Five Major Computing Disciplines

There are five different categories of computing disciplines.

Computer Engineering
Computer Science
Information Systems
Information Technology
Software Engineering

Computer Engineering
Computer Engineering focuses on the design of the computer hardware and
peripheral devices, often the chip level.
Students will learn how to design new computer circuits, microchips, and other
electronic components. In addition, they will learn how to design a new computer
instruction ses and combine electronic or optical components to provide powerful,
cost-effective computing.
A degree in this major provides excellent qualifications for working at a chip
manufacturer.
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Computer Science
Computer Science focuses on computer architecture and how to program computers
to make them work effectively and efficiently.
Students investigate the fundamentals theories of how computers solve problems,
and they learn how to write application programs, system software, computer
languages, and device drivers.
Computer science graduates generally find jobs as programmers, software
engineers, object/GUI developers, and project managers in technical applications
development. Computer scientists work as theorists, inventors, and researchers in
fields diverse as artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and computer games.
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Information Systems

Information Systems degree programs are typically offered by a university's College

of Business, focus in applying computers to business problems.
Most academic advisors recommend the information systems degree for students
who want to become computer professionals but lack strong math aptitude.
This degree leads to a programming or technical support job, with good possibilities
for advancement to systems analyst, project manager, database administrator,
network manager, or other management positions.
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Information Technology
Information Technology degree programs focus on the computer equipment and
software used by businesses and organizations-how they work, how they are
secured, upgraded, maintained, and replaced.
Students in an IT program typically work hands-on with hardware, networks, Web
pages, multimedia, e-mail systems, and security.
Students graduating from this degree usually work as network specialists and
administrators, system analysts, and help desk technicians.
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Software Engineering
Software Engineering takes a discipline approach to developing sotware that is
reliable, efficient, affordable, user-friendly, and scalable.
Students in this program usually include courses from Information Systems and
Computer Science curricula.
Students graduating from this degree often work on large-scale, safety-critical
applications.

Data

Data can be defined as raw facts and figures. Data may be meaningless or ambiguous. Data
often have little meaning until they are sorted or until we calculate something from them. This sort
of calculation is called data processing. When data is processed, it provides information.

Streams of raw facts representing events occurring in organization or the physical environment
before they have been organized and arranged into a form that people can understand and use.

Information

Information is data that have been put into a meaningful and useful context. In other words,
information is structured data.

Data that have been shaped into a form that is meaningful and useful to human beings

Knowledge
Knowledge is the application of information to solve a problem or to make a decision.

*These terms will assist in developing and understanding and appreciation for information processing and
information systems.

Characteristics of data
Raw data is a term for unprocessed data, it is also known as primary data. It is a relative term. Raw data
can be input to a computer program or used in manual analysis procedures such as gathering statistics
from a survey. It can refer to the binary data on electronic storage devices such as hard disk drives. In
computing it may have the following attributes: possibly containing errors, not validated; in several

different (colloquial) formats; uncoded or unformatted; and suspect, requiring confirmation or citation. For
example, a data input sheet might contain dates as raw data in many forms: "31st January 1999",
"31/01/1999", "31/1/99", "31 Jan", or "today". Once captured, this raw data may be processed and stored
as a single format.

Characteristics of information
Information is data that has been transform by some type of processing and it is use to solve
problems at all levels. Information has some characteristics with which you should become
familiar if you are to use it to solve problems. Some characteristics of information are:
Accuracy the correctness of items and the completeness of the information
Reliability the consistency with which the information is accurate. Information that is
consistently correct is reliable.

Comprehensibility the ability of the data to be made useful. This type of data one can make
sense of.

Timeliness the availability of information to users in time to make relevant decisions. Data and
information have lifespans during which they are useful. At the end of the lifespan, the information is
no longer useful in decision making. The lifespan involves generation (or collection) of data,
transformation of data into information and reporting information to the user in time for appropriate
decision making.

Relevance the appropriateness of information to the solution of a problem or decision making.

Interpretation the same information is given different meaning by different users.

Security - the accessibility of data by authorized users and the prevention of any unauthorized
users from accessing the data. The security of information determines its availability to users for
proble4m solving and decision making.

 Confidentialioty the availability of data only to a very restyricted set of users. It must not be
viewed by anyone for whom it is not intended. The data must be secure to ensure its confidentiality.

Value the usefulness of information to facilitate problem solving and decision making and to
enable the organization to gain advantage over its competitors. Since information has its value it is a
saleable commodity and it is shareable. It may be presented on different media and in a variety of
formats.

Distortion the presentation of data to induce a particular presentation. Data may also be
disguised in order to discourage certain interpretations.

Distortion

Disguise

Reliability

Inconsistency

Incomprehensibility

Subject to interpretation

Value

Relevance

Confidentiality

Security

Shareability

Availability

Lifespan

Information as a saleable commodity

Format

Medium

Ways of representing data and information

Data include:
Character used to represent letters eg A, or a

String used to represent a word eg, man, dog

Numeric used to resent numbers eg 0, 1. 9

Aural (for example, Morse Code, dots and dashes)

Visual (for example, the individual frames of a movie, fingerprints)

Mors

Characteristics of Information include:

Text

Graphics

Sound

Video

Special purpose notation (mathematical, scientific and musical notation)

Graphical representation (graphs and chart)

Tables

Sources of Information
We will consider sources of information under three main headings as follow:
1. Print Materials
2. Electronic Sources
3. Personal Contacts

For the purpose of this exercise, the sources under the main headings will be sub-divided as follow:

1.

Print Materials
1.1. Books
1.1.1.

Reference Books
(a)

Enclycopedias

(b)

Dictionaries

(c)

Directories

(d)

Yearbooks and Almanacs

(e)

Handbooks and Manuals

(f)

Indexes

(g)

Geographical Reference Sources

1.1.2.

Textbooks

1.1.3.

General Fiction and Non-Fiction Books

1.2. Periodicals
1.2.1.

Journals

1.2.2.

Magazines

1.2.3.

Newspapers

1.3. Pamphlets

2.

Electronic Sources
2.1. Local Sources
2.1.1.

CD ROMs

2.1.2.

Electronic Databases

2.2. Remote Sources

3.

2.2.1.

Online Databases

2.2.2.

World Wide Web

2.2.3.

Digital Libraries

Personal Contacts
3.1. Word of Mouth
3.2. Contact by mail (incl. e-mail)
3.3. Interviews
3.4. Observations

1.1.1 Reference Books

These are referred to in order to find answers to specific questions, to define terms, to give an
overview of a topic or to provide facts and salient points about people, places and events. They
are not usually intended to be read from cover to cover, and are so organized to allow for easy
retrieval of the information they contain.

(a)
ENCLYCLOPEDIA
A compendium of knowledge on a wide variety of
subjects, which are usually arranged in alphabetical order. Most often they appear in
multi volume sets or more recently on compact disc(s) and serve to provide

background information to a topic, explanatory materials, brief informational data on

famous people, places and historical events. It is one of the most important reference
sources and it is often the first to be consulted.

Examples:
Microsoft Encarta Deluxe Enclycopedia
World Book Enclycopedia

(b)
DICTIONARIES:
Basically, this is an alphabetical list of words,
phrases or terms and their meanings. In addition, many dictionaries provide much
more details on pronunciation, origin of words, usage, parts of speech and other
grammatical details. There are also different types of dictionaries general language,
foreign language and subject. The last category includes dictionaries of biography,
quotations, literature, computing and such other subjects.

Examples
Websters Pocket Dictionary of the English Language
Cassels French Dictionary
Rogets International Thesaurus
Whos Who International

(c)
DIRECTORIES:
A list of organizations, institutions or persons
systematically arranged in either alphabetical or classified order. They provide names
and addresses, brief biographical information and the affiliations of persons or names
and addresses of the institution/organization along with some detail of past and
present activities. They may be broadly classified as: institutional, professional,
governmental, trade and business.

Examples
Greater Kingston Telephone Directory
Jamaica Directory of Educational Institutions

(d)
YEARBOOKS AND ALMANACS:
These two reference sources are
very similar in contents and purposes. The major difference is that
the YEARBOOK only records the events for a particular year in a given country or
internationally, while the ALMANAC also provides retrospective information. Both give
a compendium of facts, statistics, and events with brief information on countries and
personalities. Some enclycopedia companies issue yearbooks as a means of
updating their publications.

Examples
ALMANACS
Whitakers Almanac (published annually since 1868)
The World Almanac

YEARBOOKS
Annual Register of World Events
St. Andrew High School for Girls Yearbook
Britannica Book of the Year

(e)
HANDBOOKS AND MANUALS:
HANDBOOKS provide specific and
detailed information on a single subject or field of study. The MANUAL does basically
the same thing along with step-by-step information on how to carry out a task or
operation.

Examples:

HANDBOOKS
The New Emily Posts Etiquette
The Practical SQL Handbook

MANUALS
Livestock Manual for the Tropics

(f)
INDEXES:
Are systematic guides to the contents of other
information sources. They are usually arranged alphabetically with each entry
providing sufficient information to allow for the identification of the item and where it
may be located. There are indexes to almost every kind of resource including
periodicals, picture, books and films.

Examples:
Grangers Index to Poetry
Readers Guide to Periodical Literature

(g)
GEOGRAPHICAL REFERENCE SOURCES: These include ATLASES,
GAZETTEERS, and GUIDEBOOKS which are used to answer queries about places,
and the special geographical or even the cultural features associated with them.

An ATLAS is a collection of maps bound together to form a book.

A GAZETTRER is a geographical dictionary, which gives the names of towns, rivers, population,
longitude, latitude and other geographical features.

The GUIDEBOOK is intended to inform the traveler of places to see and stay and the
best way to get there. There are very useful for providing many details about specific
locations

Examples
ATLASES
Time Atlas of the World
Caribbean Secondary School Atlas

GAZETTEERS
Websters New Geographical Dictionary

GUIDEBOOKS
Fodors Guide to the Caribbean
Fieldings Caribbean

1.1.2 Reference Books

A textbook is one that investigates a particular area of study and provides the information in a
concise systematic form for instructional purposes. This category may also include any book
that is designated to be used as an integral part of the curriculum.

1.1.3 General Non-Fiction and Fiction

Books
Non-Fiction refers to subject books that are needed to supplement the textbooks, as well as
those that cater for extra curricular interests of the students and staff. They are intended to
transmit information and may be entertaining.

Fiction Books refer to imaginary works intended primarily for recreational purposes although
some of them are used in the study of literature.

1.2 Periodicals

(see handout on Periodicals for more details)

This refers to a publication with a distinctive title that is issued at regular intervals for an indefinite
period of time. Periodicals may be divided into: journals, magazines and newspapers.

1.2.1

Journals
Professional publications written in scholarly style aimed at informing users of
developments in a particular subject area or field.

Examples:
Caribbean Journal of Education
School Librarian

1.2.2

Magazines

Popular types of publications intended for general circulation and so aimed at capturing the readers
interest by focusing on matters of topical interest such as news, fashion, hobbies, etc.

Examples
Time
Economist
Teen

1.2.3

Newspapers

Publications issued with greater frequency than either of the two previously mentioned, or may appear
daily, weekly, or bi-weekly with emphasis on news and current events. Individually they are much cheaper
in comparison to either journals or magazines. These publication are usually sub-divided into the quality
media and the popular media, the latter of which includes tabloids.

Examples

The Sunday Gleaner

The New York Times

1.3 Pamphlets
Definitions for pamphlets vary greatly. The most common one seems to be an independent
publication consisting of a few pages stitched (or stapled) together but not bound. They cover a
wide range of subjects and contain concise information on topics, which sometimes never appear
elsewhere. Many of them are obtainable without cost or at a minimal price from associations,
institutions, and government departments.

2.1 Electronic Sources

3.5. Local Sources
3.5.1.

CD ROMs

Compact Disc-Read Only Memory, a small plastic optical disk, 4.72 inches or 12
centimeters in diameter, similar to an audio compact disc, used for storing information in
digital format and as a publishing medium. Once stored, information can be searched and
displayed on a computer screen, but not changed or erased. Information is read from the
disc by a small laser beam inside a device called a CD-ROM drive.
Each disc has the capacity to store approximately 650 megabytes of data or 550 million
characters, the equivalent of apporoximately 250,000 printed pages or 1,000 books. CDROMs can be used to store sound tracks, still or moving images, and computer files, as
well as text. In libraries, CD-ROMs are used primarily as a storage medium for
bibliographic databases and full text resources, such as encyclopedias and other
reference works.

3.5.2.

DVDs

A type of optical disk, the same size as a compact disc but with significantly greater
recording capacity, partly because it is double-sided. DVD is expected to supersede video
CDs, laserdiscs, and videotape as the preferred medium for motion pictures for home
use. DVD players can also read most CD media.

3.5.3.

Electronic Databases

3.5.4.
3.6. Remote Sources
3.6.1.

Chat Rooms

3.6.2.

Digital Libraries

A library in which a significant proportion of the resources are available in digital

(machine-readable) format, as opposed to print or microform. The process of digitization
began with indexes and abstracting services, then moved to periodicals and reference
books, and is now entering the field of book publication.

3.6.3.

E-mail

3.6.4.

FTP

File Transfer Protocol, the TCP/IP protocol which allows data files to be copied directly
from one computer to another over the Internet regardless of platform, without having to
attach them as in e-mail. A computer which functions as a file server, storing files
available to other computers, is known as an FTP site. If no username or password is
required for access, such a computer is ananonymous FTP site---its files can be
downloaded by anyone with access to the Internet. Although still widely available,
anonymous FTP has been supplanted by Web pages as the most popular method of
disseminating information in digital format.

3.6.5.

Mailing Lists

An e-mail discussion forum which allows participants to subscribe and automatically

receive messages posted to the list by other subscribers. Participants may also post their
own messages and replies which are automatically disseminated to the other subscribers
to the list. Mailing lists may be moderated or unmoderated.

3.6.6.

Newsgroups

An Internet message board on a specific topic which allows a participant to post an initial
comment or query and then view the replies of other participants, responses to the
replies, and so on. A sequence of related postings is known as a discussion thread. The
most common types areUsenet and NetNews.

3.6.7.

Online Databases

3.6.8.

Portals

3.6.9.

World Wide Web

Characteristics of Information Sources

Often times people debate about the quality of information because of where it comes from. For example,
if I should say to you that the STAR or the X-NEWS reported that some DJ artist was in some
disagreement then one could argue whether it is true or just a plot to sell paper. If the Gleaner however,
report that same information then the possibility is that the information is more truth than the STAR or the
X-NEWS.

Why one would be more likely to believe the Gleaner over the STAR or the X-NEWS is because of the
credibility of the papers. The degree of confidence you have will ultimately determine whether you use
information from that source in decision making. The following are some of the characteristics of
information sources:

1. scope depth and breath of the information in the source

2. detail number of features revealed by the source
3. content information contained in the source
4. accuracy- truthfulness of the information
5. purpose stated reasons for maintaining information in the source and the intended users
6. authority maintenance of the source by reputable persons or organizations who possess
expert knowledge in the area
7. currency timeliness of truthful information
8. reliability consistency with which information is correct
9. audience group of persons for whom the information is presented
10. format the manner in which information is presented
11. availability to access the available information when and where needed
12. medium- whether or not information is provided in text, audio or video
13. cost expenditure outlaid to access or make the information available.

14. amount of detailed

15. breadth of coverage

Selecting of appropriate information source for a given task

Requirement task including:

Time

Criticality

Accuracy

Currency

Criteria for rejecting or accepting a piece of information

Bias
Accuracy

Cultural context

Completeness

Currency of information

Refereed and unrefereed sources

Nature and structure of information:

Strategic

Tactical

Operational

Structured

Semi-structured

Unstructured

Management Levels and the types of information needed

Level of
Management

Role of
manager

Characteristics of the
Decisions made

Type of
information
required

Characteristics of the
type of information

Top Manager

Long range
planning and
direction

Strategic

Unstructured

Opposite of
structured

Complex
Rarely based
on predetermined

Highly
summarized

 Data required is
historical, current,
futuristic

set of procedures
or rules
May involve
the subjective
element of
decision making

Middle
Manager

Organising
and staffing

Tactical

Data gathered
from internal as well
as external range of
processes.
Semistructured

Not based on
any clearly
defined set of
informational
procedures

A mixture of both
unstructured and
structured type of
information

Requires
further analyses
and computations
Lower or
Supervisory
Manager

Supervising
and
controlling
day-to-day
routine
operations

Operational

The importance of data and information

Predictable
Based on well
defined
procedures or
rules

Structured

Information is
detailed
Based on accurate,
factual, current data
that is generated from
the organization
internal activities
associated with a
particular business
such as payroll.

decision making

data quality

appropriateness of data
Tools used in Information technology

Hardware input, output and storage, processing

Software
Communication

History of (size, cost, and processing ability):

Computer hardware
Software
Internet
Telecommunication

What is INFORMATION PROCESSING?

An organized collection, storage, and presentation system of data and other knowledge for
decision making, progress reporting, and for planning and evaluation of programs.

Information processing is the set of activities, done in a particular sequence by which data
produce information. These activities are called processing activities. These processing activities
include collecting, collating, analyzing, presenting and disseminating of information. These
activities are also known as the sub-processes of an information system. Information system can
be either manual or computerized, or a combination of both.

Sub-processes of information processing

Collecting refers to the gathering of data

Collating combining the data gathered

Input (data capture or entry)

Analyzing (processing) examine the details of the data gathered

Store

Presenting and dissemination (output) refers to putting the data gathered in a useful form in
order to gain meaningful output.

Transmit and retrieve data and information

Case 1
You were asked by your teacher to write an essay on a particular topic. Think of the occasion when you
did the essay. Select from the following the activities which best describe what you did.
a.

Visited the library

b.

Organized the data that you gathered

c.

Wrote the essay

d.

Took the bus home

e.

Collected data on the topic

f.

Gave the essay to the teacher.

g.

Analysed the data

h.

Had supper

Put the activities in the order that you did them.

Solution
There are some activities that are not important to the process of producing and submitting your essay,
for example (a), (d) and (h). The purpose of visiting a library or reading a book is to gather data. If you
had the books at home or could get the data from the internet, you would not have to visit the library.
Therefore, the activities and the order in which they should be done are (e), (b), (g), (c) and (f). The set of
activities (collecting, collating, analyzing, presenting and disseminating) is the system by which you
produce your essay.

Manual Information System

Manual information system is a system whereby humans are required to perform all the tasks. In manual
information systems, no mechanical or electronic devices are used to perform any task, all are done
manually. All tasks can be broken down into three stages: input, process and output.

The three stages of doing tasks

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Example of a manual information system is a telephone directory. Suppose you have a friend whose
phone number and surname you know but whose address you need to find. Using the surname and
phone number you would have to search through the list of names corresponding with the friends
surname and try to match the phone number. Once the phone number has been found you can read off
the address.

The input data were surname and telephone number; the processing activities were search and locate;
and the output was address. The telephone directory is a manual information system as it is the product
of collecting, collating and analyzing of data, and the presenting and disseminating of information. By
performing a set of actions, you obtained the address of you friend.

Questions
1.

Which of the following are examples of a manual information system?

(i) A page from a well-known story book
(ii) A bus schedule
(iii) A payroll database management system
(iv) A catalogue
(v) Electronic funds transfer system
(vi) An examination timetable
(vii) A dictionary

Information Technology
Information Systems

AUTOMATED INFORMATION PROCESSING SYSTEMS

An automated information processing system is a system that uses information technology tools and
facilities, such as a computer and a printer, to meet the objectives of an individual, an organization or
society. The purpose of any automated information system is to transform raw data into
information. Computerised information systems are much more flexible than manual ones and a lot faster.
With a computerised system you could type in a phone number and, if the number was stored in the
system, the name and address could be provided immediately. The major tasks are the same for both a
manual and computerised information system: data entry or capture (input), processing (process),
presentation and distribution (output).

The major task of an Information system

Components Of An Automated Processing System

An automated information system is made up of four major components: hardware, software, network
(communications connectivity) and user.

Hardware
Hardware is the term used for the parts of the computer that you can touch and handle. The hardware is
the physical equipment of an automated information processing system. Hardware is the collective name

given to all the devices that make up a computer system. The hardware component of the automated
information system has internal and external devices. Devices that are typically outside the CPU are
known as peripheral devices. Some examples of hardware devices are: monitor, CPU, hard disk,
keyboard, floppy disk drive, mouse, modem, speakers and CD-ROM drive.
These devices can be categorised into:

Input devices - devices used to get data into the computer

Central processing unit referred to as the brain of the computer. This is where all processing
activities take place.

Primary storage devices Stores data temporarily that are currently being used by the system, if
the computer switch off information stored in primary memory would be lost.

Secondary storage devices - These consists of the disk drives used to store data permanently,
when the power is switched off the information will not be lost.

Output devices - which include units as printers and VDUs, which are used to provide output in
the form of printouts, screen displays, etc.

Communication hardware devices devices that facilitate the connection between computers,
and between computers and other devices such as printers and scanners.

Measures to describe hardware components

These include:
Clock speed in order to synchronize the various steps carried out during the fetch-execute
(machine) cycle, all processors have an internal clock which generate regular time pulses. All
processor activity must begin on a clock pulse, although some activities may take more than one
clock pulse to complete. The clock pulse can be about a million cycles per second. It is an
important factor in determining the speed at instructions are executed.

Storage capabilities

Data transmission capabilities (Bus Size and word size)

Software
Software is the word used for the actual programs that allow the hardware to do a useful job. Without
software, hardware, hardware is useless. Software is made up of a series of instructions that tell the
computer what to do. There are different types of software; systems software, application software and
communication software.

System software System software is a collection of programs that allow the computer to manage its
resources and run basic operations. It will tell the computer where and how to store and retrieve data
used during processing. Examples of system software are Windows 2000, DOS, UNIX, Novell Netware,
OS/2, Macintosh System and Linux. These software products are also called operating systems. Utilities
and device drivers are also examples of system software.
Application software Application software are designed to allow you to do specific tasks using a
computer such as, to create reports, perform calculations, play a game and maintain an address book.
Word, Excel, Access, PowerPoint, SPSS, Camptons Encyclopedia and Solitaire are examples of
application software.

Communication software A subset of application software, allows you to connect your computer to a
local network or to the internet, or manages the transmission of data between computers. Smart Com,
Crosstalk, Wincom, Com Works, Quick Link, ProComm Plus, Eudora, Ms Exchange and Pegasus Mail
are examples of data communication software. Windows Dial-up Networking connects you computer to a
phone line so that you may access the Internet.

Network
A network is a group of two or more computers linked together in order to facilitate the sharing of data
electronically or other resources such as printers, scanners or storage devices. There are different types
of computer networks;

Local-area networks (LANs): The computers are geographically close together (that is, in the
same building).

Wide-area networks (WANs): The computers span a large geographical area and are connected
by telephone lines or radio waves. The internet is an example of this network.

Campus-area networks (CANs): The computers are within a limited geographic area, such as a
campus or military base.

Metropolitan-area networks MANs): A data network designed for a town or city.

Home-area networks (HANs): A network contained within a user's home that connects a person's
digital devices.

The configuration or design of

a
network
is
called
a topology. There are three
designs star, bus and ring
topology.

Examples

The above diagrams are examples of the layout of each network topology.

Local area networks are made up of several components.

Workstations, or Personal Computers with network interface cards

Cabling or connection system, which may be wired (wire or cable) ore wireless.

Network operating system, the software to manage the activities of the network. Examples of
network operating systems are Novells Netware, SCO, UNIX, and IBM PC LAN. Windows 95 and
Windows NT are examples of peer-to-peer networking software.

Other shared devices, for example printers, scanners and storage devices.

Bridges, routers, and gateways: to connect a LAN to other networks.

Assignment: Define Bridges, Routers and Gateways and state their function in a network.

User
The user is the individual that operates the computer hardware, creates and uses the software, enters the
data and uses the information that the system generates. They also follow instructions or certain
procedures when using the hardware and software, for example, installing a new device or application
software. Without the user, there would be no computer system. The user is the most important
component of any automated information processing system.

Benefits (Reason for the use) of Information System

Enhance speed eg. Information systems can perform calculations or process paperwork much
faster than people.

Increase accuracy eg. When calculation is domne it can give one a more accurate figure than
human.

It is more reliable- can get the same result using the same input all the time.

It is more efficient- books compare to hard drive

It is more flexible

Enhance presentation of information

Assist in a more objective decision making.

It enable storage and retrieval of large volumes of data

Allow for multitasking.

Information systems can help companies learn more about the purchase patterns and
preferences of their customers.

Information systems provide new efficiencies through services such as automated teller machines
(ATMs), telephone systems, or computer-controlled airplanes and air terminals.

Information systems have made possible new medical advances in surgery, radiology and patient
monitoring

Better communication - The internet distributes information instantly to millions of people across
the world.

Negative (Problems) Impact of Information System

By automating activities that were previously performed by people, information systems may
eliminate jobs.

Information systems may allow organizations to collect personal details about people that violate
their privacy.

Information systems are used in so many aspects of everyday life that systems outages can
cause shutdown of businesses or transportation services, paralyzing communities.

Heavy users of information systems may suffer repetitive stress injury, techno stress, and other
health problems.

The internet can be used to distribute illegal copies of software, books, articles, and other
intellectual property.

Can be expensive to set information system.

Sometimes there are issue with training personnel to use system

Information system rapidly changing therefore increase therefore there is problems with
obsolescence.

There might be resistance to changes.