DISSERTATION

ON

ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS AND ITS

TREATMENT

Submitted by:
SAIF SIDDIQUI
091110025

Under the guidance of

Dr. ANUPAMA SHARMA

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal

APRIL 2013

MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

BHOPAL DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

DECLARATION

This Dissertation in subject AR 494, entitled ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS

AND ITS TREATMENT is being submitted as part of requirement for eighth
semester of Bachelor of Architecture by the undersigned for evaluation.
The matter embodied in this dissertation is either my own work or compilation of
others work, acknowledged properly. If, in future, it is found that the above statement
is false, then I have no objection in withdrawal of my Dissertation and any other
action taken by the Institute.

Date:
SAIF SIDDIQUI
091110025

MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

BHOPAL

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Dissertation entitle ARCHITECTURAL

ACOUSTICS AND ITS TREATMENT is a piece of research work done by
Saif Siddiqui under my guidance and supervision and to the best of my
knowledge and belief that this dissertation is:

(i)

Embodies the work of the candidate himself;

(ii)

has duly been completed;

(iii)

Up to the standard both in respect of contents and language for

being referred to the examiner.

Recommended

Dr. Anupama Sharma

Associate Professor,
Department of Architecture and Planning
MANIT, Bhopal.
Date

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I deemed it my privilege to extend my profound gratitude and appreciation to all those

who have directly or indirectly involved themselves in helping me to proceed with the
Dissertation work.
My sincere appreciation and thanks to Supervisor/guide Dr. Anupama Sharma for
their diligent attention towards the dissertation throughout all stages of work. Their
comments and criticism have been invaluable.
I am thankful to all faculty members for their inspiration, without which it was
impossible to finish the task.
The writing of this dissertation has been one of the most significant academic
challenges I have ever taken. Though the following dissertation is an individual work,
I could never have reached the heights or explored the depths without the help of
books published by various authors, the e-books available on the internet and websites
providing information related to my dissertation topic.

SAIF SIDDIQUI
091110025

Table of Content
Declaration ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Acknowledgement ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table of Content .................................................................................................... 4
Chapter-1.

Synopsis .......................................................................................... 7

1.1

Title ................................................................................................................. 7

1.2

Needs and Concerns......................................................................................... 8

1.3

Aim ................................................................................................................. 8

1.4

Objectives........................................................................................................ 8

1.5

Scope .............................................................................................................. 8

Chapter-2.

Introduction .................................................................................... 9

2.1

Acoustics ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.2

History of Acoustics ....................................................................................... 10

2.3

Sound and its Mechanism .............................................................................. 16

2.4

Noise ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Chapter-3.

Acoustical Treatment Of Various Spaces ........................................ 35

3.1

Classrooms .................................................................................................... 35

3.2

Concert Hall ................................................................................................... 36

3.3

Office ............................................................................................................ 38

3.4

Studio ............................................................................................................ 39

3.4

Theatre .......................................................................................................... 40

Chapter-4.

Acoustic Materials ........................................................................ 41

Chapter-5.

Acoustical Treatments ................................................................... 42

5.1 Common Construction Materials .......................................................................... 42

5.2

Specialtiy Construction Materials ................................................................... 44

5.3

Floors ............................................................................................................ 46

5.4

Stringers ........................................................................................................ 49

5.2

Ceilings .......................................................................................................... 50

5.3

Walls ............................................................................................................. 52

5.4

Doors ............................................................................................................ 54

5.5

Windows ....................................................................................................... 57

Chapter-6.

Conclusion .................................................................................... 60

Chapter-7. References ......................................................................................... 60

Chapter-1. Synopsis
1.1 Title
Architectural Acoustics And Its Treatment

1.2 Introduction
Architectural acoustics refers to the control of sound and vibrations within buildings.
Although architectural acoustics was first applied to opera houses and concert halls,
this branch of acoustical engineering applies to any enclosed area, whether concert
halls, office spaces, or ventilation ducts.
The acoustics of rooms are often considered to ensure speech intelligibility and
privacy. One thing that can affect speech intelligibility is standing waves. A standing
wave results from a sound wave reflected 180 degrees out of phase with its incident
wave, which often occurs for at least one specific frequency when two walls are
placed parallel to each other. To avoid this, many rooms are designed with angled
walls. A second potential cause of poor speech intelligibility is reverberation. This
effect can be reduced through porous absorbing materials. Examples of these include
glass or mineral fibers, textiles, and polyurethane cell foams. Since the absorption of
each material is different for different frequencies of sound, the materials used often
vary based on the intended purpose of the room, though compound partitions, or
layered combinations of different materials, make more effective absorbers. A third
common technique for room acoustics is the use of masking. Masking is the canceling
or drowning out of other sounds. Although this raises the overall sound pressure,
masking can make irritating noises less distracting and add speech privacy As these
examples highlight, room acoustics are a regular part of architectural design.
Reducing ventilation noise serves as another example of applied architectural
acoustics. Many heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems have silencers.
Silencers can actively cancel noise by electronic feed forward and feedback
techniques, or muffle the sound by either having sudden changes in cross section or
walls with absorbent linings.Architectural acoustics involves the control of sound for
ventilation, rooms, and anything else indoors.
.

1.3 Needs and Concerns

In todays architectural environment, good acoustical design isnt a luxury its a
necessity. Acoustics impacts everything from employee productivity in office settings
to performance quality in auditoriums to the market value of apartments,
condominiums and single-family homes. While the science behind sound is well
understood, using that science to create desired acoustical performance within a
specific building or room is complex. Theres no single acoustical solution that can
be universally applied to building design. Each built environment offers its own
unique set of acoustical parameters. The acoustical design for a business conference
room, for instance, differs greatly from the design needed for a kindergarten
classroom. Understanding these differences and knowing how to utilize building
materials, system design and technologies are key factors behind successful acoustical
design. This research will provide basic background on the science and measurement
of sound, as well as insights into some of the principles of architectural acoustical
design.

1.4 Aim
To study the architectural acoustical designing of spaces.

1.5 Objectives

To study the sound and its mechanism

Study acoustics of an enclosure..

To study treatment of moise..

1.6 Scope
Since this is an architectural report, the literature study will cover study of acoustics
in an architectural space. This research will provide basic background on
Introduction to sound, as well as insights into acoustical designing of spaces
principles and noise reduction techniques.

1.7 Methodology

Literature survey
1. Basics of acoustics
2. Various acoustical treatments
3. Relevant case studies.

study of the acoustical materials for treatments

acoustical measures for respective enclosures.

Chapter-2. Introduction
2.1 Acoustics
Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in
gases, liquids, and solids including vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist
who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician while someone working in the field of
acoustics technology may be called an acoustical or audio engineer. The application of
acoustics can be seen in almost all aspects of modern society with the most obvious being the
audio and noise control industries.

The word "acoustic" is derived from the Greek word (akoustikos),

meaning "of or for hearing, ready to hear" and that from (akoustos), "heard,
audible", which in turn derives from the verb (akouo), "I hear".
The Latin synonym is "sonic", after which the term sonics used to be a synonym for
acoustics and later a branch of acoustics. Frequencies above and below the audible
range are called "ultrasonic" and "infrasonic", respectively.

Figure 3.1 Auditorium Stravinski, Montreux

The acoustical environment of a workspace is typically given little or no attention

during project planning and design. The functionality and aesthetics of the workspace
are usually the primary focus of the designer. Too often overlooked, are the factors
contributing to the productivity of employees occupying the workspace. Providing a
comfortable environment for employees contributes significantly to their optimum
performance and reduced absenteeism. Workspace comfort is really a combination of
factors that includes day lighting and electric lighting, indoor environmental quality,
temperature, and acoustics. The assault on ears in the workplace can come from
traffic noise outside, mechanical equipment in adjacent spaces, and copiers, phones,
and voices within the workspace.

2.2 History of Acoustics

The historical development of architectural acoustics is similar to other fields of
building design, in comprising two parallel strands of ideas the science and
mathematics of the subject on the one hand, leading to improved understanding of the
phenomena, and the methods used by designers when faced with the challenge of a
new building on the other, especially when the task differs markedly from precedent.
The two nineteenth-century classic works on the physics of acoustics (Helmholz
1863; Strutt 1877-78) hardly mentioned the acoustics of theatres or other rooms, and
the science they contained only began to be used by architectural acousticians in the
mid-twentieth century. While these two branches of knowledge are closely related, it
was not a case of theory leading to practice, or vice versa: the two were symbiotic.

2.2.1 Acoustics in The Ancient World

Vitruvius on acoustics and theatre design
The Roman engineer Vitruvius devoted several chapters of his book on building
design and construction to the location and design of theatres (Vitruvius, Book V). He
advised that they should be located away from winds and from marshy districts and
other unwholesome quarters and also on their orientation with respect to the sun and
the surrounding terrain. He addressed key geometric issues such as the plan and
section, sight lines, numbers and locations of entrances and exits, and finally
considered the subject of acoustics. This highly theoretical section was not his own;
he was repeating what he found in various Greek treatises on acoustics from two or

10

three centuries earlier which, in turn, probably had their origins in Pythagoras who
first developed the subject around 530 BC. Vitruvius dealt with acoustics from several
points of view. First he introduced harmonics an obscure and difficult branch of
musical science, especially for those who do not know Greek. This science explained
the pitch of notes and the intervals between them in the Greek musical scale, as well
as why some combinations of notes are concordant and others discordant. Next
Vitruvius discussed sound in the auditorium in particular the need for sound of all
pitches to travel from the stage to the ears of every member of the audience by a
direct route, in the manner of waves created by a pebble thrown into water. This led
logically to both raked seating and the semi-circular plan. He advised against vertical
reflective surfaces that would prevent sound reaching the upper tiers of seats since
this particularly impairs the intelligibility of word endings which, in Greek and Latin,
are vital to comprehension. Such reflected waves, he wrote, can also interfere with the
direct waves and distort sounds for the listener. These explanations differ remarkably
little from how we would put it today. Thirdly, Vitruvius explained that the site of a
theatre itself must be carefully selected taking account of acoustics: it must not have
an echo, nor give reflections that can lead to direct (incident) and reflected sounds
interfering.
Vitruvius also discusses the use of sounding vessels nowadays called Helmholz
resonators, after the nineteenth-century German physicist who explained how they
function which, he says, reinforce certain frequencies of the human voice and can
increase intelligibility. These open-ended vessels were made of bronze and tuned to
six notes of the chromatic scale. Two sets of six were arranged beneath a tier of seats
symmetrically either side of the centre line of the theatre. If the theatre were
particularly large, two additional sets of vessels should be installed in higher rows,
each a few semi tones lower in pitch a total of thirty six different notes. Vitruvius
admits he knows of no theatres that had actually been built in Rome with sounding
vessels. The reason, he explains, is that the many theatres that are constructed in
Rome every year contain a good deal of wood which does not lead to the same
problems with reflections as stone. Also, he says, the timber panels themselves can
resonate in a manner similar to the air in a sounding vessel and so improve
intelligibility. As to the effectiveness of sounding vessels, they are known today not to
improve intelligibility and that is probably why they were not used in Rome. Whether

11

the Roman theatres were as good as the Greek ones, we do not know, but there is no
doubt that both were designed with great understanding of acoustics and expertise in
using this understanding to achieve demonstrably better results.
One final recommendation from Vitruvius on acoustics was for a senate house. The
height of a senate house should be half the width of the building, he says, and
coronae, or cornices, made of woodwork or stucco, should be fixed half way up the
inside faces of the walls around the entire room. Without these, he says, the voices of
men engaged in discourse are lost in the high roof. With coronae, the sound of the
voices is detained before rising and so is more intelligible to the ear.

Acoustics In The Mediaeval And Renaissance Eras

No significant writings on the acoustics of buildings survive from mediaeval or
Renaissance times (Hunt 1978). Vitruvius was published in the late 15th century and
would have been known by most designers of large buildings. However, it is not
possible to identify precise ways in which his guidance was followed, either in
cathedrals or, from the late Renaissance, in theatres. The development of music from
the 12th century provides evidence of a good understanding of the acoustics of
cathedrals; however, their legendary acoustic qualities are more indebted to the skill
of composers and musicians than to the buildings themselves or their designers. They
have long reverberation times because sound waves are reflected many times with
little loss of intensity which means that musical rhythms have to be slow to be
intelligible, and percussive instruments must not be used to avoid the inevitable
machinegun effect of any echo. The acoustic of the space favours those instruments
with a gradual attack to each note, and which sustain their notes for example the
organ, flute, violin and the human voice. For speech, however, the long reverberation
time is a disaster. As the distance between speaker and listener increases, so the sound
reaching the ear directly is increasingly swamped by the reflected sounds arriving by
indirect, longer sound paths. Speech is thus generally unintelligible at any distance
greater than a few meters, which phenomenon has an interesting architectural effect.
Since it is the longer wavelengths of lower notes that are more effectively reflected,
people talking in cathedrals are naturally and unconsciously inclined to whisper,
irrespective of any reverence for the religious nature of the buildings they may feel,
because whispering removes the lower frequencies of the human voice.

12

 Early Modern Design Guidance Eighteenth Century

As in the ancient world of building described by Vitruvius, it was the intelligibility of
speech that drew the attention of 17th and 18th century building designers to the
acoustic performance of building interiors, especially in two types of building
theatres and the debating chambers used by politicians. During the eighteenth century
the importance of room acoustics was further heightened with the invention of a
number of musical instruments such as the harpsichord and fortepiano, and the
growing popularity, in elite circles at least, of chamber music. The new instruments
used ingenious mechanisms and large sounding boards to produce plucked and
percussive notes with unprecedented speed and at much greater volumes than earlier
instruments such as the lute, harp and clavichord. When played in a room with a very
live acoustic, the individual notes became indistinguishable and the objectives of the
instrument makers and musicians were ruined.
Throughout Europe the second half of the eighteenth century saw a boom in theatre
building in the major cities, and designers generally learned from the acoustic
disasters of the early century. By the late eighteenth century it was common practice
to use the ceiling or soffit above the front of the stage as a sounding board (actually
a reflector) and the ceiling over the orchestra pit to throw the voice forward from the
stage to the back of the stalls and to the galleries. The first design guides for theatres
discussed acoustics alongside the equally important issue of line-of-sight (Patte 1782,
Saunders 1790, Rhode 1800, Langhans 1810). These and others followed Pattes
example

in

showing

ray

diagrams

to

visualise

sound

paths.

Fig. 3.2 Ray diagrams for different theatre plans; (Patte 1782, Plate 1)

13

 Wallace Clement Sabine Father Of Architectural Acoustics

The man who has no rival in being called the father of architectural acoustics was
Wallace Clement Sabine (1868-1919) (Sabine 1922; Beyer 1999, pp.186-191;
Thompson 1992, 2002). Sabine was a lecturer in physics in the department of natural
philosophy at Harvard University and was approached in 1895 to advise on how to
improve the poor acoustics of a new lecture theatre in the Universitys Fogg Art
Museum. This lecture theatre had been designed to emulate a classical Greek theatre
and followed the same principles of acoustic design that Vitruvius had written down.
These addressed the need of intelligibility by focusing mainly on maintaining the
volume of the direct sound that reached the listeners ear. The speaker was placed
above the level of the front row of the audience; the seating was raked upwards
towards back of the auditorium; and a wall was placed behind the speaker to reflect
sound into the auditorium. However, such principles were intended for open-air
theatres and took no account of sound reflected from walls or the roof. In an enclosed
room these reflected sounds also reach the listeners ear and, since there will be many
sounds, arriving at different times, the result is confusion with direct sound from a
speaker competing with reflections of earlier sounds. Sabine realised this was how
intelligibility was lost, like many before him. Being a physicist, however, his
approach was to conduct experiments to measure how the loudness of the reflections
was influenced by the reflecting surfaces in the lecture theatre. His aim was to
discover the relationship between the dimensions of the room and the rate at which a
sound became quieter and eventually became inaudible. He called this rate of decay
the reverberation time and defined it as the time, in seconds, for a sound to decay to
one millionth of its original loudness (a fall of 60dB). Sabine had to work at night to
ensure all extraneous sounds were avoided. He used a single organ pipe with a
frequency of 512 Herz (an octave above middle C). In 1895 there were no
microphones or audio-electronics Proceedings of the Third International Congress on
Construction History, May 2009 and the judgement as to when the sound was
inaudible was made by the experimenter himself. An electric chronograph recorded
the times to one-hundredth of a second. By covering more and more of the
auditoriums wooden seats with soft cushions, he showed that the reverberation time
was inversely proportional to the number of seats covered with cushions. He repeated
the experiments in eleven other rooms in the university, with volumes ranging from a

14

lecture theatre of 9300 cubic metres down to an office of just 35 cubic metres. From
the results he derived the equation for which his name is well-known giving the
relationship between the reverberation time (RT), of a room, in seconds, its volume
(V), in cubic metres, and the area (A), in square metres, of sound-absorbing surfaces
in the room. (1) Sabine used this equation to give an objective means of comparing
different auditoria and, in particular, to compare the proposed design for the new
Boston Music Hall with the Leipzig Gewandhaus, on which its overall shape was
based, and the old Music Hall in Boston. He was able to specify, for the first time, the
precise degree of sound absorption in the interior of the new Boston hall needed to
achieve the same reverberation time as the Leipzig Gewandhaus whose seating
capacity it exceeded by 70%, and volume by 40%. Sabines predictions were accurate
and the acoustic of the new hall was widely praised. He had fulfilled his goal of
overcoming the unwarranted mysticism that then surrounded the subject of
architectural acoustics and, most importantly, achieved the calculation of
reverberation in advance of construction. Sabine was soon being approached by the
owners of various types of room to advise on how to rectify their acoustic problems.
Often this followed the failed attempts by others to deal with the problems. Sabine
noted the persistent use of a traditional but wholly ineffective remedy which involved
stretching a grid of steel wires in the top of a church, theatre or court room which
suffered too much reverberation on the mistaken believe that the wires would resonate
and absorb sound. In New York and Boston he had seen theatres and churches with
just four or five wires stretched across the room while in other auditoria several miles
of wire had been used, all without the slightest effect. As part of his diagnosis of
acoustic problems he would sometimes plot a contour map showing the distribution of
the sound intensity. This helped him identify the source of the worst sound reflections
from the walls and ceiling and hence reduce them by using sound-absorbing panels or
adding decorations that would break up strong reflections from large plane surfaces.
Sabine also turned his attention to the design of new theatres and how best to create a
near-uniform acoustic experience for every member of the audience. To help him in
these studies he used the newly-perfected
schlieren method of photography to show sound waves passing through air in twodimensional models of auditoria (Fig.2). He was thus able to show in plan and

15

section, how sound waves were reflected and broken up as they emanated from the
stage into the auditorium. Outside the field of building structures this was probably
the first use of a scale model to investigate the engineering behaviour of a building.

Fig 3.3 Photographs showing the progress of sound waves through a model of a theatre.

The development of design methods for the acoustics of auditoria has followed the
same pattern observed in other branches of building engineering design. Initially
designers used their own experience to observe and improve their art and collected
their experience in the form of simple design rules which could be passed on to other
designers. In acoustics this approach was known in ancient times and has continued
even into the twentieth century. The technical difficulty of measuring acoustic
phenomena delayed a truly scientific approach to understanding acoustics until the
late eighteenth century (over a century later than for structural engineering). The first
scientific concept in acoustics, defined in quantitative terms by Sabine in the 1890s,
was the reverberation time whose relationship to the dimensions of a room was
expressed as an empirical quantity known as the absorptivity of the surfaces of the
room. This approach remains the most important in acoustic design today. The testing
of scale models together with the use of non-dimensional constants was developed in
acoustics simultaneously with their use in the design of building structures, first in the
1930s and more widely in the 1960s. Their use consolidated the understanding of
acoustic phenomena and laid the foundation for creating mathematical models using
computers.

2.3

Sound and its Mechanism

Sound is a mechanical wave that is an oscillation of pressure transmitted through

a solid, liquid, or gas, composed of frequencies within the range of hearing. Sound
also travels through plasma

16

2.3.1

Propagation of sound

Sound is a sequence of waves of pressure that propagates through compressible media

such as air or water. (Sound can propagate through solids as well, but there are
additional modes of propagation). Sound that is perceptible by humans has
frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. In air at standard temperature and
pressure, the corresponding wavelengths of sound waves range from 17 m to 17 mm.
During propagation, waves can be reflected, refracted, or attenuated by the medium.

Fig. 3.2 Travelling of sound waves

The behaviour of sound propagation is generally affected by three things:

A relationship between density and pressure. This relationship, affected by

temperature, determines the speed of sound within the medium.
The propagation is also affected by the motion of the medium itself. For
example, sound moving through wind. Independent of the motion of sound
through the medium, if the medium is moving, the sound is further transported.
The viscosity of the medium also affects the motion of sound waves. It
determines the rate at which sound is attenuated. For many media, such as air or
water, attenuation due to viscosity is negligible.

When sound is moving through a medium that does not have constant physical
properties, it may be refracted (either dispersed or focused).

2.3.2

Perception of Sound

The perception of sound in any organism is limited to a certain range of frequencies.

For humans, hearing is normally limited to frequencies between about 20 Hzand
20,000 Hz (20 kHz),[3] although these limits are not definite. The upper limit generally
decreases with age. Other species have a different range of hearing. For example,

17

dogs can perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz, but are deaf to anything below
40 Hz. As a signal perceived by one of the major senses, sound is used by many
species for detecting danger, navigation, predation, and communication. Earth's
atmosphere, water,

and

virtually

any physical

phenomenon,

such

as fire,

rain, wind, surf, or earthquake, produces (and is characterized by) its unique sounds.
Many species, such as frogs, birds, marine and terrestrial mammals, have also
developed

special organs to

produce song and speech.

produce

sound.

In

Furthermore, humans have

some
developed

species,
culture

these
and

technology (such as music, telephone and radio) that allows them to generate, record,
transmit, and broadcast sound. The scientific study of human sound perception is
known as psychoacoustics.
2.3.3

Physics of Sound

The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound are able to travel through
all forms of matter: gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the
sound is called the medium. Sound cannot travel through a vacuum.

Longitudinal and transverse waves

Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also
called compression waves. Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as both
longitudinal waves and transverse waves. Longitudinal sound waves are waves of
alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions
of compression and rarefaction, while transverse waves (in solids) are waves of
alternating shear stress at right angle to the direction of propagation.
Matter in the medium is periodically displaced by a sound wave, and thus oscillates.
The energy carried by the sound wave converts back and forth between the potential
energy of the extra compression (in case of longitudinal waves) or lateral
displacement strain (in case of transverse waves) of the matter and the kinetic energy
of the oscillations of the medium.

Sound wave properties and characteristics

18

Figure 3.3 Sinusoidal waves of various frequencies; the bottom waves have higher frequencies
than those above. The horizontal axis represents time.

Sound waves are often simplified to a description in terms of sinusoidal plane waves,
which are characterized by these generic properties:

Frequency, or its inverse, the period

Wavelength

Wave number

Amplitude

Sound pressure

Sound intensity

Speed of sound

Direction

Sometimes speed and direction is combined as a velocity vector; wave number and
direction are combined as a wave vector.
Transverse

waves,

also

known

as shear waves,

have

the

additional

property, polarization, and are not a characteristic of sound waves.

2.3.4 Speed of Sound

The speed of sound depends on the medium the waves pass through, and is a
fundamental property of the material. In general, the speed of sound is proportional to
the square root of the ratio of the elastic modulus (stiffness) of the medium to
its density. Those physical properties and the speed of sound change with ambient
conditions. For example, the speed of sound in gases depends on temperature. In
20 C (68 F) air at sea level, the speed of sound is approximately 343 m/s
(1,230 km/h; 767 mph) using the formula "v = (331 + 0.6 T) m/s". In fresh water, also
at 20 C, the speed of sound is approximately 1,482 m/s (5,335 km/h; 3,315 mph).
In steel, the speed of sound is about 5,960 m/s (21,460 km/h; 13,330 mph).[6] The
speed of sound is also slightly sensitive (a second-order anharmonic effect) to the
sound amplitude, which means that there are nonlinear propagation effects, such as
the production of harmonics and mixed tones not present in the original sound.

19

2.3.5

Measurement of Sound

Sound is measured in dB (decibels). The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit that

indicates the ratio of a physical quantity (usually power or intensity) relative to a
specified or implied reference level. A ratio in decibels is ten times the logarithm to
base 10 of the ratio of two power quantities.[1] A decibel is one tenth of a bel, a
seldom-used unit named in honor of Alexander Graham Bell.

Fig. 3.4 Various sounds and their dB units.

2.3.6 Acoustic Terms

In

Reverberation
enclosed space, when a sound source stops emitting

an

energy,

it takes some time for the sound to become inaudible. This prolongation of the sound in the

20

room caused by continued multiple reflections is called reverberation. Reverberation

time plays a crucial role in the quality of music and the ability to understand speech in a
given space. When room surfaces are highly reflective, sound continues to reflect or
reverberate. The effect of this condition is described as a live space with a long reverberation
time. A high reverberation time will cause a build-up of the noise level in a space. The effects
of reverberation time on a given space are crucial to musical conditions and understanding
speech. It is difficult to choose an optimum reverberation time in a multi-function space, as
different uses require different reverberation times. A reverberation time that is optimum for
a music program could be disastrous to the intelligibility of the spoken word. Conversely, a
reverberation time that is excellent for speech can cause music to sound dry and flat.

Reflections
Reflected sound strikes a surface or several surfaces before
receiver. These reflections can have unwanted or even
consequences. Although reverberation is due to continued
reflections, controlling the Reverberation Time in a space does
space
will
be
free
from
problems

from

reaching the
disastrous
multiple
not ensure the
reflections.

Reflective corners or peaked ceilings can create a megaphone effect potentially causing
annoying reflections and loud spaces. Reflective parallel surfaces lend themselves to a unique
acoustical problem called standing waves, creating a fluttering of sound between the two
surfaces.
Reflections can be attributed to the shape of the space as well as the material on the surfaces.
Domes and concave surfaces cause reflections to be focused rather than dispersed which can
cause annoying sound reflections. Absorptive surface treatments can help to eliminate both
reverberation and reflection problems.

Noise

Reduction
Coefficient
(NRC):
The Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) is a single-number index for rating how absorptive a
particular material is. Although the standard is often abused, it is simply the average of the midfrequency sound absorption coefficients (250, 500, 1000 and 2000 Hertz rounded to the nearest
5%). The NRC gives no information as to how absorptive a material is in the low and high
frequencies, nor does it have anything to do with the materials barrier effect.

Sound Transmission Class (STC):

The Sound Transmission Class (STC) is a single-number rating of a
materials or assemblys barrier effect. Higher STC values are more
efficient for reducing sound transmission. For example, loud speech
be understood fairly well through an STC 30 wall but should not be
audible through an STC 60 wall. The rating assesses the airborne

can

21

sound transmission performance at a range of frequencies from 125 Hertz to 4000

Hertz. This range is consistent with the frequency range of speech. The STC rating
does not assess the low frequency sound transfer. Special consideration must be given
to spaces where the noise transfer concern is other than speech, such as mechanical
equipment
or
music.
Even with a high STC rating, any penetration, air-gap, or flanking path can seriously
degrade the isolation quality of a wall. Flanking paths are the means for sound to
transfer from one space to another other than through the wall. Sound can flank over,
under, or around a wall. Sound can also travel through common ductwork, plumbing
or corridors.

2.4

Noise

Fig 3.5 graph showing noise levels

In relation to sound, noise is not necessarily random. Sounds, particularly loud ones, that
disturb people or make it difficult to hear wanted sounds, are noise. For example,
conversations of other people may be called noise by people not involved in any of them;
any unwanted sound such as domesticated dogs barking, neighbours playing loud music,
portable mechanical saws, road traffic sounds, or a distant aircraft in quiet countryside, is
called noise.
Acoustic noise can be anything from quiet but annoying to loud and harmful. At one
extreme users of public transport sometimes complain about the faint and tinny sounds
emanating from the headphones or earbuds of somebody listening to a portable audio
player; at the other the sound of very loud music, a jet engine at close quarters, etc. can
cause permanent irreversible hearing damage.
Sound intensity follows an inverse square law with distance from the source; doubling the
distance from a noise source reduces its intensity by a factor of four, or 6 dB.

22

2.4.1

Reverberation time

With this theory described, the reverberation time can be dened. It is the time for the
level of energy to decrease of 60 dB. It depends on the volume of the room V and the
equivalent
absorption area a :T60 =0.16V
a Sabine formula
This reverberation time is the fundamental parameter in room acoustics and depends
trough the equivalent absorption area and the absorption coefficients on the frequency. It
is used for several measurement :
Measurement of an absorption coefficient of a material
Measurement of the power of a source
Measurement of the transmission of a wall

2.4.2 Controlling Noise

Controlling Noise Between Spaces
Controlling noise between spaces is frequently an issue in residential
projects and office spaces. Noise will travel between spaces at the weakest
points, such as through a door or outlet. There is no reason to spend money or effort to
improve
the
walls
until
all
the
weak
points
are
controlled.
General rules of thumb for controlling noise between spaces:

A wall must extend to the structural deck in order to achieve optimal isolation.
Walls extending only to a dropped ceiling will result in inadequate isolation.
Sound will travel through the weakest structural elements, which, many times, are
the doors or electrical outlets.
When the mass of a barrier is doubled, the isolation quality (or STC rating)
increases by five, which is clearly noticeable.
Installing insulation within a wall or floor/ceiling cavity will improve the STC
rating by about 4-6 dB, which is clearly noticeable.
Often times, specialty insulations do not perform any better than standard batt
insulation.
Metal studs perform better than wood studs. Staggering the studs or using dual
studs can provide a substantial increase in isolation.
Increasing air space in a wall or window assembly will improve isolation.

Case Study

23

Location:
Area

of

Newspaper
concern:

Space

between

office
CEO

office

building
and

boardroom

Additional information: Noise usually travels through spaces at several different points.
Controlling only one point is like trying to save a sinking boat by patching only one hole
when 10 holes exist. You must be thorough to ensure effective results.
Questions to ask client:

Please describe the problem.

Does the wall go all the way up to the deck and is it sealed airtight? Does it just go
up to the dropped ceiling? Are there any penetrations through the wall?
Are there any penetrations through the wall?
Could the noise be going around the wall? Are there any air gaps? Under the door?
At the perimeter of the wall? At the window mullion? Etc?
What materials are used in the space(s)?
What are your confidentiality needs?

Client feedback:

The CEO is distracted by noise from the boardroom when there are meetings in
progress. There are also confidentiality issues.
The wall does not go up to the deck, it ends at the dropped ceiling.
There are no penetrations other than the door.
The noise could be going around the wall by means of the door.
The materials used in this space are carpet, painted drywall and acoustic tile on the
ceiling. There are two return air ducts about two feet apart, separated only by the
wall.
Confidentiality is an issue to some degree, but not a security problem.

Evaluation: In this particular project, there was a door and a window between the two
spaces and the ceiling did not go up to the deck. To improve the acoustics, an
upgraded sealer was added to the doors and a flexible, vinyl barrier was placed on top
of the ceiling above the two spaces (since the wall could not be extended to the deck).
Creating a completely confidential space is very difficult and extremely expensive.
Since confidentiality was an issue, but not a security matter, this improvement proved
successful.
If further improvements were needed, the next step would be to install a sound
masking

system.

Further comments: In another office space, where complete confidentiality was

24

essential, a very expensive door was installed. This door had an STC rating of 65, but
the surrounding walls had an STC rating of 50. In this case, the walls served as the
weakest point, rather than the door. Its important to note that the isolation quality of
an assembly is dictated by the weakest element of the assembly.

Controlling Noise from the Outside

When noise from the outside is a distraction, the windows are
often to blame. Exterior walls will typically block at least
between 45 to 50 dB of sound, but even a very high quality window might not even
block 40 dB. When possible, controlling noise at the source is usually the best solution.
Sometimes a barrier can be built around the noise source. Other times, the noise source
can be relocated.

General rules of thumb for controlling noise from the outside:

Typically, the noise transfer will go through the weakest structural element, such
as the door, window or ventilation duct.

When applicable, it is best to control exterior noise at the source.

The isolation provided by a door is only as good as the extent to which it is sealed.
If air can get around or under the door, so can sound.

The majority of exterior noise enters through the windows. Dual-pane windows
with increased air space can improve isolation.

If the noise cannot be reduced to a satisfactory level, consider trying to mask the
annoying noise with a more pleasant noise such as a water feature.

Case Study
Location:

Private

residence

Area of concern: A neighbors pool motor created an annoying hum that could be heard in
the

master

bedroom.

25

Additional information: In this case, the first thing to do is to check the weakest points,
such as windows and doors. Windows can be replaced with upgraded varieties, or
acoustical inserts can be added for further control. Originally, acoustic absorption was
mistakenly added to the inside of the room. This actually made the problem worse.
Although the noise level within the room decreased, the absorption did nothing to reduce
the

exterior

noise.

Questions to ask client:

Describe the problem.

What is the noise source?

Where does the noise seem to be coming from? Under the door? Through the
window? Through the ceiling? Etc.?

What changes have already been made?

Ideally, what improvements would you like to see?

Client feedback:

An annoying hum is heard in the master bedroom. It interrupts sleep and interferes
with other activities such as watching television and reading.

The noise is coming from the motor from the neighbors pool pump.

The windows are upgraded and an acoustic sealant has been applied to the doors.

Ideally, the noise would be inaudible, or at least not distracting.

Evaluation: In this situation, encapsulating the noise source was the best solution.

Vibration dampening was also used to control the noise. This solution completely met the
client's needs. Additional comments: There are certain noises that are difficult to control at
the source, such as traffic noise. In such cases, look to control the noise at the path by
erecting a barrier, such as a wall. Vegetation provides little, if any, noise reduction. If air
can pass through, so can sound.

Controlling Noise Within a Space

When controlling noise within a space, there are usually two main problems to remedy:
a noisy space due to reverberation or a noisy

space due to equipment noise.

26

General rules of thumb for controlling noise within a space:

You have to at least double the absorption in a space before there is a noticeable
difference. Every time you double the absorption, the reverberant noise field is
reduced by 3 dB, which is classified as just perceptible.

Adding absorption to a space can provide a clearly noticeable improvement if the

space is fairly reverberant to begin with. The practical limit for noise reduction
from absorption is 10 dB, which sounds half as loud.

The improvement will not be as noticeable as you get closer to the noise source.

Carpet is not a cure-all. In fact, it is typically only 15-20% absorptive. It would

take four times as much carpet to have the same impact as a typical acoustic
material, which is about 80% absorptive.

Case Study 1
Location: Retirement Village
Area of concern: Multi-purpose clubhouse
Additional information: The original thought was that the sound system needed to be
upgraded or fixed because it wasnt working properly. Further review showed that it
was the lack of absorption in the room, not the sound system that was causing the
problems.

Questions asked of client:

Please describe the problem.

What are the dimensions of the space?

What activities take place in this room?

Is there a noise issue? A sound system issue? A reverberation ("echo") problem?

When is it the loudest?

Is it difficult to hear someone speaking when there is no loud noise?

Do presenters on stage complain about reflections?

27

Please describe the ceiling. Is it domed? Peaked? Flat?

What materials are used in this room? Drywall? Wood? Carpet? Tile?

Client feedback:

The room is too loud whenever there is a group in it, especially during dinners.

Its difficult to hear presenters and understand announcements. Small group

conversations are hindered by excessive surrounding noise.

The space is 65'L x 54'W x 18'H.

The room is used for large dinners, performances, presentations, and other group
activities.

The original assumption was that the problem was the sound system, but we dont
have problems hearing announcements when the room is quiet. It must be a noise
issue within the room itself.

Its the loudest during dinner when everyone is talking at once.

It is not difficult to hear a presenter when there is no other noise.

Presenters on stage do complain about reflections.

The ceiling is flat drywall.

Drywall and carpet are used throughout the room. Draperies and curtains are used
on the stage.

Evaluation: After speaking with the client and visiting the site, it was obvious that a lack
of absorption was causing the excessive noise in the room. Frequently, in a situation such
as this, a reflective ceiling, which is a large area that will project noise back down to the
floor,

causes

majority

of

problems.

Addressing the ceiling alone would improve the noise level, but would not protect
performers from the problematic reflections called slap-back*. There are a variety of
products available for such applications. The products you choose are dependent upon the
look and feel of the room and your budget. In this case, acoustics improved as a result of
adding material to the ceiling (to control the overall noise) and acoustic wall paneling to
the

back

wall

(to

control

slap-back

and

the

overall

reverberation

time).

*Slap-back = A reflective back wall will reflect, or slap, the noise back to the source
causing a delay.
28

Case Study 2
Location:
Area

Headquarters
of

for

concern:

large

Credit

credit

card

card

company

processing

center

Additional information: The first step in solving a problem related to equipment noise is to
call the manufacturer. Sometimes there is a problem in the installation or in the equipment
operation. Certain pieces of equipment have a retrofit noise reduction kit that can be
purchased

to

reduce

problems.

Questions to ask client:

Please describe the problem.

What are the dimensions of the space?

What activities take place in this room?

Is there a noise issue? A sound system issue? A reverberation ("echo") problem?

When is it the loudest?

Is it difficult to hear someone speaking when there is no loud noise?

Please describe the ceiling. Is it domed? Peaked? Flat?

What materials are used in this room? Drywall? Wood? Carpet? Tile?

Client feedback:

The processing center houses equipment that generates noise at 85-90 dB.

Workers are annoyed by this noise and the company is on the borderline of an
OSHA violation.

The space in question is 260'L x 90'W x 20'H.

This room facilitates automated printing and folding of statements and stuffing
envelopes.

Equipment noise is the primary problem.

It is the loudest when all of the equipment is operating, which is during business
hours.

There are no communication issues when the equipment is not running.

Evaluation: It is always best to control noise at the source, which, in this case, is

29

the equipment itself. The level of improvement is related to the reverberance of the space.
The more reverberant a space is, the more dramatic the possible improvement. For this
project, the space was not too reverberant, so the improvement would not be remarkable,
but it would be noticeable. Hanging vinyl-covered acoustic baffles from the ceiling,
particularly the areas directly above the equipment, controlled the noise from emanating
within the space, but did not reduce the noise level for the equipment operator (though it
did help the other operators).
If adding absorption does not provide enough noise control, it might be necessary to
isolate the noisy areas from the quieter areas. Doing so would result in the implementation
of a hearing protection program for those employees working in the unavoidably louder
areas. In this case, enclosing the equipment with an acoustic shield (of plexi-glass)
reduced the noise level for the operator by about 10 dB. The combination of the absorptive
material and the acoustic shield reduced the overall noise by about 4 dB for all employees
in the area, which met the clients needs and brought them into OSHA compliance.

Controlling Outside Noise

In certain situations, an outside space must be protected from the
surrounding outside noise. Encapsulation, barriers, increased distance or masking the noise
source

are

some

possible

solutions.

General rules of thumb for controlling outside noise:

By doubling the distance from a noise source, the level is reduced by 6 dB, a clearly
noticeable amount. The reduction will not be experienced to this extent with a line source,
such

as

railroad

or

freeway

(the

reduction

is

around

to

4-1/2 dB).

A barrier must block the line-of-sight between the source and the receiver in order to be
effective.

You will typically not need a barrier with a surface weight/density greater than fourpounds/square foot, as long as there are no openings in the wall.

It is difficult to reduce the noise by more than 10 dB with a barrier wall.

Noise barriers can be solid walls, berms or a combination of the two.

30

The noise wall must be continuous with no openings to be effective. If air is going
through the wall, so will sound.

Vegetation, such as trees and bushes, provides very little, if any, noise reduction.

Case Study
Location:

Area

of

Cemetery

concern:

column

burial

area

with

meandering

path

Additional information: This space needed to facilitate a solemn and contemplative setting while
minimizing distractions from a nearby street. Originally, a concrete block wall was used, but the
results

were

not

sufficient.

Questions to ask client:

Describe the problem.

Describe the ambient noise conditions.

Are there any existing barriers?

What is the desired result?

Client feedback:

The cemetery is next to a relatively busy road. The traffic noise is distracting to visitors
who expect a quiet, intimate setting.

Aside from the traffic noise, there are no other major noise sources in the area.

A concrete block wall was used, but the results were not sufficient.

The desired result is a relaxed, meditative atmosphere that is aesthetically consistent with
the rest of the space.

Evaluation: Since it was not feasible to increase the barrier wall height, a sound
masking system (that is typically used in an office environment) was implemented in
this case. To blend in with the atmosphere, rock speakers that generated pink noise
were placed along the meandering path. Water features served as additional
atmosphere enhancers, and helped to make the masking system sound more natural.

31

These fountains also eliminated hot and cold zones and created a consistent noise
through the entire space. Water features alone would only work when a visitor was
standing

directly

next

to

the

water.

Additional comments: In many cases, the best outdoor solution is a barrier wall.
Other solutions include encapsulating a noise source (such as an emergency
generator) and adding distance between the receiver and the noise source.

2.4.3 Noise Standrards

Noise Isolation Class (NIC)
Test: NIC is a method for rating a partition's ability to block airborne noise
transfer.

RelatedCode: UBC/IBC and STC

General Information: Similar to a field STC test, NIC is often specified on certain
projects (such as spaces with operable walls, hotels, education facilities). For a
field STC test, the individual transmission loss measurements are modified based
on the reverberation time, the size of the room and the size of the test partition. The
NIC does not include these modifications and simply measures he Transmission
Loss between125and4,000Hz.
Strength: Tests the isolation performance of the assembly in the field. It is good to
include an NIC performance requirement within your spec for operable and demountable
walls.

Weakness: The NIC rating is highly dependent on the field conditions of the tested space.
Because of this, the tested rating might not be achieved in other spaces or projects.

Noise Criteria (NC)

Code: This industry standard (also an ANSI standard) usually pertains to HVAC or
mechanical

noise

impact.

32

Enforcement: This standard is often required for certain certifications (such as

government medical facilities) or included in client specifications/standards (for
example, some companies have NC standards that their buildings must meet).

General Information: An NC level is a standard that describes the relative loudness

of a space, examining a range of frequencies (rather than simply recording the decibel
level). This level illustrates the extent to which noise interferes with speech
intelligibility. NC should be considered for any project where excessive noise would be
irritating to the users, especially where speech intelligibility is important. There are a
few spaces where speech intelligibility is absolutely crucial, including:

Recording studios

Lecture halls

Performance halls

Courtrooms

Libraries

Worship centers

Educational facilities

For some areas, such as machine shops or kitchens, it is not essential to maintain a
particularly low NC level.
NC Level Strength: It is important for design professionals to specify NC ratings to
protect their designs (within reason specifying an acceptable NC level does not have
to be a burden on the budget). Doing so speaks to your reputation as a responsible
architect

or

designer

and

limits

your

liability.

NC Level Weakness: NC does not account for sound at very low frequencies. In spite
of numerous efforts to establish a widely accepted, useful, single-number rating
method for evaluating noise in a structure, a variety of techniques exist today. The vast
majority of acoustic professionals use the NC standard, but it is still important to be
aware of the other acceptable methods that do account for low frequency levels,
including (but not limited to):

33

Room Criteria (RC) measures background sound in a building over the

frequency range 16 Hz to 4000 Hz. This rating system requires two steps:
determining the mid-frequency average level and determining the perceived
balance between high and low frequency sound. To view the recommended
ANSI levels for room criteria for various activity areas, click here.

Balanced Noise Criteria (NCB) is based on the ANSI threshold of audibility for
pure-tones and is defined as the range of audibility for continuous sound in a
specified field from 16 Hz to 8000 Hz.

Sound Transmission Clas (STC)Code:

STC

rates

partition's

or

material's

ability

to

block

airborne

sound.

Enforcement: Appendix Chapter 35 of the 88 and 91 UBC, Appendix Chapter 12,

Division II of the 94 and 97 UBC will be contained in the forthcoming IBC.
Although not all municipalities have adopted this appendix chapter, it is still
recognized
as
an
industry
standard.
General Information: The Uniform Building Code (UBC) contains requirements for
sound isolation for dwelling units in Group-R occupancies (including hotels, motels,
apartments,
condominiums,
monasteries
and
convents).
UBC requirements for walls: STC rating of 50 (if tested in a laboratory) or 45 (if tested
in
the
field*).
UBC requirements for floor/ceiling assemblies: STC ratings of 50 (if tested in a
laboratory) or 45 (if tested in the field*).
* The field test evaluates the dwellings actual construction and includes all sound
paths.

Definitions:

Sound Transmission Class rates a partitions resistance to airborne sound

transfer at the speech frequencies (125-4000 Hz). The higher the number, the
better the isolation.

STC Strength: Classifies an assemblys resistance to airborne sound

transmission

in

single

number.

STC Weakness: This rating only assesses isolation in the speech

34

frequencies and provides no evaluation of the barriers ability to block low

frequency noise, such as the bass in music or the noise of some mechanical
equipment.

Recommended Isolation Level

An assembly rated at STC 50 will satisfy the building code requirement,

however, residents could still be subject to awareness, if not understanding,
of loud speech. It is typically argued that luxury accommodations require a
more stringent design goal (as much as 10dB better STC 60). Regardless
of what STC is selected, all air-gaps and penetrations must be carefully
controlled and sealed. Even a small air-gap can degrade the isolation
integrity of an assembly.

Chapter-3. Acoustical Treatments of Various Spaces

3.1

Classrooms

Tips/Considerations

Recommended reverberation time is 0.4-1.0 seconds (depending on the size of

the space).

Numerous studies demonstrate how chronic noise exposure (i.e., noise found in
the community, as well as noise to which we are voluntarily exposed)
negatively impacts education. For more information, readProgressing the
Learning Curve.

Noise from air-conditioning/heating units or other equipment on the premises

can impact the educational environment. In addition to an NC specification for
inside the classroom, specify a maximum dB level for all equipment in and
around the school.

Consider the impact of noise from nearby freeways, busy roads, train tracks and
other transportation- or industrial-related sources. Identify noise sources in the
vicinity and assess the possible impact. Based on this assessment, take the
proper steps to minimize or eliminate the potential problem.

35

o Noise from adjacent classrooms can be easily transmitted into other

classrooms, particularly in an open-classroom setting. It is vital to control the
noise transfer between spaces. Keep in mind that STC ratings only address
noise isolation from 125 Hz to 4000 Hz. Low frequency sounds (below 125 Hz)
are not accounted for in an STC rating. Even if you specify a high STC rating
for the wall, it will not allow for privacy if the wall only extends to the ceiling,
or just above the ceiling. To ensure isolation, the wall must extend to, and seal
to, the deck.

Even if everything else is controlled perfectly, the space might not be usable if
the background noise (e.g. HVAC system) is too loud. To help protect your
design, the NC level should not exceed 25 to 35. When specifying NC, specify
an actual rating, such as NC 25, rather than a range, such as NC 25-30.
Although specifying a lower number will ensure minimal background noise, it
might be cost prohibitive to achieve. Be realistic about the amount of
acceptable noise and the project's budget when specifying an NC level.

3.2

Concert Hall

Goal: To create an optimal acoustic environment suitable for performance

enhancement and audibility while protecting the hearing health of the individuals using
that space.
o

Tips/Considerations
o

The reverberation time will depend on what type of concert is performed.

For classical or orchestral music, a higher reverberation time would be
appropriate (approximately 2 sec), for a rock concert, a lower
reverberation time would be appropriate (approximately 1 sec). Find a
happy medium, perhaps 1.5 sec. This only applies to indoor venues.

It is vital to control the reflections from the back wall. If you don't
control them, the presentation could reflect off the back wall and "slap
back" to the presenter(s). This won't necessarily impact the audience,

36

but could be disastrous and distracting for the people on stage. Because
of this, it's usually necessary to splay or tilt the back wall to avoid slap
back. A concave back wall could compound this problem. If you can't
avoid a concave back wall, it's imperative that it be treated with
absorptive material.
o

Control the reverberation time on the stage. Ideally, the reverberation

time in the stage area should be the same as in the house. Since the
stage area might have a higher ceiling than the rest of the auditorium,
more absorptive materials might be required in this area. Frequently, the
back wall of the stage, and possibly one or two of the side walls, is
treated with an acoustically absorptive material, typically black in color.

Beware of potential noise impact to your space from exterior sources

and/or excessive HVAC noise. To help protect your design, the NC
level should not exceed 25 to 35. When specifying NC, specify an
actual rating, such as NC 30, rather than a range, such as NC 30-35.
Although specifying a lower number will ensure minimal background
noise, it might be cost prohibitive to achieve. Be realistic about the
amount of acceptable noise and the project's budget when specifying an
NC level.

Some concert attendees have sued (and won) over experiencing hearing
loss at a concert. Beware of potentially dangerous, excessive noise
levels. Some venue operators regulate the noise levels to help alleviate
the potential noise impact on surrounding areas and on the audience.

For outdoor venues, be sure to check on local noise ordinances. Even if

they don't exist, you should still take steps to control excessive noise
impact to the surrounding community.

Especially outdoors, be concerned about exterior noise impact on the venue. Often this
will decide the location of the site. For instance, be aware of surrounding airports
(flight paths), freeways, railroads and industrial sites.

3.3

Office

37

Tips/Considerations
o
o
o

o
o

Typical reverberation time is between 0.4 and 1 second.

Absorptive materials will most likely be necessary for the ceiling.
Even if the reverberation time is optimally controlled, reflections from
the walls can be problematic. Parallel reflective surfaces can cause an
annoying condition called flutter echo or standing wave. Ideally, at least
two non-parallel walls should be treated with acoustically absorptive
material. It might not be necessary to completely treat the wall as long
as the critical zone (normally from 3'-7') is treated with a material that
has an NRC of at least 0.50, ideally at least 0.80.
Draperies typically provide very little, if any, absorption.
Beware of potential noise impact to your space from exterior sources
and/or excessive HVAC noise. To help protect your design, the NC
level should not exceed 25 to 35. When specifying NC, specify an
actual rating, such as NC 30, rather than a range, such as NC 25-30.
Although specifying a lower number will ensure minimal background
noise, it might be cost prohibitive to achieve. Be realistic about the
amount of acceptable noise and the project's budget when specifying an
NC level.
Awareness of activity in adjacent spaces is typical in most offices.
However, if the transmitted speech is intelligible, it becomes far more
distracting. Additionally, confidentiality and speech privacy can become
a serious concern. Noise transfer is due to the isolation quality of a wall
assembly, as well as any potential flanking paths. The isolation quality
of an assembly is largely determined by the weakest point of the
assembly. Any air-gap can substantially degrade the isolation quality of
the assembly. Even if the assembly has a high STC rating, a variety of
flanking paths can allow noise transmission and speech to be
understood between spaces. Some of the sound paths that can contribute
to potential noise transfer are:
Wall Assembly
Door Assembly
Penetrations (outlets)
Air-Gap between wall and window mullion
Flanking over the wall/through the ceiling

38

Through the ductwork

If confidentiality or privacy is an issue, you need to be concerned with
the isolation quality of the wall. Even if you specify a high STC rating
for the wall, it will not allow for privacy if the wall only extends to the
ceiling, or just above the ceiling. For optimal confidentiality, the wall
must extend to, and seal to, the deck. Remember, the STC rating of a
wall only refers to how well a section of that wall performs in a
laboratory and does not necessarily indicate how well the system will
perform in the field. Specifying an NIC rating can help ensure the
desired isolation level.

Client Expectations: There is a large range of acceptable isolation levels for office
spaces. Transmitted noise that would be tolerable for some projects can be very
annoying for others. The annoyance potential is based on individual sensitivities,
confidentiality issues, and the level of privacy to which the users are accustomed. It is
important to understand your client's needs in regard to privacy and confidentiality
expectations in order to design a space that is best suited for their individual needs.

3.4

Studio

Tips/Considerations
o

Ideal sound isolation is achieved with massive construction, an airspace

and elimination of any structural connections that may transmit sound.
Unfortunately, it is very difficult to properly isolate sound when
building a studio in an existing residence, mainly because of the
common lightweight, wood frame construction and the presence of
windows (it's important to fill windows with materials comparable to
the rest of the wall). For new construction, you should specify walls
with a high STC. An appropriate STC for a home studio depends on the
specific activities taking place within the studio. Most likely, it would
require an STC of 60 or more. Although STC is a good rating for speech
frequency, it does not consider the low frequency sounds.

Achieving the optimum interior acoustic environment involves

protecting the studio from noise (noise within the space and noise
transmitted into the space) and controlling the reflections within the
space.

Assuming all transmitted noise is controlled, the primary noise concern

is from the HVAC system (heating, ventilation and air-conditioning).

39

All mechanical equipment must be controlled to a very quiet level (NC

15-20).
o

It is not necessary to cover every surface in the studio with a sound

absorbing material. This would create an acoustically "dead"
environment with too much bass sound. To create the optimum acoustic
environment, a balance of absorption and diffusion should be
considered. There are several commercially manufactured products for
both absorption and diffusion. It is recommended to consult an
acoustical expert in order to obtain specifics on particular products as
well as determine the amount and placement of such products within the
specific studio setting.

Note: Absorption and diffusion materials only help the interior acoustic environment
and do not help with isolation.

3.5

Theatre

Tips/Considerations
o Recommended reverberation time is 1.0-1.5 seconds (might be higher
for some auditoriums).
o Although the seating area will provide absorption, thereby reducing the
reverberation time, you will most likely need to add absorptive
materials to the other surfaces within the space.
o It is vital to control the reflections from the back wall. If you don't
control them, the presentation could reflect off the back wall and "slap
back" to the presenter(s). This won't necessarily impact the audience,
but could be disastrous and distracting for the people on stage. Because
of this, it's usually necessary to treat the back wall with an absorptive
material. A concave back wall could compound this problem. If you
can't avoid a concave back wall, it's imperative that it be treated with
absorptive material.
o Splay or use irregular surfaces on the walls to avoid flutter echoes.
Parallel reflective surfaces can allow sound to "ricochet" back and forth
between the surfaces. This potentially annoying condition is referred to
as standing wave or flutter echo. It is avoided by constructing nonparallel surfaces or by adding absorptive materials to the surface(s).
o Consider faceting the ceiling to help with sound dispersion.
o Control the reverberation time on the stage. Ideally, the reverberation
time in the stage area should be the same as in the house. Since the
stage area might have a higher ceiling than the rest of the auditorium,
more absorptive materials might be required in this area. Frequently, the
back wall of the stage, and possibly one or two of the side walls, is
treated with an acoustically absorptive material, typically black in color.

40

o
o

Remember the space will be less absorptive when

only half full, since the audience itself is absorptive.
By using absorptive seating areas, the reverberation
time will remain more consistent regardless of the

audience size.
Noise from the lobby area can be disruptive. Be sure openings such as
doorways are properly sealed. Consider a vestibule door system.
Persons seated deep under a balcony might experience auditory
distortion. To avoid this, the balcony should be no deeper than twice its
height. Ideally, the balcony should not be any deeper than its height.
Even if everything else is controlled perfectly, the space might not be
usable if the background noise (e.g. HVAC system) is too loud. To help
protect your design, the NC level should not exceed 20 to 35. When
specifying NC, specify an actual rating, such as NC 20, rather than a
range, such as NC 20-30. Although specifying a lower number will
ensure minimal background noise, it might be cost prohibitive to
achieve. Be realistic about the amount of acceptable noise and the
project's budget when specifying an NC level.

Beware of potential outdoor noise impacting your space. For example, is your location
near a flight path, a railroad or freeway? If so, you might have to pay critical attention
to blocking this noise. To do so effectively, you must address not only the STC or
isolation quality of the exterior wall, but also for the possibly weaker building
elements, such as the windows, doors and HVAC systems.

Chapter-4. Acoustical Materials

4.1

Acoustical Foam

Acoustic foam is an open celled foam used for acoustic treatment. It attenuates
airborne sound waves by increasing air resistance, this reducing the amplitude of the
waves. The energy is dissipated as heat. Acoustic Foam can be made in several
different colors, sizes and thickness.
Acoustic foam comes in a variety of sizes and can be attached to walls, ceilings, doors,
and other features of a room to control noise levels, vibration, and echoes.
Many acoustic foam products are treated with dyes and/or fire retardants.

Uses

The objective of acoustic foam is to improve the sound quality by removing residual
sound in any space. This purpose requires strategic placement of acoustic foam panels
on walls, ceiling and floors, effectively eliminating all resonance within the room.

Acoustic enhancement

The objective is to enhance the properties of sound by improving speech clarity

and sound quality.
41

For this reason, acoustic foam is often used in recording studios. The purpose is to
reduce, but not entirely eliminate resonance within the room. This is achieved by
placing similar sized pieces of foam, often in the shape of cones or triangles, on
opposite walls.

How Acoustic Foam Works

Acoustic foam is a lightweight material made from polyurethane foam either polyether
or polyester, and also extruded melamine foam. It is usually cut into tiles often with
pyramid or wedge shapes which can be placed on the walls of a recording studio or a
similar type of environment and act's as a sound absorber aimed to enhance the sound
quality within a room,
Acoustic foam reduces or eliminates echoes and background noises by controlling
the reverberation that sound can make by bouncing off walls. This type of sound
absorption is different than soundproofing, which is typically used to keep sound from
escaping a room.
Acoustic foam deals more with the mid and high frequencies. To deal with lower
frequencies, much thicker pieces of acoustic foam are needed; large pieces of acoustic
foam are often placed in the corners of a room and are called acoustic foam corner bass
traps.

Usage

Acoustic foam is primarily used in recording studios to minimize sound echoes.

However, it can perform the same function in home theaters, manufacturing facilities,
equipment warehouses, home offices, gymnasiums and auditoriums. It can be placed in
any room where an optimal sound mix is desired.
Acoustic foam is often used to reduce echos by attaching it to the walls of large rooms,
like churches, synagogues and temples. Using jagged acoustic foam to baffle the sound
can help, as does hanging sound baffles that break up the empty space in high ceilings
and large rooms.
The effectiveness of acoustic foam panels can be increased by ensuring there is an air
gap between the foam panels and the walls. Doing this exposes a great surface area of
the foam panels to incident waves increasing the amount of absorption. Spacing the
foam from the wall also has the advantage of reducing any damage spray adhesive
would have on a wall or painted surface.

Chapter-5. Acoustical Treatments

5.1

Common Construction Materials

Wood and metal studs and joists construction framing members with which most of
you are familiar. The most common framing for walls is either 2x4 wood studs or 3.5
metal studs.
Which is more cost effective metal or wood will largely depend on the relative
price of wood and steel in different parts of the country. For acoustical purposes, metal
42

does offer resiliency benefits worth considering for maximum benefit. For those of you
that are not used to building things, bear in mind when figuring your dimensions that
lumber is not really the actual dimensions indicated by the name. For instance, a 2x4 is
not; it is actually 1"x3". A 2x6 is
1"x5", etc.
Gypsum wallboard (GWB, drywall, SheetRock) is commonly available in
and " thicknesses. It is far and away the most common building material in North
America for interior finish construction. Unless you have a home built prior to the
1950s, you probably have gypsum board finish to your walls and ceilings. (Plaster on
lathe was much more common
and incidentally much better for sound isolation than gypsum board in homes prior to
the construction boom of the 1950s.) Of particular interest to acoustics and
construction with
gypsum board is the Gypsum Board Construction Handbook, published by the United
States
Gypsum Company.
Plywood is usually " (but is available in a variety of thicknesses from larger lumber
yards) and is either available with flat edges, or with tongue and groove edges for tight
floor construction.
The Particleboard family:
Low density fiberboard, or LDF, is typically called chipboard. Its the stuff out of
which most inexpensive, DIY furniture is made. 15
o Medium density fiberboard, or MDFis more typical of shelving and loudspeaker
enclosures. It has some very good acoustical properties and we like using it for many
varied applications.
o High density fiberboard, or HDF, is also available, but is quite rare and quite
heavy.
Very high-end cabinetry will often employ HDF.
o Oriented strand board, or OSB, is often used in residential construction as a lowcost floor underlayment.

43

o Straight up particleboard is usually a version of LDF, but can also be the name
given to a higher grade of OSB.
Other materials we make mention of include gypsum board screws of various
thread sizes and lengths, construction adhesives including vinyl flooring adhesive,
silicone caulk, etc.

5.2

Specialty Construction Materials

Soundboard is often misunderstood, so I will try to set the record straight here. Many
people mistakenly use the term to describe materials like regular gypsum board or even
particleboard.
This is not accurate. Soundboard is actually a trademarked name for a brown,
compressed paper board that is usually or " thick and is manufactured by the
Celotex Company. The best way to describe it for you here is to say that it is a lot like
a sheet of Masonite orpegboard, only thicker and a bit softer. A similar material is
Homasote. If you describe
Soundboard or Homasote to your building materials supplier, he or she can probably
direct you to it. It is pretty dense, so it makes a good layer in a multi-layered wall
configuration. In conjunction with layers of " gypsum board, " particleboard or
MDF and SheetBlok, it is really effective at blocking the transmission of sound. (It
should be noted that when compared side by side with gypsum board, Soundboard is
not quite as good in a straight up STC comparison. Click here for an illustration. It is
not clear what sort of performance Homasote offers versus gypsum board or
Soundboard. Bearing that in mind, Soundboard is good if you want to change up the
composition of the layers in your construction. This will dissipate resonances well.
However, for sheer mass, gypsum board is a much more cost-effective alternative.)
Blueboard is also a very misunderstood material. This is typically expanded
polystyrene thats been dyed blue, though there are also pink versions available. Its all
the same mostly useless in terms of acoustical isolation. The density of the material
is very low and the material itself is closed-cell foam. Thus, there is no mass benefit to
be gained for isolation and no absorptive benefit to be gained when using it in wall
cavities. Unless there is a specific code requirement for this type of material in your
construction, we would encourage the use of glass fiber or mineral fiber insulation

44

products in lieu of blueboard.

Glass fiber insulation comes in many varieties. The most common is the pink
insulation found in many attics, walls and basements. Heres a breakdown of the types
of insulation, their
densities and their acoustical benefits:

R-11 (2 thick) through R-30 (6 thick) batt insulation is very common. It

has a density somewhere between 0.7 and 1.0 pounds per cubic foot (pcf) and usually
comes in rolls.
It is very effective at minimizing cavity resonances (resonances that occur in the air
16spaces between framing members). It is the minimum insulation that should be used
in the walls, ceiling and floor of any studio construction.

Board insulation is available from the various companies that specialize in the

manufacture of insulation materials. It is typically yellow in color and 2x4 or 4x8 in

size with thicknesses varying between and 4. You may hear it referenced using
Owens Cornings 700 series designations, e.g., 703 and 705. It is more effective
than batt insulation at combating cavity resonances. It also has a mass advantage
since it is offered in densities from 2.0 to 8.0 (or more) pcf.
o Either of the above can be purchased with kraft paper or FRK (foil-reinforced kraft
paper) facings on one or both sides. Two advantages the facings offer are (a) ease of
handling and (b) decreased high frequency absorption. The latter is achieved only if the
material is not physically inside the wall, ceiling or floor. Thus, if you have the option
of buying faced insulation, we would encourage it from the simple standpoint of not
having to deal with as much of the irritation associated with handling glass fiber
materials.

Ductboard is a variation of glass fiber insulation, typically 3 pcf and available

in , 1 or 2 thicknesses. There is usually and FRK backing on one side and a black
scrim facing on the other. Used inside ducts, this type of material can help minimize
turbulent airflow noise in HVAC systems. Since the black scrim facing contains the
fibers, it can also be used as a low-cost wall absorber. It should be noted that the
thick material is rare. The 1 thick material is very common and is the minimum that
should be considered for any acoustical application.

45

5.3

Floors

Figure show good designs for those of you who have the vertical space to spare and
need to float your floor (and your walls). These are perfect when studio and control
room are both going to rest on common floor, either wooden or concrete slab. If yours
is concrete, consider (carefully)cutting a gap in the concrete between the two rooms
first, then proceeding as shown. Cutting the slab is o minor undertaking, but you will
be relieved to know that if you decide to do it, hexapods not need to be any wider than
the width of the saw blade. The cut must bisect the entire slab. If you are unfamiliar
with the structural ramification doing this, please consult a local expert. It cannot held
responsible

if

your

building

caves

in

.
Figures 3.1show 2x6 joists and2x4 walls, but if you819do not have the space you can
use 2x4s, 2x3s or even 2x2s for the floor. The specific material used may not matter as
much as the proper implementation of the materials. I.e., the general method stays the
same. The preference if you have the space is 2x6 or larger because they allow for
more trapped air space and better overall decoupling. It is advisable to caulk all edges,
seams and corners (as wells any penetrations more on that elsewhere) particularly
where different materials meet. Leave about a gap in parallel seams and
perpendicular corners and use our new acoustical sealant, Stopgap. (StopGap is an
approved substitute for gypsum board mud. Tape and finish as you normally would.)
If for whatever reason you cannot build your wall/floor exactly as pictured, be it a
space limitation, lack of funds, etc., first try to grasp the concepts used in the

46

construction pictured. If you are serious about wanting to stop sound transmission, it is
imperative that you isolate the sources of sound from the structure. Air and mass are
your friends. Give strong consideration to making a layer of SheetBlok part of your
floor sandwich.
The sill plate (bottom framing member of the wall) actually rests on two layers of
SheetBlok to decouple it from the existing or floated floor. In a perfect world it would
be preferable to glue the
SheetBlok to the bottoms of the wall plates and joists instead of nailing it; in fact,
wherever possible throughout the framing, glue any materials you can together rather
than nailing or screwing them. The reason gluing is always recommended is that the
adhesive itself will contribute some degree of sound isolation, too. Nails or screws
serve as bridges acoustically and transmit sound from one layer to theother too well, so
you want to avoid them whenever possible. Pick screws over nails (preferably used in
conjunction with glue) because they form a tighter bond that yields fewer resonances.
Example:
We suggest gluing the particle board down and caulking the seams and boundaries.
Repeat for each layer, gluing one atop the next. This makes fewer penetrations than if
you screwed down each layer.
If you must screw the layers (this is very often the practical reality), be aware that it is
not the end of the world. Just be sure to go with the absolute least number of screws
possible. We recently completed a build-out on a new facility. You should be aware
that most drawlers will simply use as many screws as they think is necessary. Even
as often as every 4! This is far too many for acoustical purposes. So keep an eye on
any hired help and let them know that as few screws as they can get away with is
preferred. Same goes for when you are anchoring the walls to an existing floor (Figure
3.1b). If you must bolt, screw or otherwise secure the sill plate, use the least number of
connection points that you can get away with. And if you are anchoring to concrete
slab, look into spending a little extra on isolated bolt mechanisms. These devices
provide rubber grommets for the solid bolt to go through so it does not come into direct
contact with your sill plate, thereby maintaining the level of decoupling you need!
When layering, subsequent sheets of material should be rotated 90 degrees so no seams
line up (see Figure 3.2; this staggering applies to wall, ceiling and floor materials) and,

47

if used, the preferred tongue and groove (T&G) materials should be glued together at
each T&G joint. As mentioned previously, all seams regardless of material used
must be sealed up tight with something like Stopgap. Where applying baseboard or
other trim you can line the bottom of it with foam weather-strip tape to help decouple it
from the floor if you are installing flat flooring like vinyl or parquet instead of
carpeting. Naturally, if you are installing carpet, your carpet pad should be the thickest
and densest you can afford and accommodate from a space standpoint; 8#, 1/2"
rebound carpet pad hasworked well for us under certain types of carpet like plush or
Berber, while " ComfortWear-200(made by GFI and sold under a variety of trade
names; it is usually purple or blue and has a honeycomb pattern embossed on one side)
works well under short-pile commercial-type carpet. Where your raised floor meets the
existing walls, it is better to build it in such a way that the two have a slight physical
separation (note the airspace in Figure 3.1b), but if you must attach them, run
Stopgap at the juncture first before attaching the final wall layer.
Do you have pretty good isolation except for when, say, someone plays piano or
acoustic drums?
Instead of constructing an entirely new floor, you can fashion an effective riser using
Platfoam to put on the floor under the offending instrument. A prefabricated riser is
also available, the HoverDeck. This also applies to those of you in basements who
do not want to frame new floors as earlier described. Kenny Aronoff and many other
famous users are using our PlatFoam and HoverDeck. The amount of extra sound
isolation you gain, as well as the dramatic improvement in the purity of the instrument
that rests on the riser, make either of them an all-around winner! KennAronoff is so
impressed with his riser that he now has them in the entire major recording markets
with his identical drum kits so no matter where he is playing, he can be on an Auralex
riser. How's that for an endorsement.
Auralex also offers a small, portable riser called the GRAMMA (patent-pending).
GRAMMA stands for Gig and Recording Amp and Monitor Modulation Attenuator,
and it is designed to float guitar cabinets, bass rigs, subwoofers, studio monitors, stage
monitors and more for greatly improved isolation and purity of tone. Tower of Power,
Lee Roy Parnell and many other famous recording artists are using GRAMMAs onstage and in the studio and LOVING them! If you are unable to

48

construct your room to be as sound-isolated as you would like due to budgetary

constraints, physical constraints, etc., perhaps you can improve your sound AND your
isolation by strategically implementing GRAMMAs under some of your amps,
monitors, etc. You will be quite happy and quite surprised at the improvements.
In situations where you simply have no vertical room to spare or cannot install a
floated floor, you should consider floating a couple new layers of alternated T&G
flooring on two layers of SheetBlok.
This yields increased STL and decoupling, but obviously does not give you the benefit
of any trapped air space

5.4

Stringers
There is quite a bit of debate about whether
adding stringers to your wall, ceiling and floor
constructionist worth the effort. We believe it is a
great benefit to run stringers at uneven intervals
between wall studs and floor and ceiling joists
before insulating them, as shown in Figure 3.7.
This helps tie the whole wall, ceiling, or floor
together so it is less likely to move and transmit
sound. As Philip Newell has pointed outing many
of his books, a stiffer construction will make it
less able to vibrate at lower frequencies. Research
is ongoing and we certainly acknowledge that
stringers may not be completely applicable to

each and every construction. However, in the context of Acoustics 101, we believe it is
a necessity. I.e., since the budget for construction is usually tight, we believe stringers
to

be

very

cost-effective

way

to

help

maximize

isolation

.
Figure 3.7 shows stringers mounted between studs or joists. Stringers are short (14"
normally if your studs/joists are 16" on center) pieces of the same material as your
joists that run perpendicular to the joists and are nailed and glued between them in a
andom, staggered fashion. It might seem like a pain putting them in, but its time well
spent. We know because we have done it. We let people talk us out of them once and

49

lived to regret it.

5.5

Ceilings

The method for controlling structure borne sound that is passing through ceilings is
much the same see Figure3.3a. Generally, we suggest layering SheetBlok and
gypsum board either over the existing ceiling, preferably hung on RC8 Resilient
Channel, or as part of a lower, separated ceiling resting atop the new walls. If you are
lucky enough to have vertical height to spare, drop dow(which, in turn, might be on top
of your new floated floor). Insulate it with n 3" and frame another ceiling resting it
only on top of your new walls Mineral Fiber and cover it with two (2) layers of "
gypsum

board

mounted

on

RC8.

If you have an unfinished existing ceiling, insulate it with Mineral Fiber, cover the
joists with two (2) layers of " gypsum board mounted on RC8(you can use "
gypsum board if you want, but has been verified to be better if space, time, funds
and motivation permit) and then drop down 3" and frame your new ceiling. In reality,
most of us fall into the "I do not have the height to spare" category. If that is you, you
should be in a situation where you need more sound isolation, but absolutely cannot
add any add a layer of SheetBlok to your existing ceiling and then add one (or two)
layers of gypsum board( or ).
Should you more gypsum board, consider adding a layer of SheetBlok Plus mounted
with our pressure sensitive adhesive. A piece of wood trim is recommended at each
vertical seam and across the top and bottom of each piece of SheetBlok Plus due to its
weight. If the black color does not match your decor, your SheetBlok Plus may be
painted with high-quality latex paint (note that you may need to prime it first).

50

In order to use it as a finish layer, obviously you should be very careful during
installation so as to not nick up the SheetBlok Plus. By the way, while the pressuresensitive adhesive (PSA) backing for the SheetBlok Plus is very strong, we definitely
recommend some type of mechanical fasteners be used, too. Plastic cap nails, screws
with grommets, furring strips at the edges, etc. have all been used with good success.
Also, for standard SheetBlok, multi-purpose flooring adhesive is recommended
because it is made for use with vinyl materials. We have not tried this type of adhesive
ourselves, so do not yell at us if it does not work for you.
No matter which method you use, the less light fixture boxes set in the ceiling, the
better: They serve as open windows to sound. Track lighting is preferred to recessed
lighting and you should StopGap any wire holes as outlined elsewhere in Acoustics
101 because holes sonically weaken a wall or ceiling. So much so that in some
instances people have virtually wasted their time. Floor lamps or surface-mounted
conduit may be your best bet. 22(Non-)Flat Ceilings
Have you ever seen pictures of world-class studios? Sure you have. Have you ever
seen one with a flat ceiling? Rarely, if ever. The reason for this is that it is widely
acknowledged that rooms with more cubic volume (space inside them) sound better
than small rooms. Why is this? Small rooms tend to sound, well, small, because they
have less space for sound waves to develop and breathe. Think about it. In a 10x10
room, a sound wave that is traveling 1130 ft/s (feet per second) can get from wall to
wall to wall to wall in no time at all. This effectively means the room does not allow
time-delayed reflections to develop; reflections that would give the room a sonic
"acoustical space" signature. Implementation of good diffusers can definitely help a
small room sound larger by properly diffusing the sonic energy in the room, giving the
sound more room and time to breathe. Further, digital delays and reverbs have
improved enormously over the last decade and we can now add our own "acoustical
space" signatures to sounds and best of all, only when we desire to have them. It is
often desirable to have a drier room and add ambience digitally rather than rely on the
room to interject the ambience. The reason for this is that there are quite a few times
when ambience is not desirable and other times when a different ambience than the
room has is desirable. Still, there are plenty of instances where a rooms ambient sonic
signature is desirable. It is for this reason we started this talk about non-flat ceilings.
Discussing room sound over lunch one time with Ross Vanilla, he hit the nail on the

51

head: "Once its on disk (or tape), theres no knob for it." Few of us have unlimited
budgets budgets big enough to allow us to buy real estate with as much square and
cubic23footage as we would really love to have. Does this necessarily and always
mean that we are forever resigned to suffer with tiny little rooms with flat ceilings? No
way. Square footage is expensive, but cubic footage is not. Look at Japan what have
they done? Because Japanese real estate is at such a premium (i.e. they have run out of
it), they have chosen to grow up instead of out. We can put the Japanese principle to
work for us in order to gain cubic volume for our rooms. Maybe to a relatively small
degree, but we can gain some amount of useful cubic space to be sure. Non-flat
ceilings are an easy way to do so. See Figures 3.3b-c for some examples of good (and
bad) ceiling designs. Also not that cathedral or A-frame ceilings can be quite
helpful in live rooms. (They are generally discouraged in control rooms due to
focusing effects.)

5.6

Walls

Unfortunately, the basic walls built in most homes and businesses are simply not dense
enough or thick enough to be good barriers to neighboring sound. This page will show
you proven methods for adding additional layers of materials to your existing walls to
make the most of them. For those of you doing new construction, these tips are
applicable as well. The choice of how to retrofit your existing walls, ceiling, etc. is
entirely

up

to

you,

your

ears

and

your

pocketbook.

Existing Walls First, determine as best you can what the materials are which comprise
your existing walls. You hope you find out that you have 2x6 walls, heavily insulated
and caulked, floated on SheetBlok, then covered with a layer of " gypsum board, a
layer of SheetBlok, a layer of " gypsum board and surface treated with Studiofoam.

52

If so, go directly to Park Place, collect $200 and have dinner at a fancy restaurant. If
not, read on. If your problem sounds severe to you and you learn that the existing wall
has no insulation in it, it is
advisable to install Auralex Mineral Fiber in it by removing the gypsum board and
placing the Mineral Fiber between the wall studs. Alternatively, you can look into
blowing insulation into the wall with a machine (see your local hardware store for
details). Having done that, the more closely you can retrofit your wall to resemble the
one shown in Figure 3.5 above, the better off you will be. You can choose to alter
materials or leave off layers, but the performance of the wall may be lessened, so
delete or change at your own risk. Naturally, you should use good construction
techniques, taping, mudding and caulking seams all the way, making sure to stagger all
seams and rotate adjoining layers 90 from each other. If you determine your problem
to be relatively minor, you might be able to get by with as little as adding one (1) more
layer of gypsum board. If you previously found out your existing wall is one layer of
" gypsum board or plaster on lathe (older homes), add a layer of SheetBlok and then
another layer of " gypsum board. Do you want to go to the trouble to fur out from
your existing wall to hang your new wall boards on? We think so. It is neither a waste
of time nor money and, if you have both, we would encourage it...but with a twist. At
least cover the faces of the furring strips with strips of SheetBlok (it is considerably
more effective to actually mount a layer of SheetBlok across the faces of the furring
strips versus just putting strips of SheetBlok on the furring strips' faces, but it also costs
more). Then mount RC8 across the furring strips. Then mount a layer of gypsum
board to the channels. Construction If you have the opportunity to build your space
taller, allowing for a false/lowered ceiling and giving your studio more cubic space,
then you are indeed lucky. If thats the case, there are a few things to note that you
might implement to improve on the wall/ceiling described above. You should
definitely build a "room within a room," meaning that there is air space and no
physical contact between the exterior walls and the new walls of your studio! There is
no substitute for doing it this way. You can build just one wall and can add layers to
the wall until you are blue in the face and poor as Pattys pig, but chances are that you
will never achieve the level of sound transmission control you will if you go the extra
mile and build a room within a room. You know what they say about an ounce of
prevention being worth a pound of cure? In the practice of acoustics, an ounce of

53

prevention is worth considerably more than a pound of cure.

Sound can slip through very tiny gaps (1/32 and smaller) which might seem to you
to be insignificant. So it is of extreme importance to construct your place as airtight as
humanly possible. When humanly possible is not good enough, StopGap can be of
great benefit. The specific gaps we are talking about here are, e.g., the gaps around
electrical boxes (remove the outlet and switch plates to find them), underneath door
trim, baseboard, crown-molding, around HVAC vents (remove the grilles to find
them), and so on. This is all part of the attention to detail weve been talking about
Never mount electrical boxes or connector panels back to back; always stagger them
as shown in the Seal the holes your wires go through, or (preferably) run wire
through conduit, stuffing foam or insulation in the ends to help seal it. Isolating
the conduit from the structure with SheetBlok or hanging it with resilient hangers
can really offer some improved isolation. Remember: Sound control is a game of
inches. Of course, the less wires and boxes you have poking holes in your walls, the
less chances sound has to get through where you do not want it. It may be prettier
having all your boxes flush mounted, but there is a lot to be said for surface mounting
your phone cables and jacks, audio connector boxes, light switches, etc. Not only does
this method yield better isolation, your artsy friends might consider you "retro",
"industrial" and just plain "cool." Studiofoam and other treatments applied to room
surfaces can often mask surface-mounted goodies.
It is always better to keep wires away from each other than in big globs; especially
audio, video, data and phone lines that might be in proximity to electrical wires. If
wires have to cross, doing so at a right angle lessens the chance of interference
occurring. Otherwise, keep all the different types of wires at least 12 away from each
other and use shielded cable wherever possible.

5.7

Doors

Isolation The best common doors to use are exterior grade, solid-core wood (slab)
doors that are flat, without moldings. Also common, but more expensive, are
commercial and/or exterior grade insulated steel doors. You can add SheetBlok to one
or both sides of either type of door before installing the knob to provide additional
transmission loss, then Studiofoam over the SheetBlok. If you have the inclination, you
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can make a door sandwich out of two (2) solid-core doors and a couple layers of
SheetBlok in the middle (this is the sort of thing Eddie Van Halen did at his 5150
studio). If you desire to have the ability to lock your door, be sure you can find a
knob/lock that will work with your thicker-than-normal door. Double doors (backtoback) are of some benefit if they are
(a) attached to physically separate door jambs that are floated, and
(b) are as far apart as possible given the constraints of your framing structure.

Build your walls and double doors in such a way as to give you as much dead air
space between the doors as possible.Figure 4.1 shows methods of installing back-toback doors for single and double framed walls. Alternate your door knobs and hinges
left to right. You can add surface moldings to your slab doors if you want to dress them
up. Install Studiofoam on your doors especially the sides that face each other. This
absorbs any resonance that might occur between them. The biggest reason that doors
are poor in the area of sound control often has little to do with the physical
construction of the doors themselves (if you are using one of the types outlined above).
The weakest link in most door systems is that they are not sealed well with the floor
below them or with the frame around them. You must use a compressed rubber
threshold below your door and you must make sure that wherever the door shuts and
would normally contact the door jamb it meets foam 2930 weatherstrip tape or a rubber

55

gasket. Magnetic seals can also be used, like you would find on a refrigerator door. For
those requiring the ultimate in door seals, you might contact Zero International. They
specialize in door seals that do a fantastic job of blocking sound.
If you are looking to save yourself a considerable amount of time (and headaches), you
might consider simply specifying some sound-rated doors right into your studio. While
they are expensive, sound-rated doors give you far superior performance to anything
you could do with a single door on your own. Manufacturers of high-quality acoustical
doors include:

Industrial Acoustics Company

Overly Door and Window Company
At most, you can expect an STC-30 to 32 from even the best solid-core door. The best
double-frame, back-to-back solid-core door arrangement rarely yields better than STC50. By contrast, typical single-leaf doors from the manufacturers above can yield
ratings of STC-55 and higher. Worth considering if maximum sound isolation is your
goal.
Garage doors
The concept of the overlapping doors spoken of and diagrammed above is easily
adapted to a solution for leaky garage doors, especially if you break down the solution
into multiple "bi-fold" type doors that seal well where they meet. The better solution,
however, is to build a false, floated wall next to the garage door that does not come
into contact with it and is isolated as well as possible from the existing structure using
the methods described . If your budget permits, placing a layer of SheetBlok over the
interior face of the door before framing your new wall is advised. Most garage doors
leak water, so you might want to raise the garage door the width of a 2x4 and then nail
a treated, weather-resistant 2x4 under the garage door (floating the 2x4 with SheetBlok
and sill seal, available at your hardware store) and caulking with StopGap where it
meets the concrete, door frame, etc.). Having done that, lower the garage door down to
it and nail up a 2x4 above the top interior edge of the garage door to keep it from being
raised. You are then protected from water and thievery and everything you have done
can easily be removed in the future should you or a subsequent property owner desire.

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Airlocks
Many of you will be building studios in your basement and sound traveling up your
stairwell may prove to be a problem. If possible, enclose your stairway and put a good,
solid-core door at the bottom to keep most of your sound out of the stairwell. In
addition, or if enclosing the stairway just is not feasible, apply as much 4" Studiofoam
in the stairwell as possible to absorb as much ambient sound as you can, thus making
less sound available to travel upstairs. Stairwells tend to resonate quite a bit, so if you
are enclosing and adding a door, do everything you can to float or at least really bulk
up your new construction. If building an airlock or sound-lock (a small room
separating one sound-critical space from another and into which each of those rooms
doors opens), float everything you can, use SheetBlok copiously and treat the walls and
ceiling with the thickest Studiofoam you can afford. If you have the know-how to build
a window into the door or you can afford a sound-rated door with a window built-in
this sound-lock can often serve as a vocal or isolation booth.

5.8

Windows

5.8.1 Exterior
Often, it is relatively easy to add in a second window if you are already building a
second wall.If you are going to do this, i.e., install a second pane of plate, insulated, or
laminated glass,make sure the panes are as far apart as possible, are parallel to each
other,

and

never

touch

wood

framing

of

your

new

wall.

The windows should only come into contact with SheetBlok, foam weatherstrip tape
(FrostKing 3/4" wide by 7/16" thick, closed-cell, heavy-duty, interior/exterior
recommended) or StopGap. You
can either route out grooves for the glass to fit it or just block it in with small wood
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slats. Line the frame of the air space with Studiofoam to absorb standing waves and
throw some packets of silica gel in between the panes to absorb the condensation that
invariably forms there. See the Interior section below for more information. Clear
SheetBlok in use at Perfect Sound Studios
Examples of exterior window isolation:
1. We recently helped drummer-extraordinaire, Kenny Aronoff, design and construct
his new studio. Kenny had already purchased and installed some decent windows, but
was concerned that they might not be as soundproof as he needed them to be. We sent
a couple members of our Engineering department down to Kenny's place and were
pleasantly surprised when his testing showed that the windows were "soundproof
enough.
2. Around the same time, we helped Joe Kasko with his new facility, Perfect Sound
Studios. (As it turns out, Joe is actually a friend of Kenny's. Small world!) When we
were brought into the project, conventional windows had already been installed. They
were not quite good enough to prevent sound from leaking out and bothering the
neighbors behind the studio. In lieu of trashing the windows and losing the investment
that had already been made, personnel devised and Joe implemented some "plugs"
for the window openings using Clear SheetBlok, 1x3s and other materials. The results
were great and our testing showed that they cut the level of sound transmission
dramatically. When installed, the window plugs still afford the ability to see outside as
shown in Figure 4.2. (But not perfectly because Clear SheetBlok is not as perfectly
clear as glass). [Worth noting is that Perfect Sound Studios has implemented the full
Auralex arsenal from construction products to absorbers and diffusers (some of the
coolest painted T'Fusors we have seen). The place looks and sounds awesome ]
5.8.2 Interior
A double window between a control room and a studio is often used because singlepaned windows are very poor at stopping sound. You want to try to keep the panes
parallel to each other to maximize the dead air space between them and you do not
want to use three panes because using three panes actually lessens the contiguous dead
air space. If you must angle your glass, angle only one pane, 31not both, and make it a
slight angle going up. Note that if you cannot angle the glass by at least 8, you are
probably wasting your time anyway. No matter how you decide to construct your

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window, a good way to really clean your glass prior to installation is to mix 1 drop
Ivory

dish

soap

gently

with

one

(1)

gallon

distilled

water.

Or just use a Windex -type glass cleaner. Do a good job because you are going to have
to live with any smudges for a long, long time! Wearing cotton or rubber gloves while
installing the glass is recommended. Figure 4.3 shows the preferred method of
constructing your double-paned window. Make sure glass never touches wood and
float the whole construction on SheetBlok to isolate it from your control room and
studio walls. Throw a couple packets of silica gel into the dead air space to absorb
unwanted moisture that could fog your windows. Line the inside perimeter of the dead
air space with Studiofoam to help cut down on resonance. And just so we are all on the
same page in terms of the different types of glass:
Plate glass is simply a solid piece of glass. This type of glass typically has the worst
performance in terms of sound isolation.
Insulated glass is actually two (2) thin pieces of plate glass separated by an airspace.
There is an airtight frame around the glass and this type of glass is a pretty good
performer in terms of isolation. You can also find insulated glass that fills the space
between with an inert gas like argon. This does offer you an advantage since the speed
of sound in argon is different from that of air. This is known as an impedance
mismatch and can give you a slightly better STC.
Finally, the best glass performer, in terms of sound isolation, tends to be laminated
glass. Laminated glass is much like insulated glass, except in lieu of a airspace, there is
a laminate i.e., a clear glue. This is an even better impedance mismatch than that
provided by the insulated glass. We strongly encourage the use of laminated glass for
any studio. A final note about glass block: Glass block is often desirable when natural
light is welcome, but prying eyes are not. Glass block tends to be a great sound
59

performer. There are typically two varieties: Solid block and hollow block. The neat
thing is there is not much of a performance difference between the two because the
hollow block is actually evacuated. This happens when the two pieces of glass are
superheated to fuse them together and form the hollow block. The air trapped inside
the cavity is also at thousands of degrees when the block is formed. As it cools, the
volume of the cavity is constant, but the temperature drops considerably. When this
happens, the pressure drops to next-to-nothing (Boyles Law for you propeller-heads),
which we call, for all intents and purposes, a vacuum. Since sound cannot pass through
a vacuum, this is very advantageous for sound control.

Chapter-6. Conclusion
Acoustics has become a very important part of our building envelopes. The total urban
scenario has resulted in increased noise levels in the surrounding which lead to
discomfort in ones own shelter. Acoustic design shall be made mandatory for
architects and constructionists for comfortable living of dwellers. Both and active and
passive acoustical techniques and treatments ranging from minimal to economical to
luxurious are available depending upon the monitory investments. Acoustics should
not be ignored while designing a building but it shall lead the designer to a better place
of living.

Chapter-7. References

http://www.measuretronix.com/files/news/Section_3_-_Building_Acoustics.pdf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_acoustics

http://www.acoustictrade.com/pdf/acoustictrade_brochure.pdf

http://www.jeacoustics.com/library/pdf/ConSpec_Apr90_Concert_Halls.pdf

http://www.kineticsnoise.com/interiors/pdf/Interior2.pdf

http://www.acousticsfirst.com/

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/noise

http://www.acoustics.org/archacouintrotoot.pdf

http://ebookbrowse.com/architectural-acoustics-0311-pdf-d97024642
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http://www.acoustics.com/project_remedies.asp

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