
14.0 mm
10.0 mm
5.0 mm
3.35 mm
1.18 mm
425 m
150 m
75 m

Binder Course

ACW 14

ACB 14

ACB 28

% Passing By Weight
100
80 95
68 90
52 72
45 62
30 45
17 30
7 16
4 10

100
70 95
56 81
40 65
32 58
20 42
12 28
6 16
48

100
80 100
72 93
58 82
50 75
36 58
30 52
18 38
11 25
5 14
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Marshall Mix Design

Aggregate Selection
determine physical properties
perform blending calculations
to achieve aggregate gradation

Sample Preparation

Binder Selection
determine appropriate binder

Density & Voids Calculation

Bulk density, Theoretical Max. SG

5 blends with 3 samples each

mixing and compaction

Stability Determination
Marshall stability and flow test

VTM, VFB & VMA

Optimum Binder Content Selection

based on the combined results of Marshall
stability and flow, density analysis and voids
analysis
OBC is determined through graphical method

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The most used method for the mixture design is the Marshall Method (ASTM D
1559).
The objective of the Marshall design is to determine the mixing ratio of
aggregates and optimum asphalt content to produce durable, stable and
adequate of voids, workable, flexible, economy and quality.
The most common method used to determine the optimum asphalt content is
the method proposed by the Asphalt Institute. The procedure of this method is
given as follows:
1. Determine
- asphalt
- asphalt
- asphalt
- asphalt

content for the maximum stability

content for the maximum density
content at the median of the specification of VTM
content at the median of the specification of VFB

2. Calculate the mean value from these 4 values.

3. Based on this mean value, determine the following values from the
Marshall property curves:
Stability (S)
Flow (F)
Stiffness (S/F)
Void in Total Mix (VTM)
Void Filled with asphalt (VFB)
4. Compare the values obtained from (3) with the specification values. If it
fulfills the specification, the asphalt can be considered as the optimum asphalt
content. If it does not fulfill the requirement, the mixture needs to be
redesigned.

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Table 2-6: Test and Analysis Parameters for Asphaltic Concrete

Wearing Course

Binder Course

Stability

Parameter

>500kg

>450kg

Flow

>2.0mm

>2.0mm

Stiffness

>250kg

>225kg

3.0%-5.0%

3.0%-7.0%

75-85%

65-80%

Air voids in mix (VTM)

Voids in aggregates filled with asphalt
(VFB)

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Conventional asphalt content ranges used for mix design

Wearing Course
Binder Course

ACW 14

5.0 7.0%

ACW 20

4.5 6.5%

ACB 14

4.5 6.5%

ACB 20

4.0 6.0%

ACB 28

4.0 6.0%

EXAMPLE OF MARSHALL MIX DESIGN (for Binder Course)

% AC

Density

Stability

Flow

Stiffness

VTM

VFB

4.0

2.259

1339.2

4.5

2.270

1469.3

2.62

511.8

6.49

57.96

2.79

526.0

5.33

65.50

5.0

2.289

5.5

2.272

1551.0

3.19

486.2

3.86

74.59

1321.3

3.25

407.0

3.89

6.0

2.260

76.06

1196.7

3.70

323.1

3.70

78.40

3.80

550.0

3.60

500.0

3.40

450.0
Stiffness

Flow

3.20
3.00
2.80
2.60
2.40

400.0
350.0
300.0
250.0

2.20
2.00

200.0
3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0
%AC

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5.5

6.0

6.5

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

%AC

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2.295

1600.0

2.290

1500.0

2.280

1400.0

Stability

Density

2.285

2.275
2.270

1300.0
1200.0

2.265
1100.0

2.260
2.255

1000.0
3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

3.5

4.0

4.5

%AC

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

5.5

6.0

6.5

%AC

7.00

80.00

6.50

75.00

6.00
70.00
VFA

VTM

5.50
5.00
4.50

65.00
60.00

4.00
55.00

3.50
3.00

50.00
3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

3.5

4.0

4.5

%AC

5.0
%AC

1600.0

550.0

1500.0

500.0
450.0

1400.0

Stiffness

Stability

Average = (5.02 + 4.85 + 4.55 + 4.98) / 4 = 4.85 %

1300.0
1200.0

400.0
350.0
300.0

1100.0

250.0

1000.0

200.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

3.5

4.0

4.5

%AC

3.80

7.00

3.60

6.50

3.40

6.00
VTM

3.20
Flow

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

5.5

6.0

6.5

%AC

3.00
2.80

5.50
5.00
4.50

2.60
2.40

4.00

2.20

3.50

2.00

3.00

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0
%AC

BDD/HANDOUT/2A

5.5

6.0

6.5

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0
%AC

25

80.00
75.00

VFA

70.00
65.00
60.00
55.00
50.00
3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

%AC

Parameter
Stability
Flow
Stiffness
VTM
VFB

Results

Specification
(Binder course, JKR 1988)

Remarks

1530 kg
3.04 mm
495 kg/mm
4.42 %
71.1%

> 450 kg
> 2.0 mm
> 225 kg/mm
3.0 7.0%
65 80%

OK
OK
OK
OK
OK

Optimum Binder Content, OBC = 4.85%

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