Heat Transfer Module Users Guide

Heat Transfer Module
Users Guide
Heat Transfer Module Users Guide

19982014 COMSOL
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Version:
October 2014
COMSOL 5.0
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Part number: CM020801
C o n t e n t s
Chapter 1: Introduction
About the Heat Transfer Module
14
Why Heat Transfer is Important to Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

How the Heat Transfer Module Improves Your Modeling. . . . . . . . 15
The Heat Transfer Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . . 15
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes. . . . . . . 18
The Heat Transfer Module Study Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
The Liquids and Gases Materials Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Libraries? . . . . . . 25
Overview of the Users Guide
29
C h a p t e r 2 : H e a t Tr a n s f e r M o d e l i n g
About the Heat Transfer Interfaces
32
Heat Flux and Balance
34
Total Energy Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Total Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Conservation Equations in Differential Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Heat Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Energy Balance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Heat Transfer Variables
41
Predefined Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Global Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Domain Heat Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Out-of-Plane Domain Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Boundary Heat Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Internal Boundary Heat Fluxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Domain Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
CONTENTS
|3
Boundary Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Line and Point Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Using the Boundary Conditions for the Heat Transfer
Interfaces
51
Temperature and Heat Flux Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 51

Overriding Mechanism for Heat Transfer Boundary Conditions . . . . . 52
Radiative Heat Transfer in Transparent Media
54
Deriving the Radiative Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Radiation Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization
Methods
57
Consistent Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Inconsistent Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Using Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer
59
Equation Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
61
Frame Physics Feature Nodes and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames
The Heat Transfer Coefficients
. . . . . . . . . . 64
67
Defining the Heat Transfer Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Nature of the Flowthe Grashof Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Heat Transfer Coefficients External Natural Convection . . . . . . . 70
Heat Transfer Coefficients Internal Natural Convection . . . . . . . 72
Heat Transfer Coefficients External Forced Convection . . . . . . . 73
Heat Transfer Coefficients Internal Forced Convection . . . . . . . 74
4 | CONTENTS
References for Heat Transfer Modeling
75
C h a p t e r 3 : T h e H e a t Tr a n s f e r P hy s i c s I n t e r f a c e
The Heat Transfer Interface
78
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat
Transfer Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Heat Transfer in Solids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Translational Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Heat Transfer in Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Isothermal Domain Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Isothermal Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Heat Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Change Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Change Cross-Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Heat Transfer with Phase Change
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Thermal Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Heat Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Periodic Heat Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
101
Boundary Heat Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
101
Diffuse Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
102
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
103
Thin Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
103
Layer Heat Source (Thin Layer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
106
Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
106
Temperature (Thin Layer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
107
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Layer) . . . . . . . . . . . .
108
Thin Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
108
Line Heat Source (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
109
Temperature (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
109
Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
110
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . .
110
CONTENTS
|5
Thermal Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
111
Line Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
113
Point Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
114
Line Heat Source on Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
115
Point Heat Source on Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
115
Thermoelastic Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
116
Pressure Work
116
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viscous Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
116
Inflow Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
117
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
117
Out-of-Plane Radiation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
118
Out-of-Plane Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
118
Thin Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
119
Theory for the Heat Transfer Interfaces
120
What is Heat Transfer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
120
The Heat Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
121
Moist Air Fluid Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
The Heat Transfer with Phase Change Feature. . . . . . . . . . .
129
The Isothermal Domain Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
131
The Thin Layer Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
133
The Thermal Contact Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
138
The Thin Rod Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
References for the Heat Transfer Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . .
142
C h a p t e r 4 : T h e H e a t Tr a n s f e r i n Po r o u s M e d i a
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
144
6 | CONTENTS
Transfer in Porous Media Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
145
Heat Transfer in Porous Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
145
Thermal Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
149
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
150
Theory for the Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
152
Theory for Fracture Feature Node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
153
Reference for the Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface . . . . . .
155
C h a p t e r 5 : T h e B i o h e a t Tr a n s f e r I n t e r f a c e
The Bioheat Transfer Interface
158
Biological Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
159
Bioheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
161
Theory for the Bioheat Transfer Interface
163
References for the Bioheat Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
165
C h a p t e r 6 : T h e H e a t Tr a n s f e r i n T h i n S h e l l s
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface
168
Transfer in Thin Shells Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
171
Change Effective Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
172
Change Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
172
Heat Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
172
Heat Flux (Edge or Point Condition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
174
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
175
Heat Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
175
Heat Source (Point or Edge Condition) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
176
Heat Source (3D Point Condition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
177
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
177
Insulation/Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
178
Diffuse Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
178
Thin Conductive Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
179
Thin Layered Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
179
CONTENTS
|7
Theory for the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface
181
About Heat Transfer in Thin Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
181
Heat Transfer Equation in Thin Conductive Shell . . . . . . . . . .
181
Heat Transfer Equation in Thin Layered Shells . . . . . . . . . . .
182
Thermal Conductivity Tensor Components . . . . . . . . . . . .
183
Chapter 7: Radiation Physics Interfaces

The Radiation Branch Versions of the Heat Transfer Interface
186
The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
. . . .
186
The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface . . .
187
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Radiation
Branch Versions of the Heat Transfer Interface . . . . . . . . .
189
Radiation in Participating Media (Heat Transfer Interface) . . . . . .
189
The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface
192
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the
8 | CONTENTS
Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface . . . . . . . . . . . .
195
Opaque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
195
Diffuse Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
196
Diffuse Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
201
Prescribed Radiosity
202
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radiation Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
205
External Radiation Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
206
Theory for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
210
Wavelength Dependence of Surface Emissivity and Absorptivity . . . .
210
The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Gray Surfaces . . . . . . . . . .
216
The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Spectral Surfaces . . . . . . . . .
218
View Factor Evaluation
220
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
About Surface-to-Surface Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
222
Guidelines for Solving Surface-to-Surface Radiation Problems . . . . .
224
Radiation Group Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
225
References for the Radiation Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . .
226
The Radiation in Participating Media Interface
227
in Participating Media Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
229
Radiation in Participating Media (rpm Interface) . . . . . . . . . .
229
Opaque Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
231
Incident Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
232
Continuity on Interior Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
233
Theory for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface
234
Radiation and Participating Media Interactions . . . . . . . . . . .
234
Radiative Transfer Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
235
Boundary Condition for the Transfer Equation. . . . . . . . . . .
236
Heat Transfer Equation in Participating Media . . . . . . . . . . .
237
Discrete Ordinates Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
237
Discrete Ordinates Method Implementation in 2D . . . . . . . . .
238
Rosseland Approximation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
240
P1 Approximation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
241
Chapter 8: The Thermoelectric Effect Multiphysics

Interface
The Thermoelectric Effect Interface
246
Thermoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
249
Boundary Thermoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
251
Theory for Thermoelectric Effects
253
Reference for the Thermoelectric Effect Interface . . . . . . . . .
254
C h a p t e r 9 : T h e C o n j u g a t e H e a t Tr a n s f e r M u l t i p hy s i c s
Interfaces
The Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer,
CONTENTS
|9
Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces

Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . .
256
256
The Non-Isothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
257
The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
257
Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features . . . . . . . .
258
Coupling Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
258
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
259
Non-Isothermal Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
259
Flow Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
262
Theory for the Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat

Transfer Interfaces
264
The Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Equations . . .
264
Turbulent Non-Isothermal Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . .
266
Theory for the Non-Isothermal Screen Boundary Condition . . . . .
271
Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . .
271
References for the Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat

Transfer Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
272
Chapter 10: Fluid Flow Physics Interfaces

The Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
274
The Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
274
The Turbulent Flow, k- Interface
10 | C O N T E N T S
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
276
The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k- Interface . . . . . . . . . . . .
278
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow . . . .
280
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
281
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
284
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
284
Wall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
285
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
287
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
289
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
291
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
292
Boundary Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
293
Screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
295
Vacuum Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
295
Periodic Flow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
297
Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
298
Interior Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
300
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
301
Grille . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
303
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
303
Pressure Point Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
304
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
304
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
305
Boundary Condition Settings for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces . . . .
306
Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces
310
General Single-Phase Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
311
Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
313
The Mach Number Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
313
Incompressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
314
The Reynolds Number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
315
Non-Newtonian Flow: The Power Law and the Carreau Model . . . .
315
The Boussinesq Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
317
Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . .
318
Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
319
Laminar Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
321
Laminar Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
322
No Viscous Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
322
Normal Stress Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
323
Pressure Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
323
Vacuum Pump Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
325
Fan Defined on an Interior Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
326
Fan and Grille Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
328
Screen Boundary Condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
331
Mass Sources for Fluid Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
333
Numerical StabilityStabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow . . . . .
335
Solvers for Laminar Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
337
Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models . . . . . . . . . .
339
Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
341
CONTENTS
| 11
Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
341
References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces. . . . .
342
Theory for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces
344
Turbulence Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
344
The k- Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
348
The Low Reynolds Number k- Turbulence Model . . . . . . . . .
354
Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity . .
356
Theory for the Pressure, No Viscous Stress Boundary Condition . . .
357
Solvers for Turbulent Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
358
Pseudo Time Stepping for Turbulent Flow Models . . . . . . . . .
358
References for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow Interfaces . . . .
359
Chapter 11: Glossary
12 | C O N T E N T S
Glossary of Terms
362
Index
365
Introduction
This guide describes the Heat Transfer Module, an optional package that extends
the COMSOL Multiphysics modeling environment with customized physics
interfaces for the analysis of heat transfer.
This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.
13

In this section:
Why Heat Transfer is Important to Modeling
How the Heat Transfer Module Improves Your Modeling
The Heat Transfer Module Physics Interface Guide
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
The Heat Transfer Module Study Capabilities
The Liquids and Gases Materials Database
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Libraries?
The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Model in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual
Why Heat Transfer is Important to Modeling

The Heat Transfer Module is an optional package that extends the COMSOL
Multiphysics modeling environment with customized physics interfaces and
functionality optimized for the analysis of heat transfer. It is developed for a wide
audience including researchers, developers, teachers, and students. To assist users at all
levels of expertise, this module comes with a library of ready-to-run example models
that appear in the companion Heat Transfer Module model library.
Heat transfer is involved in almost every kind of physical process, and can in fact be the
limiting factor for many processes. Therefore, its study is of vital importance, and the
need for powerful heat transfer analysis tools is virtually universal. Furthermore, heat
transfer often appears together with, or as a result of, other physical phenomena.
The modeling of heat transfer effects has become increasingly important in product
design including areas such as electronics, automotive, and medical industries.
Computer simulation has allowed engineers and researchers to optimize process
efficiency and explore new designs, while at the same time reducing costly
experimental trials.
14 |
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
How the Heat Transfer Module Improves Your Modeling

The Heat Transfer Module has been developed to greatly expand upon the base
capabilities available in COMSOL Multiphysics. The module supports all fundamental
mechanisms including conductive, convective, and radiative heat transfer. Using the
physics interfaces in this module along with the inherent multiphysics capabilities of
COMSOL Multiphysics, you can model a temperature field in parallel with other
featuresa versatile combination increasing the accuracy and predicting power of your
models.
This book introduces the basic modeling process. The different physics interfaces are
described and the modeling strategy for various cases is discussed. These sections cover
different combinations of conductive, convective, and radiative heat transfer. This
guide also reviews special modeling techniques for thin layers, thin shells, participating
media, and out-of-plane heat transfer. Throughout the guide the topics and examples
increase in complexity by combining several heat transfer mechanisms and also by
coupling these to physics interfaces describing fluid flowconjugate heat transfer.
Another source of information is the Heat Transfer Module model library, a set of
fully-documented models that is divided into broadly defined application areas where
heat transfer plays an important roleelectronics and power systems, processing and
manufacturing, and medical technologyand includes tutorial and verification
models.
Most of the models involve multiple heat transfer mechanisms and are often coupled
to other physical phenomena, for example, fluid dynamics or electromagnetics. The
authors developed several state-of-the art examples by reproducing models that have
appeared in international scientific journals. See Where Do I Access the
Documentation and Model Libraries?.
The Heat Transfer Module Physics Interface Guide

The table below lists all the physics interfaces specifically available with this module.
Having this module also enhances these COMSOL Multiphysics basic interfaces: Heat
Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids, Joule Heating, and the Single-Phase Flow,
Laminar interface.
A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
15
If you have a Subsurface Flow Module combined with the Heat Transfer Module, this
also enhances the Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface.
The Non-Isothermal Flow, Laminar Flow (nitf) and Non-Isothermal
Flow, Turbulent Flow (nitf) interfaces found under the Fluid
Flow>Non-Isothermal Flow branch are identical to the Conjugate Heat
Transfer interfaces (Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow) found under the
Heat Transfer>Conjugate Heat Transfer branch. The difference is that Fluid
is the default domain node for the Non-Isothermal Flow interfaces.
In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

Studies and Solvers
The Physics Interfaces
For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.
PHYSICS INTERFACE
ICON
TAG
SPACE
DIMENSION
AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY

TYPE
spf
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary; time
dependent
Turbulent Flow, k-
spf
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary; time
dependent
Turbulent Flow, Low Re

k-
spf
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary with
initialization; transient
with initialization
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary; time
dependent
Fluid Flow
Single-Phase Flow
Laminar Flow1
Turbulent Flow
Non-Isothermal Flow
Laminar Flow2
16 |
PHYSICS INTERFACE
ICON
TAG
SPACE
DIMENSION

TYPE
Turbulent Flow, k-2
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary; time
dependent

k-2
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary with
with initialization
Heat Transfer in Solids1
ht
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
Heat Transfer in Fluids1
ht
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
Heat Transfer in Porous

Media
ht
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
Bioheat Transfer
ht
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
htsh
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary; time
dependent
Thermoelectric Effect2
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary; time
dependent
Turbulent Flow, k-2
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary; time
dependent

k-2
3D, 2D, 2D
axisymmetric
stationary with
with initialization
Turbulent Flow
Heat Transfer
Conjugate Heat Transfer

Laminar Flow2
Turbulent Flow
17
PHYSICS INTERFACE
ICON
TAG
SPACE
DIMENSION

TYPE
Heat Transfer with

Surface-to-Surface
Radiation
ht
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
Heat Transfer with

Radiation in
Participating Media
ht
3D, 2D
stationary; time
dependent
Surface-to-Surface
Radiation
rad
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
Radiation in
Participating Media
rpm
3D, 2D
stationary; time
dependent
all dimensions
stationary; time
dependent
Radiation
Electromagnetic Heating
Joule Heating1,2
1
This physics interface is included with the core COMSOL package but has added
functionality for this module.
This physics interface is a predefined multiphysics coupling that automatically adds all the
physics interfaces and coupling features required.

There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes (Table 1-1). Some of these sections also have similar settings or are
implemented in the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used.
There are also some physics feature nodes (Table 1-2) that display in COMSOL
Multiphysics.
18 |
In each modules documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.
Table 1-1 has links to common sections and Table 1-2 to common
feature nodes, all described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual. The links only work if you are using the COMSOL
Multiphysics help system. You can also search for information: press
F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation
window.
Show More Physics Options

To display additional sections and options for the physics interfaces (and other parts of
) on the Model Builder and then select the
the model tree), click the Show button (
applicable option.
After clicking the Show button, sections display on the Settings window when a node
is clicked, or additional nodes are made available from the Physics toolbar or context
menu.
Selecting Advanced Physics Options either adds an Advanced settings section or
enables nodes in the context menu or Physics toolbar. In many cases these options
are described in the individual documentation.
Selecting Advanced Study Options or Advanced Results Options enables options related
to the Study or Results nodes, respectively.
For more information about the Show options, see Advanced Physics, Study, and
Results Sections and The Model Builder in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.
Common Physics Settings Sections

TABLE 1-1: COMMON PHYSICS SETTINGS SECTIONS
SECTION
CROSS REFERENCE AND NOTES
Advanced SettingsPseudo time

stepping
Pseudo Time Stepping and Pseudo Time Stepping

for Laminar Flow Models
Advanced SettingsFrames
See Frames.
Advanced
This section can display after selecting Advanced

Physics Options. The Advanced section is often unique
to a physics interface or feature node.
19

SECTION
Anisotropic materials
For some User defined parameters, the option to

choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic
displays. See Modeling Anisotropic Materials for
information.
Consistent Stabilization
See Stabilization.
Constraint Settings
Constraint Reaction Terms, Weak Constraints, and

Symmetric and Nonsymmetric Constraints
Coordinate System Selection
Coordinate Systems
Selection of the coordinate system is standard in most
cases. Extra information is included in the
documentation as applicable. For the Solid Mechanics
interface, also see the theory section about
Coordinate Systems.
Dependent Variables
Predefined and Built-In Variables

This is unique for each physics interface, although some
interfaces also have the same dependent variables.
Discretization
Settings for the Discretization Sections
DiscretizationFrames
See Frames.
Equation
Physics NodesEquation Section

The equation that displays is unique for each interface
and feature node, but how to access it is centrally
documented.
Frames (Advanced Settings

Frames and Discretization
Frames)
Handling Frames in Heat Transfer and About Frames
Geometric entity selections
Working with Geometric Entities

Selection of geometric entities (Domains, Boundaries,
Edges, and Points) is standard in most cases. Extra
information is included in the documentation as
applicable.
Inconsistent Stabilization
See Stabilization.
Settings
Predefined and Built-In Variables

Displaying Node Names, Tags, and Types in the
Model Builder
There is a unique Name for each physics interface.
20 |

SECTION
Material Type
About Using Materials in COMSOL

The Settings Window for Material
Selection of material type is standard in most cases.
Extra information is included in the documentation as
applicable.
Model Inputs
About Model Inputs and Model Inputs and

Multiphysics Couplings
Selection of Model Inputs is standard in most cases.
Extra information is included in the documentation as
applicable.
To define the absolute pressure for heat transfer, see
the settings for the Heat Transfer in Fluids node.
To define the absolute pressure for a fluid flow physics
interface, see the settings for the Fluid Properties
node (described for the Laminar Flow interface).
If you have a license for a non-isothermal flow physics
interface, see that documentation for further
information.
Override and Contribution
Physics Exclusive and Contributing Node Types

Physics Node Status
Pair Selection
Identity and Contact Pairs

Continuity on Interior Boundaries
Selection of pairs is standard in most cases. Extra
information is included in the documentation as
applicable. Contact pair modeling requires the
Structural Mechanics Module or MEMS Module. Details
about this pair type can be found in the respective user
guide.
StabilizationConsistent and
Inconsistent
Numerical Stabilization, Numerical Stability

Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow and Heat
Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization
Methods
21
Common Feature Nodes

TABLE 1-2: COMMON FEATURE NODES
FEATURE NODE
Auxiliary Dependent Variable
Auxiliary Dependent Variable
Axial Symmetry
See Symmetry.
Continuity
Continuity on Interior Boundaries and Identity and

Contact Pairs.
This is standard in many cases. When it is not, the node
is documented for the physics interface.
Discretization
Discretization (Node)
Equation View
Equation View
The Equation View node is unique for each physics and
mathematics interface and feature node, but it is
centrally documented.
Excluded Edges, Excluded Points,

and Excluded Surfaces
Excluded Points, Excluded Edges, Excluded

Surfaces
Global Constraint
Global Constraint. Also see the Constraint Settings

section.
Global Equations
Global Equations
Harmonic Perturbation
Harmonic Perturbation, Prestressed Analysis, and

Small-Signal Analysis
Initial Values
Physics Interface Default Nodes, Specifying Initial

Values, and Dependent Variables
This is unique for each physics interface.
Periodic Condition and

Destination Selection
Periodic Condition and Destination Selection

Periodic Boundary Conditions
Periodic Condition is standard in many cases. When it
is not, the node is documented for the physics
interface.
Pointwise Constraint
Pointwise Constraint. Also see the Constraint Settings

section.
Symmetry
Using Symmetries and Physics Interface Axial

Symmetry Node. There is also information for the
Solid Mechanics interface Axial Symmetry.
This is standard in many cases. When it is not, the node
is documented for the physics interface.
Weak Constraint
22 |
Weak Constraint. Also see the Constraint Settings

section.
TABLE 1-2: COMMON FEATURE NODES

FEATURE NODE
Weak Contribution
Weak Contribution (ODEs and DAEs) and Weak

Contribution (PDEs and Physics)
Weak Contribution on Mesh

Boundaries
Weak Contribution on Mesh Boundaries
The Heat Transfer Module Study Capabilities

Table 1-3 lists the Preset Studies available for the physics interfaces most relevant to
this module.
Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
TABLE 1-3: HEAT TRANSFER MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY
TRANSIENT WITH INITIALIZATION
PRESET 1
STUDIES
STATIONARY WITH INITIALIZATION
DEPENDENT
VARIABLES
TIME DEPENDENT
NAME
STATIONARY
PHYSICS INTERFACE
FLUID FLOW>SINGLE-PHASE FLOW
Laminar Flow
spf
u, p
Turbulent Flow, k-
spf
u, p, k, ep
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-
spf
u, p, k, ep, G
Laminar Flow(2,3)
u, p, T
Turbulent Flow, k-(2,3)
u, p, k, ep, T
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-(2,3)
u, p, k, ep, G, T
ht
FLUID FLOW>NON-ISOTHERMAL FLOW
HEAT TRANSFER
Heat Transfer in Solids(2)
23
PRESET 1
STUDIES
Heat Transfer in Fluids(2)
ht
Heat Transfer in Porous Media(2)
ht
Bioheat Transfer(2)
ht
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells(2)

Thermoelectric Effect(3)
htsh
u, p, T
u, p, k, ep, T
u, p, k, ep, G, T
Heat Transfer with

Surface-to-Surface Radiation(2)
ht
T, J
Heat Transfer with Radiation in

Participating Media(2)
ht
T, I (radiative
intensity)
Surface-to-Surface Radiation
rad
Radiation in Participating Media
rpm
I (radiative intensity)
T, V
TRANSIENT WITH INITIALIZATION
DEPENDENT
VARIABLES
TIME DEPENDENT
NAME
STATIONARY
PHYSICS INTERFACE
STATIONARY WITH INITIALIZATION
TABLE 1-3: HEAT TRANSFER MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY
HEAT TRANSFER>CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER
Laminar Flow(2,3)
Turbulent Flow, k-
(2,3)
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-
(2,3)
HEAT TRANSFER>RADIATION
HEAT TRANSFER>ELECTROMAGNETIC HEATING
Joule Heating(2,3)
1 Custom studies are also available based on the physics interface.

2
For these physics interfaces, it is possible to enable surface to surface radiation and/or
radiation in participating media. In these cases, J and I are dependent variables.
3 Multiphysics interfaces
24 |
The Liquids and Gases Materials Database

The Heat Transfer Module includes an additional Liquids and Gases material database
with temperature-dependent fluid dynamic and thermal properties.
For detailed information about materials and the Liquids and Gases
Material Database, see Materials in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Libraries?

A number of Internet resources provide more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the Model Libraries are all accessed through the COMSOL
Desktop.
If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,
the blue links do not work to open a model or content referenced in
a different guide. However, if you are using the Help system in
COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to other modules (as long
as you have a license), model examples, and documentation sets.
THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP
The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes all core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions about how to use COMSOL and how to access the electronic
Documentation and Help content.
Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to many of the features on the GUI. To
learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click to
highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then
25
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button (
). This is called topic-based (or context) help.
To open the Help window:
In the Model Builder, click a node or window and then press F1.
On any toolbar (for example, Model, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Browse Materials or Build All) and then
press F1.
From the File menu, click Help (
).
In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the (

button.
To open the Help window:

In the Model Builder, click a node or window and then press F1.
On the main toolbar, click the Help (
) button.
From the main menu, select Help>Help.
Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:
Press Ctrl+F1.
From the File menu select Help>Documentation (
).
To open the Documentation window:

Press Ctrl+F1.
On the main toolbar, click the Documentation (
) button.
From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

THE MODEL LIBRARIES WINDOW
Each model includes documentation that has the theoretical background and
step-by-step instructions to create the model. The models are available in COMSOL
as MPH-files that you can open for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step
26 |
instructions and the actual models as a template for your own modeling and
applications. In most models, SI units are used to describe the relevant properties,
parameters, and dimensions in most examples, but other unit systems are available.
Once the Model Libraries window is opened, you can search by model name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to highlight any model of interest and a summary
of the model and its properties is displayed, including options to open the model or a
PDF document.
The Model Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.
Opening the Model Libraries Window

To open the Model Libraries window (
):
From the Model toolbar, click (
) Model Libraries.
From the File menu select Model Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help
menu, select (
) Update COMSOL Model Library.
On the main toolbar, click the Model Libraries
button.
From the main menu, select Windows>Model Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu
select (
) Update COMSOL Model Library.
CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL
For general product information, contact COMSOL at info@comsol.com.

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
support@comsol.com. An automatic notification and case number is sent to you by
email.
27
COMSOL WEBSITES
28 |
COMSOL website
www.comsol.com
Contact COMSOL
www.comsol.com/contact
Support Center
www.comsol.com/support
Product Download
www.comsol.com/product-download
Product Updates
www.comsol.com/support/updates
Discussion Forum
www.comsol.com/community
Events
www.comsol.com/events
COMSOL Video Gallery
www.comsol.com/video
Support Knowledge Base
www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase

The Heat Transfer Module Users Guide gets you started with modeling heat transfer
using COMSOL Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module.
Instructions on how to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.
As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and
Model Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.
TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S , G L O S S A R Y, A N D I N D E X
To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents, Glossary, and Index.
M O D E L I N G H E A T TR A N S F E R
The Heat Transfer Modeling chapter includes topics such as About the Heat Transfer
Interfaces, Heat Flux and Balance, Using the Boundary Conditions for the Heat
Transfer Interfaces, Radiative Heat Transfer in Transparent Media, and The Heat
Transfer Coefficients.
T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
The Heat Transfer Physics Interface chapter describes the main Heat Transfer interface
that forms the backbone for all the fundamental interfaces in this module. It includes
the underlying theory.
H E A T TR A N S F E R I N PO RO U S M E D I A
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface chapter discusses modeling heat transfer
in porous media.
B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R
The Bioheat Transfer Interface chapter discusses modeling heat transfer within
biological tissue using the Bioheat Transfer interface.
H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface chapter describes the physics interface,
which is suitable for solving thermal-conduction problems in thin structures.
O V E R V I E W O F T H E U S E R S G U I D E
29
R A D I A T I VE H E A T TR A N S F E R
The Radiation Physics Interfaces chapter describes the Surface-to-Surface Radiation,

the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation, the Heat Transfer with Radiation
in Participating Media, and the Radiation in Participating Media interfaces.
THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT
The Thermoelectric Effect Interface chapter describes the predefined multiphysics

interface used to model the Peltier-Seebeck-Thomson effect.
T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
The Conjugate Heat Transfer Multiphysics Interfaces chapter describes the

multiphysics versions of both the Non-Isothermal Flow Laminar Flow and Turbulent
Flow interfaces found under the Fluid Flow branch, which are identical to the
Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces. Each section describes the applicable physics
interfaces in detail and concludes with the underlying theory.
THE FLUID FLOW INTERFACES
The Fluid Flow Physics Interfaces chapter describes the single-phase laminar and
turbulent flow interfaces. Each section describes the applicable physics interfaces and
concludes with the underlying theory.
30 |
Heat Transfer Modeling
A variety of modeling techniques are discussed in these sections.

Heat Transfer Variables
Using the Boundary Conditions for the Heat Transfer Interfaces
Radiative Heat Transfer in Transparent Media
Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization Methods
References for Heat Transfer Modeling
Also see The Heat Transfer Interface and Theory for the Heat Transfer Interfaces
31

The Heat Transfer physics interfaces are used to compute temperature and radiative
intensity fields. The multiphysics interfaces also compute other physical fields like
velocity, pressure or electromagnetic fields.
The various kinds of Heat Transfer physics interfaces and the thermal multiphysics
couplings may be used for modeling heat transfer by conduction, convection, or
radiation, as well as conjugate heat transfer or electromagnetic heating.
The physics interfaces are available in 1D, 2D, and 3D and for axisymmetric
components with cylindrical coordinates in 1D and 2D. The default dependent
variable is the temperature, T.
After selecting a version of the physics interface, default nodes are added under the
main node. For example:
) is selected, a Heat Transfer in Solids (ht) interface is
If Heat Transfer in Solids (
added with a default Heat Transfer in Solids model.
If Heat Transfer in Fluids (
) is selected, a Heat Transfer in Fluids (ht) interface is
added with a default Heat Transfer in Fluids model is added.
The benefit of the different versions of the standard physics interface, all with ht as the
Name (see Table 2-1), is that it is easy to add the default settings when selecting the
physics interface from the Model Wizard. At any time, right-click the parent node to
add a Heat Transfer in Fluids or Heat Transfer in Solids nodethe functionality is always
available.
The physics interface options are also available from a Heat Transfer
interface by selecting a specific check box under the Physical Model section
(for surface-to-surface radiation, biological tissue, radiation in
participating media, or porous media). See Table 2-1 and Table 2-2.
TABLE 2-1: THE HEAT TRANSFER (HT) PHYSICS INTERFACE OPTIONS
ICON
32 |
NAME
DEFAULT PHYSICAL MODEL
Heat Transfer in Solids
not applicable
Heat Transfer in Fluids
not applicable
C H A P T E R 2 : H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D E L I N G
TABLE 2-1: THE HEAT TRANSFER (HT) PHYSICS INTERFACE OPTIONS

ICON
NAME
Heat Transfer with

Surface-to-Surface
Radiation (under the
Radiation branch)
The Surface-to-surface radiation check box is

selected (which enables the Radiation Settings
section).
Heat Transfer with

Radiation in Participating
Media (under the
Radiation branch)
The Radiation in participating media check box is

selected (which enables the Participating Media
Settings section).
Bioheat Transfer
The Heat transfer in biological tissue check box is

selected (which enables Damage Integral Analysis
Discretization).
Heat Transfer in Porous

Media
The Heat transfer in porous media check box is

selected.
TABLE 2-2: ADDITIONAL HEAT TRANSFER PHYSICS OPTIONS

ICON
NAME
ID
Laminar Flow (under the
See Table 9-1.
Turbulent Flow k- and

k- (under the Conjugate
Heat Transfer branch)
See Table 9-1.
Heat Transfer in Thin

Shells
htsh
No Physical Model section, but the

Surface-to-Surface Radiation check box is
available to activate the Radiation Settings
section.
Thermoelectric Effect
No check boxes are selected under

Physical Model.
Surface-to-Surface
Radiation (under the
Radiation branch)
rad

Radiation Settings section is automatically
available by default.
Radiation in Participating
Media (under the
Radiation branch)
rpm

Participating Media Settings section is
automatically available by default.
Joule Heating (under the
No check boxes are selected under

Physical Model.
Conjugate Heat Transfer
branch)
Electromagnetic Heating
branch)
A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
33

The concept of heat flux is not as simple as it might first appear. The reason is that heat
is not a conserved quantity. The conserved quantity is instead the total energy. Hence,
there is both a heat flux and an energy flux that are similar but not identical.
This section briefly describes the theory for the variables for Total Energy Flux and
Total Heat Flux, used when computing heat balance. The definitions of these
postprocessing variables do not affect the computational results, only variables
available for results analysis and visualization.
In this section:
Total Energy Flux
Total Heat Flux
Conservation Equations in Differential Forms
Heat Balance
Energy Balance
Total Energy Flux

The total energy flux for a fluid is equal to (Ref. 1, chapter 3.5)
u ( H 0 + ) k T u + q r
(2-1)
Above, H0 is the total enthalpy

1
H 0 = H + --- ( u u )
2
where in turn H is the enthalpy. In Equation 2-1 is the viscous stress tensor and qr is
the radiative heat flux. in Equation 2-1 is the force potential. It has a simple form in
some special cases, for example, for gravitational effects (Chapter 1.4 in Ref. 1), but it
is in general rather difficult to derive. Potential energy is therefore often excluded and
the total energy flux is approximated by
1
u H + --- ( u u ) k T u + q r
2
For a simple compressible fluid, the enthalpy, H, has the form (Ref. 2)
34 |
(2-2)
H = H ref +
-
Cp dT + --- 1 + ---- -----T
T ref
p ref
dp
p
(2-3)
where p is the absolute pressure. The reference enthalpy, Href, is the enthalpy at
reference temperature, Tref, and reference pressure, pref. Tref is 298.15 K and pref is
one atmosphere. In theory, any value can be assigned to Href (Ref. 4), and COMSOL
Multiphysics sets it to 0 J/kg by default.
The two integrals in Equation 2-3 are sometimes referred to as the sensible enthalpy
(Ref. 4). These are evaluated by numerical integration. The second integral is only
included for gas/liquid since it is commonly much smaller than the first integral for
solids and it is identically zero for ideal gases.
For the evaluation of H to work, it is important that the dependencies of
Cp, , and on the temperature are prescribed either via Model Inputs or
as functions of the temperature variable. If Cp, , or depends on the
pressure, that dependency must be prescribed either via a model input or
by using the variable pA, which is the variable for the absolute pressure in
COMSOL Multiphysics.
Total Heat Flux

The total heat flux vector is defined as (Ref. 3):
uE k T + q r
(2-4)
where E is the internal energy. It is related to the enthalpy via

p
H = E + --
(2-5)
Compared to the total energy flux, the total heat flux does not have viscous- and
pressure-related terms.
Conservation Equations in Differential Forms

According to the First Law of Thermodynamics, internal energy is the conserved
quantity at the microscopic scale:
HEAT FLUX AND BALANCE
35
dE = Q W nc
(2-6)
Here, Q and Wnc are the path-dependent heat and work contributions to the
variation of internal energy dE. Some mass and momentum conservation equations
are often solved together with the heat equation. They may take the form of the
Navier-Stokes equations in Fluid Dynamics, Newtons Laws of Motion in Solid
Mechanics or Maxwell's equations in Electromagnetism for instance, and can be
expressed by the following differential form of energy equation:
dE k + dE p = W nc
(2-7)
where dEk and dEp are the kinetic and potential energy variations, respectively. The
variation of mechanical work from nonconservative forces, Wnc, is transmitted to the
internal energy by the corresponding work, Wnc, as the last term of Equation 2-6.
The sources Wnc include, amongst others, viscous dissipation and pressure work in
Fluid Dynamics, Joule heating in Electromagnetism, friction and plastic deformation
in Solid Mechanics. By combining Equation 2-6 and Equation 2-7, the complete First
Law reads:
d ( E + E k ) = Q + W
(2-8)
where W, equal to dEp, is the mechanical work from conservative forces.
Heat Balance
This paragraph assumes a heat transfer model that only solves for the temperature T.
The velocity field u and pressure field p are user-defined or computed from another
physics interface. In this case, the heat balance in a domain follows the identity below
(chapter 11.2 in Ref. 5), derived from Equation 2-6. It expresses the idea that internal
energy variations in time and net heat flux are balanced by external heat and work
sources.
d
dt
E d +
( uE kT + q r ) n d = Q Int W ns, Int
(2-9)
ext
The different variables in this formula are defined in Total Heat Flux and Total Energy
Flux. For this equality to be true, the provided velocity field u and pressure field p
must satisfy a mass and a momentum conservation equation such as the Navier-Stokes
Equations or governing equations of continuum mechanics. The nonconservative
work from the Navier-Stokes equations, Wns,Int (definition in Table 2-3), contains
both pressure work and viscous dissipation. The heat sources QInt include domain
36 |
sources, interior boundary, edge and point sources, and radiative source at interior
boundaries.
In 2D and 3D components, if isolated point or edge source is not
adjacent to a boundary, these are not included in QInt. In this case, these
need to be computed separately.
Equation 2-9 is more visually represented by the diagram of Figure 2-1 below.
Mechanical Losses
Heat Source Q
( E )
Accumulated Heat
Net Heat Transfer
uE kT + q r
Figure 2-1: A heat balance diagram.
Four kinds of compensating heat rate contributions are thus distinguished and
available as COMSOL Multiphysics predefined variables:
total accumulated heat rate (SI unit: W), dEiInt,
total net heat rate (SI unit: W), ntfluxInt, integral on exterior boundaries of the
total heat flux,
total heat source (SI unit: W), QInt,
total fluid losses (SI unit: W), WnsInt.
Table 2-3 summarizes the mathematical definitions of these variables.
TABLE 2-3: GLOBAL POST-PROCESSING VARIABLE FOR TOTAL HEAT BALANCE
VARIABLE NAME
MATHEMATICAL DEFINITION
dEiInt
d
dt
ntfluxInt
E d
( uE kT + q r ) n d
ext
37
TABLE 2-3: GLOBAL POST-PROCESSING VARIABLE FOR TOTAL HEAT BALANCE

VARIABLE NAME
QInt
Q d +
WnsInt
Q b d +
int
Q r d
int
( pA u ) d + ( : u ) d
Here, ext and int denote the exterior and interior boundaries, respectively.
Depending on the radiation discretization method chosen in Heat
Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media, the contribution to the heat
balance is handled differently. In the definition of ntfluxInt, the

Rosseland approximation defines qr, the radiative flux, as an extra
contribution to the conductive heat flux. The P1 approximation and
Discrete ordinates method, however, include the radiative source qr to
Q on the domain, in the variable QInt.
According to Equation 2-9, the following equality between COMSOL Multiphysics
variables holds:
dEiInt + ntfluxInt = QInt - WnsInt
This is the most general form that can be used for time-dependent models. At
steady-state, the formula is simplified. The accumulated heat rate equals zero so the
total net heat rate, sum of incoming and outgoing heat rates, should correspond to the
heat and work sources:
ntfluxInt = QInt - WnsInt
The sign convention used in COMSOL Multiphysics for QInt is the following: positive
when energy is produced (as for a heater) and negative when energy is consumed (as
for a cooler). For WnsInt, the losses that heat up the system are positive and the gains
that cool down the system are negative.
For stationary models with convection by an incompressible flow, the heat balance
becomes:
ntfluxInt = QInt
which corresponds to the conservation of convective and conductive flux as in:
38 |
uE n d
ext
kT n d = Q Int
ext
Energy Balance
When the temperature T is solved together with additional mass and momentum
equations from Fluid Dynamics for u and p, the total energy flux also becomes a
conserved quantity and the following equation holds (chapter 11.1 in Ref. 5):
d
dt
E0 d +
( uH 0 kT u + q r ) n d = Q Int + W Int
(2-10)
ext
The different variables in this formula are defined in Total Heat Flux and Total Energy
Flux. The work sources WInt are the contributions from custom volume forces.
Equation 2-10 is more visually represented by the diagram of Figure 2-2 below.
Heat Source Q
Work Source W
Accumulated Energy ( E 0 )
Net Energy Transfer
uH 0 kT u + q r
Figure 2-2: An energy balance diagram.
Three new variables are then useful to describe the energy rates involved in the system
energy balance:
total accumulated energy rate (SI unit: W), dEi0Int,
total net energy rate (SI unit: W), ntefluxInt, that in this case includes
nonconservative work previously in WnsInt,
total work source (SI unit: W), WInt.
The definitions are given in Table 2-4.
TABLE 2-4: GLOBAL POST-PROCESSING VARIABLE FOR TOTAL ENERGY BALANCE
VARIABLE NAME
dEi0Int
d
dt
ntefluxInt
E0 d
( uH 0 kT u + q r ) n d
ext
39
TABLE 2-4: GLOBAL POST-PROCESSING VARIABLE FOR TOTAL ENERGY BALANCE

VARIABLE NAME
QInt
Q d +
WInt
Q b d +
int
Q r d
int
W d
According to Equation 2-10, the following equality between COMSOL Multiphysics

predefined variables holds:
dEi0Int + ntefluxInt = QInt + WInt
In stationary models, dEi0Int is zero so the energy balance simplifies into:

ntefluxInt = QInt + WInt
At steady-state, and without any additional heat source or volume force (QInt and
WInt equal to zero), the integral of the net energy flux on all boundaries of the flow
domain, ntefluxInt, vanishes. The corresponding integral of the net heat flux, on the
other hand, does not, in general, vanish. It corresponds instead to the losses from mass
and momentum equations, such as WnsInt for pressure work and viscous dissipation
in fluids. Hence, energy is the conserved quantity, not heat.
40 |
He a t T r a ns f e r Vari ab l es
In this section:
Predefined Variables
Global Variables
Domain Heat Fluxes
Out-of-Plane Domain Fluxes
Boundary Heat Fluxes
Internal Boundary Heat Fluxes
Domain Heat Sources
Boundary Heat Sources
Line and Point Heat Sources
Predefined Variables
This section lists some predefined variables that are available for evaluating heat fluxes,
sources and integral quantities used in energy balance. All the variable names start with
the physics interface prefix. By default the Heat Transfer interface prefix is ht. As an
example, the variable named tflux can be analyzed using ht.tflux (as long as the
physics interface prefix is ht).
TABLE 2-5: HEAT FLUX VARIABLES
VARIABLE
NAME
GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL
dEiInt
Total Accumulated Heat Rate
Global
ntfluxInt
Total Net Heat Rate
Global
QInt
Total Heat Source
Global
WnsInt
Total Fluid Losses
Global
dEi0Int
Total Accumulated Energy Rate
Global
ntefluxInt
Total Net Energy Rate
Global
WInt
Total Work Source
Global
tflux
Total Heat Flux
Domains, boundaries
dflux
Conductive Heat Flux
Domains, boundaries
turbflux
Turbulent Heat Flux
Domains, boundaries
trlflux
Translational Heat Flux
Domains, boundaries
H E A T TR A N S F E R V A R I A B L E S
41

VARIABLE
NAME
teflux
Total Energy Flux
Domains, boundaries
not
applicable
Radiative Heat Flux
Domains
rflux_u
Radiative Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
Out-of-plane domains (1D

and 2D), boundaries
Out-of-Plane Inward Heat Flux
Out-of-plane domains (1D

and 2D)
ntflux
Normal Total Heat Flux
Boundaries
ndflux
Normal Conductive Heat Flux
Boundaries
ncflux
Normal Convective Heat Flux
Boundaries
ntrlflux
Normal Translational Heat Flux
Boundaries
nteflux
Normal Total Energy Flux
Boundaries
ndflux_u
Internal Normal Conductive Heat

Flux, Upside
Interior boundaries
ndflux_d
Internal Normal Conductive Heat

Flux, Downside
Interior boundaries
ncflux_u
Internal Normal Convective Heat

Flux, Upside
Interior boundaries
ncflux_d
Internal Normal Convective Heat

Flux, Downside
Interior boundaries
ntrlflux_u
Internal Normal Translational Heat

Flux, Upside
Interior boundaries
ntrlflux_d
Internal Normal Translational Heat

Flux, Downside
Interior boundaries
ntflux_u
Internal Normal Total Heat Flux,

Upside
Interior boundaries
ntflux_d
Internal Normal Total Heat Flux,

Downside
Interior boundaries
nteflux_u
Internal Normal Total Energy Flux,

Upside
Interior boundaries
nteflux_d
Internal Normal Total Energy Flux,

Downside
Interior boundaries
rflux
Radiative Heat Flux
Boundaries
rflux_d
rflux_z
q0_u
q0_d
q0_z
42 |

VARIABLE
NAME
Qtot
Domain Heat Sources
Domains
Qbtot
Boundaries
Qltot
Line heat source (Line and Point

Heat Sources)
Edges, Points (2D, 2Daxi)
Qptot
Point heat source (Line and Point

Heat Sources)
Points
Global Variables
In this paragraph, the variables presented are defined by integrals. A concise notation
denotes the different domains of integration: is the geometry domain, ext stands
for the exterior boundaries and int for the interior boundaries.
TO T A L A C C U M U L A T E D H E A T R A T E
The total accumulated heat rate variable, dEiInt, is the variation of internal energy per
unit time in the domain:
dEiInt =
d
dt
E d
TO T A L N E T H E A T R A T E
The total net heat rate, ntfluxInt, is the integral of Total Heat Flux over all external
boundaries:
ntfluxInt =
( uE kT + q r ) n d
ext
It thus indicates the sum of incoming and outgoing total heat flux through the system.
TO T A L H E A T S O U R C E
The total heat source, QInt, accounts for all domain sources, interior boundary, edge
and point sources, and radiative sources at interior boundaries:
QInt =
Q d +
Q b d +
int
Q r d
""
43
TO T A L F L U I D L O S S E S
The total fluid losses, WnsInt, correspond to the work lost by a fluid by degradation
of energy. These works are transmitted to the system through pressure work and
viscous dissipation:
WnsInt =
( pA u ) d + ( : u ) d
TO T A L A C C U M U L A T E D E N E R G Y R A T E
The total accumulated energy rate, dEi0Int, is the variation of total internal energy
per unit time in the domain:
dEi0Int =
d
dt
E0 d
where the total internal energy, E0, is defined as

uu
E 0 = E + -----------2
TO T A L N E T E N E R G Y R A T E
The total net energy rate, ntefluxInt, is the integral of Total Energy Flux over all
external boundaries:
ntefluxInt =
( uH 0 kT u + q r ) n d
ext
It thus indicates the sum of incoming and outgoing total energy flux through the
system.
TO T A L WO R K S O U R C E
The total work source, WInt, sums all work contributions from custom forces:
WInt =
W d
Domain Heat Fluxes

On domains the heat fluxes are vector quantities. Their definition can vary depending
on the active physics nodes and selected properties.
44 |
TO T A L H E A T F L U X
On domains the total heat flux, tflux, corresponds to the conductive and convective
heat flux. For accuracy reasons the radiative heat flux is not included.
See Radiative Heat Flux to evaluate the radiative heat flux.
For solid domains, for example heat transfer in solids and biological tissue domains,
the total heat flux is defined as:
tflux = trlflux + dflux
For fluid domains (for example, Heat Transfer in Fluids), the total heat flux is defined as:
tflux = cflux + dflux
CONDUCTIVE HEAT FLUX
The conductive heat flux variable, dflux, is evaluated using the temperature gradient
and the effective thermal conductivity:
dflux = k eff T
In the general case keff is the thermal conductivity, k.
For heat transfer in fluids with turbulent flow, keff = k + kT, where kT is the turbulent
thermal conductivity.
For heat transfer in porous media, keff is the effective conductivity computed from the
solid and fluid conductivities.
TU R B U L E N T H E A T F L U X
The turbulent heat flux variable, turbflux, enables access to the part of the
conductive heat flux that is due to turbulence.
turbflux = k T T
CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX
The convective heat flux variable, cflux, is defined using the internal energy, E:
cflux = uE
45
The internal energy, E, is defined as:

E = CpT for solid domains
E = CpT/ for ideal gas fluid domains
E = H p/ for other fluid domains
where H is the enthalpy defined in Equation 2-3.
TR A N S L A T I O N A L H E A T F L U X
Similar to convective heat flux but defined for solid domains with translation. The
variable name is trlflux.
TO T A L E N E R G Y F L U X
The total energy flux, teflux, is defined when viscous dissipation is enabled:
teflux = uH 0 + dflux + u
where the total enthalpy, H0, is defined as
uu
H 0 = H + -----------2
RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX
In participating media, the radiative heat flux, qr, is not available for analysis on
domains because it is much more accurate to evaluate the radiative heat source:
Qr = qr
Out-of-Plane Domain Fluxes

RADIATIVE OUT-OF-PLANE HEAT FLUX
The radiative out-of-plane heat flux, rflux, is generated by the Out-of-Plane

Radiation feature.
In 2D:
4
upside: rflux_u = u ( T amb, u T )

4
downside: rflux_d = d ( T amb, d T )

In 1D:
46 |
rflux_z = z ( T amb, z T )
OUT-OF-PLANE INWARD HEAT FLUX
The convective out-of-plane heat flux, q0, is generated by the Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
feature.
In 2D:
upside: q0_u = h u ( T ext, u T )
downside: q0_d = h d ( T ext, d T )
In 1D:
q0_z = h z ( T ext, z T )
Boundary Heat Fluxes

All the domain heat fluxes (vector quantity) are also available as boundary heat fluxes.
The boundary heat fluxes are then equal to the mean value of the heat fluxes on
adjacent domains. In addition, normal boundary heat fluxes (scalar quantity) are
available on boundaries.
N O R M A L TO T A L H E A T F L U X
The variable ntflux is defined as:

ntflux = ndflux + ncflux + ntrlflux
NORMAL CONDUCTIVE HEAT FLUX
The variable ndflux is defined on exterior boundaries as:

ndflux = dflux_spatial(T) if the adjacent domain is on the downside,
ndflux = uflux_spatial(T) if the adjacent domain is on the upside,
and, on interior boundaries, as:
ndflux = (uflux_spatial(T) dflux_spatial(T))/2
NORMAL CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX
The variable ncflux is defined as:

ncflux = mean ( cflux ) n
47
N O R M A L TR A N S L A T I O N A L H E A T F L U X
The variable ntrlflux is defined as

ntrlflux = mean ( trlflux ) n
N O R M A L TO T A L E N E R G Y F L U X
The variable nteflux is defined as:

nteflux = mean ( teflux ) n mean ( dflux ) n + ndflux
RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX
On boundaries the radiative heat flux, rflux, is a scalar quantity defined as:
4
rflux = ( T amb T ) + ( G T ) + q r, net

where the terms respectively account for surface-to-ambient radiative flux,
surface-to-surface radiative flux, and radiation in participating net radiative flux.
Internal Boundary Heat Fluxes

The internal normal boundary heat fluxes (scalar quantity) are available on interior
boundaries. They are calculated using the upside and the downside value of heat fluxes
from the adjacent domains.
INTERNAL NORMAL CONDUCTIVE HEAT FLUX, UPSIDE
The variable ndflux_u is defined as:

ndflux_u = uflux_spatial ( T )
INTERNAL NORMAL CONDUCTIVE HEAT FLUX, DOWNSIDE
The variable ndflux_d is defined as:

ndflux_d = dflux_spatial ( T )
INTERNAL NORMAL CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX, UPSIDE
The variable ncflux_u is defined as:

ncflux_u = up ( cflux ) un
INTERNAL NORMAL CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX, DOWNSIDE
The variable ncflux_d is defined as:
48 |
ncflux_d = down ( cflux ) dn

I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TR A N S L A T I O N A L H E A T F L U X , U P S I D E
The variable ntrlflux_u is defined as:

ntrlflux_u = up ( trlflux ) un
I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TR A N S L A T I O N A L H E A T F L U X , D OW N S I D E
The variable ntrlflux_d is defined as:

ntrlflux_d = down ( trlflux ) dn
I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TO T A L H E A T F L U X , U P S I D E
The variable ntflux_u is defined as:

ntflux_u = ndflux_u + ncflux_u + ntrlflux_u
I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TO T A L H E A T F L U X , D O W N S I D E
The variable ntflux_d is defined as:

ntflux_d = ndflux_d + ncflux_d + ntrlflux_d
I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TO T A L E N E R G Y F L U X , U P S I D E
The variable nteflux_u is defined as:

nteflux_u = up ( teflux ) un up ( dflux ) un + ndflux_u
I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TO T A L E N E R G Y F L U X , D O W N S I D E
The variable nteflux_d is defined as:

nteflux_d = down ( teflux ) dn down ( dflux ) dn + ndflux_d
Domain Heat Sources

The sum of the domain heat sources added by different physics features is available in
the variable, Qtot (SI unit: W/m3). This variable Qtot is the sum of:
Qs which are the heat sources added by the Heat Source(described for the Heat
Transfer interface) and Electromagnetic Heat Source (described for the Joule
Heating interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual) features.
49
Qmet which is the heat source added by the Bioheat feature.

In Bioheat, the out-of-plane (heat flux and radiation) and blood
contributions are not added to Qtot because these are considered to be
fluxes.

The sum of the boundary heat sources added by different boundary conditions is
available in the variable, Qb,tot (SI unit: W/m2). This variable Qbtot is the sum of:
Qb which is the boundary heat source added by the Boundary Heat Source
boundary condition.
Qsh which is the boundary heat source added by the Boundary Electromagnetic
Heat Source boundary condition (described for the Joule Heating interface in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual).
Qs which is the boundary heat source added by a Layer Heat Source subfeature of
a thin layer, see Layer Heat Source (Thin Layer).
Line and Point Heat Sources

The sum of the line heat sources is available in a variable called Qltot (SI unit: W/m).
The sum of the point heat sources is available in a variable called Qptot (SI unit: W).
50 |
Using the Boundary Conditions for

the Heat Transfer Interfaces
In this section:
Temperature and Heat Flux Boundary Conditions
Overriding Mechanism for Heat Transfer Boundary Conditions
Temperature and Heat Flux Boundary Conditions

The heat equation accepts two basic types of boundary conditions: specified
temperature and specified heat flux. The specified condition is of constraint type and
prescribes the temperature on a boundary:
T = T0
on
while the latter specifies the inward heat flux

n q = q0
on
where
q is the conductive heat flux vector (SI unit: W/m2), q = kT.
n is the normal vector on the boundary.
q0 is the inward heat flux (SI unit: W/m2), normal to the boundary.
The inward heat flux, q0, is often a sum of contributions from different heat transfer
processes (for example, radiation and convection). The special case q0 = 0 is called
thermal insulation.
A common type of heat flux boundary conditions is one for which q0 = h(Tinf T),
where Tinf is the temperature far away from the modeled domain and the heat transfer
coefficient, h, represents all the physics occurring between the boundary and far
away. It can include almost anything, but the most common situation is that h
U S I N G T H E B O U N D A R Y C O N D I T I O N S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
51
represents the effect of an exterior fluid cooling or heating the surface of a solid, a
phenomenon often referred to as convective cooling or heating.
This module contains a set of correlations for convective heat flux and
heating. See The Heat Transfer Coefficients.
Overriding Mechanism for Heat Transfer Boundary Conditions
This section includes information for features that might require

additional modules.
Many boundary conditions are available in heat transfer. Some of them can coexist (for
example, Heat Flux and Thin Layer). Others cannot coexist (for example, Heat Flux
and Thermal Insulation).
Several categories of boundary condition exist in heat transfer. Table 2-6 gives the
overriding rules for these groups.
1 Temperature, Outflow, Open Boundary, Inflow Heat Flux
2 Thermal Insulation, Symmetry, Periodic Heat Condition
3 Heat Flux
4 Boundary Heat Source, Radiation Group, Line Heat Source on Axis
5 Diffuse Mirror, Prescribed Radiosity, Diffuse Surface
6 Opaque Surface, Incident Intensity, Continuity on Interior Boundaries
7 Thin Layer, Thermal Contact, Thin Film
TABLE 2-6: OVERRIDING RULES FOR HEAT TRANSFER BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
A\B
1-Temperature
2-Thermal Insulation
3-Heat Flux
X
X
4-Boundary heat source

5-Radiation
6-Opaque Surface
7-Thin Layer
52 |
X
X
When there is a boundary condition A above a boundary condition B in the model

tree and both conditions apply to the same boundary, use Table 2-6 to determine if A
is overridden by B or not:
Locate the line that corresponds to the A group (see above the definition of the
groups). In the table above only the first member of the group is displayed.
Locate the column that corresponds to the group of B.
If the corresponding cell is empty A and B contribute. If it contains an X, B
overrides A.
Group 3 and group 4 boundary conditions are always contributing. That
means that they never override any other boundary condition. But they
might be overridden.
Example 1
Consider a boundary where Temperature is applied. Then a Diffuse Surface boundary
condition is applied on the same boundary afterward.
Temperature belongs to group 1.
Diffuse Surface belongs to group 5.
The cell on the line of group 1 and the column of group 5 is empty so Temperature
and Diffuse Surface contribute.
Example 2
Consider a boundary where Heat Flux is applied. Then a Symmetry boundary condition
is applied on the same boundary afterward.
Heat Flux belongs to group 3.
Symmetry belongs to group 2.
The cell on the line of group 3 and the column of group 2 contains an X so Heat
Flux is overridden by Symmetry
In Example 2 above, if Symmetry followed by Heat Flux is added, the

boundary conditions contribute.
U S I N G T H E B O U N D A R Y C O N D I T I O N S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
53
Radiative Heat Transfer in

Transparent Media
This discussion so far has considered heat transfer by means of conduction and
convection. A third mechanism for heat transfer is radiation. Consider an environment
with fully transparent or fully opaque objects. Thermal radiation denotes the stream of
electromagnetic waves emitted from a body at a certain temperature.
In this section:
Deriving the Radiative Heat Flux
Radiation Types
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Deriving the Radiative Heat Flux

J = G + T4
G
x
, , ,T
x
, , ,T
Figure 2-3: Arriving irradiation (left), leaving radiosity (right).

Consider Figure 2-3. A point x is located on a surface that has an emissivity ,
reflectivity , absorptivity , and temperature T. Assume that the body is opaque,
which means that no radiation is transmitted through the body. This is true for most
solid bodies.
The total arriving radiative flux at x is named the irradiation, G. The total outgoing
radiative flux at x is named the radiosity, J. The radiosity is the sum of the reflected
radiation and the emitted radiation:
54 |
J = G + T
(2-11)
The net inward radiative heat flux, q, is then given by the difference between the
irradiation and the radiosity:
q = GJ
(2-12)
Using Equation 2-11 and Equation 2-12 J can be eliminated and a general expression
is obtained for the net inward heat flux into the opaque body based on G and T.
q = ( 1 )G T
(2-13)
Most opaque bodies also behave as ideal gray bodies, meaning that the absorptivity and
emissivity are equal, and the reflectivity is therefore obtained from the following
relation:
= = 1
(2-14)
Thus, for ideal gray bodies, q is given by:

4
q = (G T )
(2-15)
This is the expression used for the radiation boundary condition.
Radiation Types
It is common to differentiate between two types of radiative heat transfer:
surface-to-ambient radiation and surface-to-surface radiation. Equation 2-15 holds for
both radiation types, but the irradiation term, G, is different for each of them. The
Heat Transfer interface supports both types of radiation.
Surface-to-ambient radiation assumes the following:
The ambient surroundings in view of the surface have a constant temperature,
Tamb.
The ambient surroundings behave as a blackbody. This means that the emissivity
and absorptivity are equal to 1, and the reflectivity is 0.
These assumptions allow the irradiation to be explicitly expressed as
R A D I A T I V E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N TR A N S P A R E N T M E D I A
55
G = T amb
(2-16)
Inserting Equation 2-16 into Equation 2-15 results in the net inward heat flux for
surface-to-ambient radiation
4
q = ( T amb T )
For boundaries where a surface-to-ambient radiation is specified, COMSOL
Multiphysics adds this term to the right-hand side of Equation 2-17.
Radiation and Participating Media Interactions
56 |
(2-17)
Heat Transfer Consistent and

Inconsistent Stabilization Methods
The different versions of the Heat Transfer interface have the advanced option to set
the stabilization method parameters. This section provides information pertaining to
) and
these options. To display the stabilization sections, click the Show button (
select Stabilization.
In this section:
Equation Formulation
This section contains two consistent stabilization methods: streamline diffusion and
crosswind diffusion. These are consistent stabilization methods, which means that they
do not perturb the original transport equation.
The consistent stabilization methods are active by default. A stabilization method is
active when the corresponding check box is selected.
Continuous Casting: model library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Processing/continuous_casting
STREAMLINE DIFFUSION
Streamline diffusion is active by default and should remain active for optimal
performance for heat transfer in fluids or other applications that include a convective
or translational term.
CROSSWIND DIFFUSION
Streamline diffusion introduces artificial diffusion in the streamline direction. This is

often enough to obtain a smooth numerical solution provided that the exact solution
of the heat equation does not contain any discontinuities. At sharp gradients, however,
undershoots and overshoots can occur in the numerical solution. Crosswind diffusion
H E A T TR A N S F E R C O N S I S T E N T A N D I N C O N S I S T E N T S T A B I L I Z A T I O N M E T H O D S
57
addresses these spurious oscillations by adding diffusion orthogonal to the streamline

directionthat is, in the crosswind direction.
This section contains a single stabilization method: isotropic diffusion. Adding
isotropic diffusion is equivalent to adding a term to the physical diffusion coefficient.
This means that the original problem is not solved, which is why isotropic diffusion is
an inconsistent stabilization method. Although, the added diffusion definitely
attenuates spurious oscillations, try to minimize the use of isotropic diffusion.
By default there is no isotropic diffusion. To add isotropic diffusion, select the Isotropic
diffusion check box. The field for the tuning parameter id then becomes available. The
default value is 0.25; increase or decrease the value of id to increase or decrease the
amount of isotropic diffusion.
Stabilization Techniques
Stabilization
58 |

When the object to model in COMSOL Multiphysics is thin or slender enough along
one of its geometry dimensions, there is usually only a small variation in temperature
along the objects thickness or cross section. For such objects, it is computationally
more efficient to reduce the model geometry to 2D or even 1D and to use the
out-of-plane heat transfer mechanism. Figure 2-4 shows examples of possible
situations in which this type of geometry reduction can be applied.
q
qup
qdown
Figure 2-4: Geometry reduction from 3D to 1D (top) and from 3D to 2D (bottom).
The reduced geometry does not include all the boundaries of the original 3D
geometry. For example, the reduced geometry does not represent the upside and
downside surfaces of the plate in Figure 2-4 as boundaries.
Out-of-Plane Radiation and Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
Equation Formulation
2D GEOMETRIES
In 2D geometries, the temperature is assumed to be constant in the out-of-plane

direction (z direction with default spatial coordinate names). The equation for heat
transfer in solids, Equation 3-1 is replaced by
T
d z C p ------- = ( d z kT ) + d z Q + Q oop
t
(2-18)
U S I N G O U T - O F - P L A N E H E A T TR A N S F E R
59
where dz is the thickness of the domain in the out-of-plane direction. The equation for
heat transfer in fluids, Equation 3-2, is replaced by
T
C p d z ------- + C p d z u T = ( d z kT ) + d z Q + Q oop
t
(2-19)
1D AXISYMMETRIC GEOMETRIES
In 1D axisymmetric geometries, the temperature is assumed to be constant in the

out-of-plane direction (z direction with default spatial coordinate names) in addition
to the axisymmetric ( coordinate with default spatial coordinate names). The
equation for heat transfer in solids, Equation 3-1 is replaced by
T
dC p ------- = ( dkT ) + d Q + Q oop
t
(2-20)
where d is the thickness of the domain in the z direction. The equation for heat transfer
in fluids, Equation 3-2, is replaced by
T
C p d ------- + C p du T = ( dkT ) + dQ + Q oop
t
(2-21)
1D GEOMETRIES
In 1D geometries, the temperature is assumed to be constant in the radial direction.

The equation for heat transfer in solids, Equation 3-1 is replaced by
T
A c C p ------- = ( A c kT ) + A Q + Q oop
t
c
(2-22)
where Ac is the cross section of the domain in the plane perpendicular to the 1D
geometry. The equation for heat transfer in fluids, Equation 3-2, is replaced by
T
A c C p ------- + A c C p u T = ( A c kT ) + A c Q + Q oop
t
60 |
(2-23)

This section discusses heat transfer analysis with moving frames, when spatial and
material frames do not coincide. When the Enable conversions between material and
spatial frame check box is selected, all heat transfer physics account for deformation
effects on heat transfer properties.
The entire physics (equations and variables) are defined on the spatial frame. When a
moving mesh is detected, the user inputs for certain features are defined on the
material and are converted so that all the corresponding variables contain the value on
the spatial frame.
In this section:
Frame Physics Feature Nodes and Definitions
Frame Physics Feature Nodes and Definitions

This subsection contains the list of all heat transfer nodes and the corresponding
definition frame.
Some of the physics require additional licenses, for example, a Heat

Transfer Module or a CFD Module.
The following explains the different values listed in the definition frame column in
Table 2-7, Table 2-8, Table 2-9, and Table 2-10:
Material: The inputs are entered by the user and defined on the material frame.
Because the heat transfer variables and equations are defined on the spatial frame, the
inputs are internally converted to the spatial frame.
Spatial: The inputs are entered by the user and defined on the spatial frame. No
conversion is done.
Material/(Spatial): For these physics nodes, select from a menu to decide if the inputs
are defined on the material or spatial frame. The default definition frame is the material
frame.
H A N D L I N G F R A M E S I N H E A T TR A N S F E R
61
(Material)/Spatial: For these physics nodes, select from a menu to decide if the inputs
are defined on the material or spatial frame. The default definition frame is the spatial
frame.
N/A: There is no definition frame for this physics node.
Domain Nodes
TABLE 2-7: DOMAIN PHYSICS NODES FOR FRAMES
62 |
NODE NAME
DEFINITION FRAME
Bioheat
Material
Biological Tissue
Material
Change Thickness
Spatial
Geothermal Heating
Material
Heat Source
Material/(Spatial)
Spatial
Heat Transfer in Porous Media
Material (Solid part)

Spatial (Fluid part)
Material
Spatial
Immobile Fluids
Spatial
Infinite Elements
Spatial
Initial Values
Spatial
Isothermal Domain
Spatial
Opaque
N/A
Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
Spatial
Spatial
Pressure Work
Spatial
Spatial
Thermal Dispersion
Spatial
Thermoelastic Damping
Spatial
Translational Motion
Material
Viscous Dissipation
Spatial
Boundary Nodes
TABLE 2-8: BOUNDARY PHYSICS NODES FOR FRAMES
NODE NAME
DEFINITION FRAME
Boundary Heat Source
Material/(Spatial)
Continuity on Interior Boundary
Spatial
Diffuse Mirror
Spatial
Diffuse Surface
Spatial
Fracture
Material (Solid part)

Spatial (Fluid part)
Heat Continuity
Spatial
Heat Flux
(Material)/Spatial
Inflow Heat Flux
Spatial
Isothermal Domain Interface
Spatial
Layer Heat Source
Material
Opaque Surface
Spatial
Open Boundary
Spatial
Outflow
N/A
Pair Boundary Heat Source
Material/(Spatial)
Pair Thermal Contact
Material
Pair Thin Layer
Material
Periodic Heat Condition
Spatial
Spatial
Radiation Group
N/A
Symmetry
N/A
Temperature
Spatial
Thermal Contact
Material
Thermal Insulation
N/A
Thin Film
Spatial
Thin Layer
Material
63
Edge and Point Nodes

TABLE 2-9: EDGE AND POINT NODES FOR FRAMES
NODE NAME
DEFINITION FRAME
Line Heat Source
Material/(Spatial)
Line Heat Flux
(Material)/Spatial
Point Heat Flux
Spatial
Point Heat Source
Material
Spatial
Temperature
Spatial
Thin Rod
Material
TABLE 2-10: HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN SHELLS NODES
NODE NAME
DEFINITION FRAME
Change Effective Thickness
Spatial
Change Thickness
Spatial
Heat Flux
Spatial/(Material)
Heat Source
Material/(Spatial)
Initial Values
Spatial
Spatial
Temperature
Spatial
Thin Conductive Layer
Material

This subsection explains how the user inputs are converted. The conversion depends
on the dimension of the variables (scalars, vectors, or tensors) and on their density
order.
D E N S I T Y, H E A T S O U R C E , H E A T F L U X
Scalar density variables do not have the same value in the material and in the spatial
frame.
In heat transfer physics, the following variables are relative scalars of weight one (also
called scalar densities): the mass density , the heat source Q, the heat flux q0, the heat
transfer coefficient h, and the production/absorption coefficient qs.
64 |
When a feature has its definition frame on the spatial frame, no transformation is done
because the user input is defined on the spatial frame. For example, if =500[kg/m^3]
is defined in the Heat Transfer in Fluids (definition frame = spatial frame) the variable
ht.rho is equal to 500[kg/m^3] (on the spatial frame).
When a feature has its definition frame on the material frame, the user input is defined
on the material frame so it has to be multiplied by spatial.detInvF to get the
corresponding value on the spatial frame. For example, if =500[kg/m^3] is defined
in the Heat Transfer in Solids (definition frame = material frame) the variable ht.rho
is equal to spatial.detInvF*500[kg/m^3] (on the spatial frame). As a
consequence, to evaluate or integrate the mass density on the material frame, the value
of ht.rho has to be multiplied by spatial.detF.
spatial.detF has different definitions based on the dimension of the geometric
entity where it is evaluated. On domains it corresponds to the local volume change

from the material to the spatial frame while it corresponds to local surface or length
change on boundaries and edges. spatial.detInvF is the inverse of spatial.detF.
VE L O C I T Y VE C T O R
The relationship between u ( x, y, z ) and u ( X, Y, Z ) is

T
u ( x, y, z ) = F u ( X, Y, Z )
where F is the coordinate transform matrix from the material to the spatial frame:
xX yX zX
F = xY yY zY
xZ yZ zZ
with xX corresponding to the derivative of x with respect to X.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductivity is a tensor density. The relationship between the value on the
spatial frame and the material frame is
1
T
k ( x, y, z ) = ----------------- F k ( X, Y, Z ) F
det ( F )
where k ( x, y, z ) is the thermal conductivity tensor in the spatial frame and k ( X, Y, Z ) is
the thermal conductivity tensor in the material frame. F is the coordinate transform
matrix from the material frame to the spatial frame defined in the paragraph above.
65
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A LAYER
The same transformations are applied to thermal conductivity but with different
transformation matrices. The transformation matrix uses tangential derivatives and is
defined as
xT X yT X zT X
Ftang = xT Y yT Y zT Y
xT Z yT Z zT Z
where xTX corresponds to the tangential derivative x with respect to X, and so on.
AXISYMMETRIC GEOMETRIES
In 1D axisymmetric and 2D axisymmetric components an additional conversion is

done between the material frame and the spatial frame. The density variables (density,
heat source, heat flux, and so forth) are multiplied by
R
---r
which corresponds to the ratio of the material first cylindrical coordinate over the
spatial one.
For example, if you enter a heat source Q =500[W/m^3]in the material frame in
axisymmetric cases, the conversion leads to:
R
Q =500[W/m^3]* ---- spatial.detInvF
r
66 |

One of the most common boundary conditions when modeling heat transfer is
convective cooling or heating whereby a fluid cools or heats a surface by natural or
forced convection. In principle, it is possible to model this process in two ways:
Use a heat transfer coefficient on the surfaces
Extend the model to describe the flow and heat transfer in the surrounding fluid
The second approach is the correct approach if the geometry or the external flow is
complicated. The Heat Transfer Module includes the Conjugate Heat Transfer
interface for this purpose. However, such a simulation can become costly, both in
terms of computational time and memory requirement.
The first method is simple, yet powerful and efficient. The convective heat flux on the
boundaries in contact with the fluid is then modeled as being proportional to the
temperature difference across a fictitious thermal boundary layer. Mathematically, the
heat flux is described by the equation
n ( k T ) = h ( T inf T )
where h is a heat transfer coefficient and Tinf the temperature of the external fluid far
from the boundary.
The main difficulty in using heat transfer coefficients is in calculating or specifying the
appropriate value of the h coefficient. That coefficient depends on the fluids material
properties, and the surface temperatureand, for forced-convection, also on the
fluids flow rate. In addition, the geometrical configuration affects the coefficient. The
Heat Transfer interface provides built-in functions for the heat transfer coefficients.
For most engineering purposes, the use of such coefficients is an accurate and
numerically efficient modeling approach.
Defining the Heat Transfer Coefficients
Nature of the Flowthe Grashof Number
Heat Transfer Coefficients External Natural Convection
Heat Transfer Coefficients Internal Natural Convection
T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T S
67
Heat Transfer Coefficients External Forced Convection

Heat Transfer Coefficients Internal Forced Convection
Defining the Heat Transfer Coefficients

It is possible to divide the convective heat flux into four main categories depending on
the type of convection condition (natural or forced) and on the type of geometry
(internal or external flow). In addition, these four cases can all experience either
laminar or turbulent flow conditions, resulting in a total of eight types of convection,
as in Figure 2-5.
Natural
Forced
External
Internal
Laminar Flow
Turbulent Flow
Figure 2-5: The eight possible categories of convective heat flux.

The difference between natural and forced convection is that in the latter case an
external force such as a fan creates the flow. In natural convection, buoyancy forces
induced by temperature differences together with the thermal expansion of the fluid
drive the flow.
68 |
Heat transfer handbooks generally contain a large set of empirical and theoretical
correlations for h coefficients. This module includes a subset of them. The expressions
are based on the following set of dimensionless numbers:
The Nusselt number, NuL(Re, Pr, Ra) = hL/k
The Reynolds number, ReL = U L/
The Prandtl number, Pr = Cp/k
The Rayleigh number, Ra = Gr Pr = 2 gpCp T L3/(k)
where
h is the heat transfer coefficient (SI unit: W/(m2K)).
L is the characteristic length (SI unit: m).
T is the temperature difference between the surface and the external fluid bulk
(SI unit: K).
g is the acceleration of gravity (SI unit: m/s2).
k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid (SI unit: W/(mK)).
is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3).
U is the bulk velocity (SI unit: m/s).
is the dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas).
Cp is the heat capacity of the fluid (SI unit: J/(kgK)).
p is the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K)
Further, Gr refers to the Grashof number, which is the squared ratio of the viscous
time scale to the buoyancy time scale multiplied by the Reynolds number.
Nature of the Flowthe Grashof Number

In cases of externally driven flow, such as forced convection, the nature of the flow is
characterized by the Reynolds number, Re, which describes the ratio of the inertial
forces to the viscous forces. However, the velocity scale is initially unknown for
internally driven flows such as natural convection. In such cases the Grashof number,
Gr, characterizes the flow. It describes the ratio of the time scales for viscous diffusion
in the fluid and the internal driving force (the buoyancy force). Like the Reynolds
number it requires the definition of a length scale, the fluids physical properties, and
the temperature scale (temperature difference). The Grashof number is defined as:
69
g p ( T s T 0 )L
Gr L = ----------------------------------------2
( )
where g is the acceleration of gravity, p is the fluids coefficient of thermal expansion,
Ts denotes the temperature of the hot surface, T0 equals the temperature of the
surrounding air, L is the length scale, represents the fluids dynamic viscosity, and
its density.
In general, the coefficient of thermal expansion p is given by
1
p = --- -------
T p
which for an ideal gas reduces to
1
p = ---T
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at a Gr value of 109; the flow is
turbulent for larger values.
Heat Transfer Coefficients External Natural Convection

VE R T I C A L WA L L
The following correlations correspond to equations 9.26 and 9.27 in Ref. 6:
14
0.67Ra L
k-
--- if Ra L 10 9
L 0.68 + --------------------------------------------------------9
/
16
4
/
9
0.492k-
1 + -----------------
C p
h =

2
16
k
0.387Ra L
---- 0.825 + ------------------------------------------------------------- if Ra L > 10 9

9 / 16 8 / 27
0.492k
L
1 + -------------------

C p
(2-24)
where L, the height of the wall, is a correlation input and

2
g p C p T T ext L 3
Ra L = -------------------------------------------------------k
70 |
(2-25)
where in turn g is the acceleration of gravity equal to 9.81 m/s2. All material
properties are evaluated at (T + Text) 2.
INCLINED WALL
The following correlations correspond to equations 9.26 and 9.27 in Ref. 6 (the same
as for a vertical wall):
0.67 ( cos ( )Ra L ) 1 / 4

k-
--- if Ra L 10 9
L 0.68 + --------------------------------------------------------9 / 16 4 / 9
1 + 0.492k

-------------------
C p
h =

2
16
k
0.387Ra L
---- 0.825 + ------------------------------------------------------------- if Ra L > 10 9

9
/
16
8
/
27
L
1 + 0.492k
-------------------

C p
(2-26)
where L, the length of the wall, is a correlation input and is the tilt angle (the angle
between the wall and the vertical direction, = 0 for vertical walls). These correlations
are valid for 60 < < 60.
The definition of Raleigh number, RaL, is analogous to the one for vertical walls and
is given by the following:
2
g p C p T T ext L 3
Ra L = -------------------------------------------------------k
(2-27)
where in turn g denotes the gravitational acceleration, equal to 9.81 m/s2.

For turbulent flow, 1 is used instead of cos in the expression for h, because this gives
better accuracy (see Ref. 7).
According to Ref. 6., correlations for inclined walls are only satisfactory
for the top side of a cold plate or the down face of a hot plate. Hence,
these correlations are not recommended for the bottom side of a cold face
and for the top side of a hot plate.
The laminar-turbulent transition depends on (see Ref. 7). Unfortunately, little data
is available about transition. There is some data available in Ref. 7 but this data is only
approximative, according to the authors. In addition, data is only provided for water
71
(Pr around 6). For this reasons, we define a flow as turbulent, independently of the
value, when
2
g p C p T T ext L 3
-------------------------------------------------------- > 10 9
k
All material properties are evaluated at (T + Text) 2.
HORIZONTAL PLATE, UPSIDE
The following correlations correspond to equations 9.309.32 in Ref. 6 but can also
be found as equations 7.77 and 7.78 in Ref. 7.
If T > Text, then
h =
14
k--0.54Ra L if Ra L 10 7
L
k13
--0.15Ra L if Ra L > 10 7
L
(2-28)
while if T Text, then

k
14
h = ---- 0.27Ra L
L
(2-29)
RaL is given by Equation 2-25, and L, the plate diameter (defined as area/perimeter,
see Ref. 7) is a correlation input. The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) 2.
HORIZONTAL PLATE, DOWNSIDE
Equation 2-28 is used when T Text and Equation 2-29 is used when T > Text.
Otherwise it is the same implementation as for Horizontal plate, upside.
Heat Transfer Coefficients Internal Natural Convection

N A R R O W C H I M N E Y, P A R A L L E L P L A T E S
If RaL < H/L and T > Text, then

k 1
h = ----- ------ Ra L
H 24
72 |
(2-30)
where L, the plate distance, and H, the chimney height, are correlation inputs
(equation 7.96 in Ref. 7). RaL is given by Equation 2-25. The material data are
evaluated at (T + Text) 2.
N A R R O W C H I M N E Y, C I R C U L A R TU B E
If RaD < H D, then

k 1
h = ----- ---------- Ra D
H 128
where D, the tube diameter, and H, the chimney height, are correlation inputs (table
7.2 in Ref. 7 with Dh = D). RaD is given by Equation 2-25 with L replaced by D. The
material data are evaluated at (T + Text) 2.
Heat Transfer Coefficients External Forced Convection

P L A T E , A VE R A G E D TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T
This correlation is a combination of equations 7.34 and 7.41 in Ref. 6:
12
k 0.3387Pr 1 / 3 Re L
- if Re L 5 10 5
2 ---- ---------------------------------------------------------------h = L ( 1 + ( 0.0468 Pr ) 2 / 3 ) 1 / 4
k
2 ---- Pr 1 / 3 ( 0.037Re 4L 5 871 ) if Re L > 5 10 5
L
(2-31)
where Pr = Cp k and ReL = UextL . L, the plate length and Uext, the exterior
velocity are correlation inputs. The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) 2.
P L A T E , L O C A L TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T
This correlation corresponds to equations 5.79b and 5.131 in Ref. 7:
h =
12
k
----------------------------------- 0.332Pr 1 / 3 Re x
if Re x 5 10 5
max(x, eps)
45
k
----------------------------------- 0.0296Pr 1 / 3 Re x if Re x > 5 10 5
max(x, eps)
(2-32)
where Pr = Cp k and Rex = Uextx . x, the position along the plate, and Uext, the
exterior velocity are correlation inputs. The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) 2.
73
Heat Transfer Coefficients Internal Forced Convection

I S O T H E R M A L TU B E
This correlation corresponds to equations 8.55 and 8.61 in Ref. 6:
k--3.66
if Re D 2500
D
h =
k
- 0.14
4 / 5 Pr n ---------- ---- 0.027Re D
if Re D > 2500
(
T )
D
(2-33)
where Pr = Cp k, ReD = UextD and n = 0.3 if T < Text and n=0.4 if T Text. D,
the tube diameter and Uext, the exterior velocity, are correlation inputs. All material
data are evaluated at Text except (T), which is evaluated at the wall temperature, T.
74 |
References for Heat Transfer

Modeling
1. G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press,
2000.
2. R.L. Panton, Incompressible Flow, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
3. M. Kaviany, Principles of Convective Heat Transfer, 2nd ed., Springer, 2001.
4. T. Poinsot and D. Veynante, Theoretical and Numerical Combustion, 2nd ed.,
Edwards, 2005.
5. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, 2007.
6. F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th
ed. John Wiley & Sons, 2002.
7. A. Bejan, Heat Transfer, John Wiley & Sons, 1993.
8. W. Wagner, and H-J Kretzschmar, International Steam Tables, 2nd ed., Springer,
2008.
9. A. Bejan et al., Heat Transfer Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
R E F E R E N C E S F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D E L I N G
75
76 |
The Heat Transfer Physics Interface

This chapter details the main physics interface found under the Heat Transfer
branch (
). Also see About the Heat Transfer Interfaces section.
In this chapter:
77

After selecting a version of the physics interface (as described in The Heat Transfer
Coefficients), default nodes are added under the main node, which then defines which
version of the Heat Transfer interface is added.
Depending on the version of the physics interface selected, the default

nodes vary.

The Heat Transfer in Solids (
) interface is used to model heat transfer by conduction,
convection, and radiation. A Heat Transfer in Solids model is active by default on all
domains. All functionality for including other domain types, such as a fluid domain, is
also available.
The temperature equation defined in solid domains corresponds to the differential
form of the Fouriers law that may contain additional contributions like heat sources.
When this version of the physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to
the Model BuilderHeat Transfer in Solids, Thermal Insulation (the default boundary
condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions and sources. You can also right-click
Heat Transfer is Solids to select physics features from the context menu.

The Heat Transfer in Fluids (
) is used to model heat transfer by conduction,
convection, and radiation. A Heat Transfer in Fluids model is active by default on all
domains. All functionality for including other domain types, such as a solid domain, is
also available.
The temperature equation defined in fluid domains corresponds to the
convection-diffusion equation that may contain additional contributions like heat
sources.
the Model BuilderHeat Transfer in Fluids, Thermal Insulation (the default boundary
condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions and sources. You can also right-click
Heat Transfer in Fluids to select physics features from the context menu.
78 |
C H A P T E R 3 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R P H Y S I C S I N T E R F A C E
Benefits of the Different Heat Transfer Interfaces

The benefit of the different versions of the Heat Transfer interfaces, with ht as the
common default Name (see About the Heat Transfer Interfaces), is that it is easy to
add the default settings when selecting the physics interface. At any time, add a Heat
Transfer in Fluids or Heat Transfer in Solids node from the Physics toolbarthe
functionality is always available.
) interface is also available. See The Joule Heating
The Joule Heating (
Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for
information.
SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ht.
PHYSICAL MODEL
By default, no check boxes are selected for the standard version of the Heat Transfer
interface. Click to select any of the available check boxes to activate the other versions
of the ht interface as detailed in About the Heat Transfer Interfaces:
Select the Surface-to-surface radiation check box to enable surface-to-surface
radiation features as described in The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface
Radiation Interface.
Select the Radiation in participating media check box to enable radiation in
participating media features. See The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating
Media Interface for details.
Select the Heat Transfer in biological tissue check box to enable Biological Tissue
feature.
T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
79
Selecting Isothermal domain provides support for isothermal domain modeling.

Select the Heat transfer in porous media check box to enable the Heat Transfer in
Porous Media and Fracture features.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The Heat Transfer interfaces have the dependent variable Temperature T. The
dependent variable names can be changed. Editing the name of a scalar dependent
variable changes both its field name and the dependent variable name. If a new field
name coincides with the name of another field of the same type, the fields share degrees
of freedom and dependent variable names. A new field name must not coincide with
the name of a field of another type, or with a component name belonging to some
other field.
See Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes for links
to more information about the Discretization, Consistent Stabilization,
Inconsistent Stabilization, and Advanced Settings sections, all accessed by
clicking the Show button (
) and choosing the applicable option.
Also see Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization
Methods.
CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Streamline diffusion check box is selected by default and should

remain selected for optimal performance for heat transfer in fluids or
other applications that include a convective or translational term.
Crosswind diffusion provides extra diffusion in regions with sharp
gradients. The added diffusion is orthogonal to the streamlines, so
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion can be used simultaneously.
The Crosswind diffusion check box is also selected by default.
80 |
ADVANCED SETTINGS
Add both a Heat Transfer (ht) and a Moving Mesh (ale) interface (found under the
Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch when adding a physics interface) then click the
Show button (
) and select Advanced Physics Options to display this section.
When the component contains a moving mesh, the Enable conversions between material
and spatial frame check box is selected by default. This option has no effect when the
component does not contain a moving frame because the material and spatial frames
are identical in such cases. With a moving mesh, and when this option is active, the
heat transfer features automatically account for deformation effects on heat transfer
properties. In particular the effects of volume changes on the density are considered.
Rotation effects on the thermal conductivity of an anisotropic material and, more
generally, deformation effects on an arbitrary thermal conductivity, are also covered.
When the Enable conversions between material and spatial frame check box is not
selected, the feature inputs (for example, Heat Source, Heat Flux, Boundary Heat
Source, and Line Heat Source) are not converted and are instead defined on the Spatial
frame.
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat Transfer
Interfaces
Transfer Interfaces
The Heat Transfer Interface has these domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes
and subnodes (including out-of-plane and layer features) available. These nodes, listed
in alphabetical order, are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users),
Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu
(all users).
In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what
operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.
81
Change Cross-Section
Change Thickness
Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod)
Continuity
Point Heat Source
Diffuse Surface
Point Heat Source on Axis
Heat Flux
Pressure Work
Heat Source
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

Layer)

Initial Values
Inflow Heat Flux
Isothermal Domain
Layer Heat Source (Thin Layer)
Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer)
Line Heat Source (Thin Rod)
Line Heat Source
Line Heat Source on Axis
Open Boundary
Outflow
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

Rod)
Symmetry
Temperature
Temperature (Thin Layer)
Temperature (Thin Rod)
Thermal Contact
Thermal Insulation
Thin Film
Thin Layer
Thin Rod
Viscous Dissipation
For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries into account and automatically adds an Axial
Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.
82 |
The following nodes are also available for some versions of the Heat Transfer interface
and described in the Radiation Physics Interfaces chapter.
Opaque Surface
Diffuse Mirror
External Radiation Source

Incident Intensity

(rpm Interface)
Opaque
Radiation Group

The Heat Transfer in Solids node uses the heat equation, Equation 3-1, to model heat
transfer in solids:
T
C p ------- + C p u T + ( k T ) = Q
t
(3-1)
For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the first
term disappears. The equation includes the following material properties: density ,
heat capacity Cp, and thermal conductivity k (a scalar or a tensor when the thermal
conductivity is anisotropic). It also includes the velocity field u and a heat source (or
sink) Qone or more heat sources can be added separately.
When parts of the model are moving in the material frame, the Translational Motion
subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the
Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
With the Heat Transfer Module, the Thermoelastic Damping or Opaque
subnodes are available from the context menu (right-click the parent
node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The Opaque subnode
is automatically added to the entire selection when Surface-to-surface
radiation is activated. The selection can be edited.
HEAT CONDUCTION, SOLID
The default setting is to use the Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) From
material. If User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic
83
based on the characteristics of the thermal conductivity, and enter another value or
expression.
The thermal conductivity describes the relationship between the heat flux
vector field q and the temperature gradient T as in q = kT, which is
Fouriers law of heat conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length
and temperature.
The components of the thermal conductivity k when given on tensor form
(kxx, kyy, and so on, representing an anisotropic thermal conductivity) are
available as ht.kxx, ht.kyy, and so on (using the default name ht). The
single scalar mean effective thermal conductivity ht.kmean is the mean
value of the diagonal elements kxx, kyy, and kzz.
Fouriers law assumes that the thermal conductivity tensor is symmetric.

A non symmetric tensor can lead to unphysical results.
THERMODYNAMICS, SOLID
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)) use values From material. Select User defined to enter other values
or expressions. The heat capacity at constant pressure describes the amount of heat
energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass.
Thermal Diffusivity
In addition, the thermal diffusivity , defined as k ( Cp) (SI unit: m2/s), is also a
predefined quantity. The thermal diffusivity can be interpreted as a measure of thermal
inertia (heat propagates slowly where the thermal diffusivity is low, for example). The
components of the thermal diffusivity , when given on tensor form (xx, yy, and so
on, representing an anisotropic thermal diffusivity) are available as ht.alphaTdxx,
ht.alphaTdyy, and so on (using the default physics name ht). The single scalar mean
thermal diffusivity ht.alphaTdMean is the mean value of the diagonal elements xx,
yy, and zz. The denominator Cp is the effective volumetric heat capacity which is
also available as a predefined quantity, ht.C_eff.
2D Heat Transfer Benchmark with Convective Cooling: model library

path COMSOL_Multiphysics/Heat_Transfer/heat_convection_2d
84 |
The Translational Motion subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Heat Transfer in Solids parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. It
provides movement by translation to the model for heat transfer in solids. It adds the
following contribution to the right-hand side of Equation 3-1, defined in the parent
node:
C p u T
The contribution describes the effect of a moving coordinate system which is required
to model, for example, a moving heat source.
Special care must be taken on boundaries where n u 0. The Heat Flux
boundary condition does not, for example, work on boundaries where
n u < 0.
DOMAIN SELECTION
By default, the selection is the same as for the Heat Transfer in Solids
node that it is attached to, but it is possible to use more than one Heat
Translation subnode, each covering a subset of the Heat Transfer in Solids
nodes selection.
TR A N S L A T I O N A L M O T I O N
Enter values for x, y, and z (in 3D) components of the Velocity field utrans
(SI unit: m/s).
Heat Generation in a Disc Brake: model library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/brake_disc

The Heat Transfer in Fluids interface uses the following version of the heat equation to
model heat transfer in fluids:
T
C p ------- + C p u T = ( kT ) + Q
t
(3-2)
85
For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the first
term disappears. This equation includes the following material properties, fields, and
sources:
Density (SI unit: kg/m3)
Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kgK))describes the amount of
heat energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass.
Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK))a scalar or a tensor if the thermal
conductivity is anisotropic.
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s)either an analytic expression or a velocity field from
a Fluid Flow physics interface.
The heat source (or sink) Qone or more heat sources can be added separately.
The Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless) the ratio of the heat capacity at
constant pressure, Cp, to heat the capacity at constant volume, Cv.
When using the ideal gas law to describe a fluid, specifying is sufficient
to evaluate Cp. For common diatomic gases such as air, = 1.4 is the
standard value. Most liquids have = 1.1 while water has = 1.0. is used
in the streamline stabilization and in the variables for heat fluxes and total
energy fluxes. It is also used if the ideal gas law is applied. See
Thermodynamics, Solid.
The Viscous Dissipation (for heat generated by viscous friction), Opaque,

or Pressure Work subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
Heat Transfer by Free Convection: model library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Multiphysics/free_convection
MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.
86 |
Temperature
For any mechanism, and when required, the Temperature is User defined and defaults
to 293.15 K. If a Heat Transfer physics interface is included in the model, alternatively
select the temperature for that physics interface. These physics interfaces have their
own tags (the Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in
the model, the Temperature (ht) option is available. To edit the Temperature field, click
Make All Model Inputs Editable (
).
Concentration
From the Concentration c (SI unit: mol/m3 or kg/m3) list, select an existing
concentration variable from another physics interface, if any concentration variables
exist, or select User defined to enter a value or expression for the concentration (the
default is 0).
Absolute Pressure
The absolute pressure is used in some predefined quantities that include the enthalpy
(the energy flux, for example).
Absolute pressure is also used if the ideal gas law is applied. See
Thermodynamics, Solid.
The default Absolute pressure pA (SI unit: Pa) is User defined and is 1 atm
(101,325 Pa). When additional physics interfaces are added to the model, the absolute
pressure variables defined by these physics interfaces can also be selected from the list.
For example, if a Fluid Flow physics interface is added you can select Absolute pressure
(spf) from the list.
Velocity Field
The default Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) is User defined. When User defined is selected,
enter values or expressions for the components based on space dimensions. The
defaults are 0 m/s. Or select an existing velocity field in the component (for example,
Velocity field (spf) from a Laminar Flow interface).
87
HEAT CONDUCTION, FLUID
The default Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) is taken From material. If User
defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the
characteristics of the thermal conductivity, and enter another value or expression.
vector q and the temperature gradient T as in q = kT which is
and temperature.
THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3), Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)), and Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless) for a general gas or
liquid use values From material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions.
Select a Fluid typeGas/Liquid, Moist air, or Ideal gas.
Gas/Liquid
Select Gas/Liquid to specify the Density, the Heat capacity at constant pressure, and the
Ratio of specific heats for a general gas or liquid. The default settings are to use data
From material. Select User defined to enter another value for the density, the heat
capacity, or the ratio of specific heats.
Ideal Gas
Select Ideal gas to use the ideal gas law to describe the fluid. Then:
Select a Gas constant typeSpecific gas constant Rs (SI unit: J/(kgK)) or Mean
molar mass Mn (SI unit: kg/mol). For both properties, the default setting is to use
the property value from the material. Select User defined to enter another value for
either of these material properties.
If Mean molar mass is selected, the software uses the universal gas constant
R = 8.314 J/(molK), which is a built-in physical constant.
From the list under Specify Cp or , select Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)) or Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless). For both properties,
88 |
the default setting is to use the property value From material. Select User defined to
define another value for either of these material properties.
For an ideal gas, specify either Cp or the ratio of specific heats, , but not
both since, in this case, they are dependent.
Moist Air
If Moist air is selected, the thermodynamics properties are defined as a function of the
quantity of vapor in the moist air. Four different options are available from the Input
quantity list to define the amount of vapor in the moist air:
Select Vapor mass fraction (the default) to define the vapor mass fraction
(dimensionless).
Select Concentration to define the concentration of vapor (SI unit: mol/m3). Once
this option is selected a Concentration model input is automatically added in the
Models Inputs section.
Select Moisture content to define the moisture content of the moist air
(dimensionless).
Select Relative humidity to define the quantity of vapor from a Reference relative
humidity (dimensionless), a Reference temperature (SI unit: K), and a Reference
pressure (SI unit: Pa). These three reference values are used to estimate the mass
fraction of vapor, which is used to define the thermodynamic properties of the moist
air.
Moist Air Fluid Type
DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
This section is only available when the Equivalent conductivity for convection check box
is selected in the Equivalent conductivity for convection section.
The default Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas) uses values From material. Select User
defined to enter another value or expression. The default is 0 Pas.
89
EQUIVALENT CONDUCTIVITY FOR CONVECTION
Select the Equivalent conductivity for convection check box to modify the conductive
heat flux with the contribution of the convective heat flux, by use of the Nusselt
number. This check box is not selected by default.
Select a Nusselt number correlationHorizontal cavity heated from below (the default),
Vertical rectangular cavity, or User defined.
If Horizontal cavity heated from below is selected, enter values for the Cavity height
H (SI unit: m) and the Temperature difference T (SI unit: K). The defaults are 1 m
and 1 K.
If Vertical rectangular cavity is selected, enter values for the Cavity height H (SI unit:
m), the Plate distance L (SI unit: m), and the Temperature difference T (SI unit: K).
The defaults are 1 m, 1 m and 1 K.
If User defined is selected, enter a value for Nu (dimensionless). The default is 1.
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the temperature that can serve as an
initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
Add additional Initial Values nodes from the Physics toolbar.
INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Temperature T (SI unit: K). The
default value is approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20 C).

The Isothermal Domain Interface node is added by default when the Isothermal domain
check box is selected on the physics interface Settings window.
ISOTHERMAL DOMAIN INTERFACE
Select an Interface typeThermal insulation (the default), Ventilation, Convective heat

flux, or Thermal contact.
Thermal Insulation
If Thermal insulation is selected, no heat exchange occurs between the two adjacent
domains at both sides of the boundary.
90 |
Ventilation
For Ventilation, select a Flow directionPositive normal direction (the default), Negative
normal direction, or Both sides. Based on the selection, enter one or both
- Mass flux du in the positive direction and Mass flux ud in the negative
direction (SI unit: kg/(m2s))
- or Mass flow rate tot, du in the positive direction and Mass flow rate tot, ud in
the negative direction (SI unit: kg/s).
Convective Heat Flux

For Convective heat flux, enter either the Heat transfer coefficient, h (SI unit:
W/(m2K)) or the Total heat transfer coefficient, htot (SI unit: W/K).
Thermal Contact
For Thermal contact, enter either the Thermal resistance, Rs (SI unit: (Km2)/W)) or
the Total thermal resistance, Rs, tot (SI unit: s3K/(kgm2)).
E X T E R N A L TE M P E R A T U RE
This section is not available if the Interface type is set to Thermal Insulation.
Enter an External temperature, Text (SI unit: K). It is used to compute the heat
exchange with the exterior by the Ventilation, Convective heat flux and Thermal contact
options on isothermal domain interfaces that are also exterior boundaries.
Isothermal Domain
The Isothermal Domain node is available from the context menu or the Physics toolbar
Domains menu when the Isothermal domain check box is selected on the physics
interface Settings window.
ISOTHERMAL DOMAIN
Select a Temperature definitionFrom heat balance (the default) or From prescribed

temperature. If From prescribed temperature is selected, enter the domain Temperature
T0.
THERMODYNAMICS
Select a Mass definitionDensity (the default) or Total mass. Then enter the applicable
information as follows:
Density (SI unit: kg/m3). The default uses values From material. Select User defined
to enter other values or expressions. The default is 0 kg/m3.
91
Mass m (SI unit: kg). The default is 0 kg.

Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kgK)). The default uses values
From material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions. The default
is 0 J/(kgK).
It is not possible to couple an Isothermal Domain with the Laminar Flow

physics interface through the Non-Isothermal Flow multiphysics condition.
Heat Source
The Heat Source describes heat generation within the domain. You express heating and
cooling with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one or more nodes as
requiredall heat sources within a domain contribute to the total heat source. Specify
the heat source as the heat per unit volume, as a linear heat source, or as a heat rate.
HEAT SOURCE
Click the General source (the default), Linear source, or Overall heat transfer rate button.
If General source is selected, enter a value for the distributed heat source Q
(SI unit: W/m3) when the default option, User defined, is selected. The default is 0
W/m3(that is, no heat source). See also Additional General Source Options.
If Linear source (Q = qsT) is selected, enter the Production/absorption coefficient qs
(SI unit: W/(m3K)). The default is 0 W/(m3K).
If Overall heat transfer rate is selected, enter the heat rate, Ptot, (SI unit: W). The
default is 0 W. In this case Q = Ptot V, where V is the total volume of the selected
domains.
The advantage of writing the source on the second form is that it can be
accounted for in the streamline diffusion stabilization. The stabilization
applies when qs is independent of the temperature, but some stability can
be gained as long as qs is only weakly dependent on the temperature.
Additional General Source Options

For the general heat source Q, there are predefined heat sources available (in addition
to a User defined heat source) when simulating heat transfer together with electrical or
92 |
electromagnetic physics interfaces. Such sources represent, for example, ohmic heating
and induction heating.
The following options are also available from the General source list above
but require additional physics interfaces and/or licenses as indicated.
With the addition of an Electric Currents interface, the Total power dissipation
density (ec) heat source is available from the General source list.
With the addition of any version of the Electromagnetic Waves interface (which
requires the RF Module), the Total power dissipation density (emw) and
Electromagnetic power loss density (emw) heat sources are available from the General
source list.
With the addition of a Magnetic Fields interface (a 3D component requires the
AC/DC Module), the Electromagnetic heating (mf) heat source is available from the
General source list.
With the addition of a Magnetic and Electric Fields interface (which requires the
AC/DC Module), the Electromagnetic heating (mef) heat source is available from the
General source list.
For the Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface, with the addition of interfaces
from the Batteries & Fuel Cells Module, Corrosion Module, or Electrodeposition
Module, heat sources from the electrochemical current distribution interfaces are
available.
FRAME SELECTION
To display this section, add both a Heat Transfer (ht) and a Moving Mesh (ale) interface
(found under the Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch when adding a physics
) and select Advanced Physics Options.
interface). Then click the Show button (
When the model contains a moving mesh, the Enable conversions between material and
spatial frame check box is selected by default in the Heat Transfer interface, which in
turn enables further options. Use Frame Selection to select the frame where the input
variables are defined. If Spatial is selected, the variables take their values from the text
93
fields. If Material (the default) is selected, a conversion from the material to the spatial
frame is applied to the text field values.
Stabilization Techniques in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
Change Thickness
Use the Change Thickness node with 2D components to model domains with another
thickness than the overall thickness that is specified in the Heat Transfer interface
Physical Model section.
CHANGE THICKNESS
Specify a value for the Thickness dz (SI unit: m). The default value is 1 m. This value
replaces the overall thickness in the domains that are selected in the Domain Selection
section.
Change Cross-Section
Use the Change Cross-Section node with 1D components to model domains with
another cross-sectional area or another cross-sectional perimeter than the global one
that is used in the Heat Transfer interface Physical Model section.
CHANGE CROSS-SECTION
Enter a value for the Cross-sectional area Ac (SI unit: m2). The default value is 1 m2.
Enter a value for the Cross-sectional perimeter Pc (SI unit: m). The default value is 1 m.
94 |

The Heat Transfer with Phase Change node is used to solve the heat equation after
specifying the properties of a phase change material according to the apparent heat
capacity formulation.
The Viscous Dissipation (for heat generated by viscous friction), Opaque,
or Pressure Work subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
N U M B E R O F TR A N S I T I O N S
To display this section, click the Show button (

Choose the Number of phase transitions to model. The default value is 1 and the
maximum value is 5.
In most cases, only one phase transition is needed to simulate solidification, melting,
or evaporation. If you want to model successive melting and evaporation, or any couple
of successive phase transformations, choose 2 in the Number of phase transitions list.
It is useful to choose 3 or more transitions to handle extra changes of
material properties such as in mixtures of compounds, metal alloys,
composite materials, or allotropic varieties of a substance. For example, ,
, and -iron are allotropes of solid iron that can be considered as phases
with distinct phase change temperatures.
PHASE CHANGE
Enter a Phase change temperature between phase 1 and phase 2 Tpc, 12 (SI unit: K).
The default is 273.15 K. Enter any additional phase change temperatures as per the
Number of phase transitions.
Enter a Transition interval between phase 1 and phase 2 T12 (SI unit: K). The default
is 10 K. Enter any additional transition intervals as per the Number of phase transitions.
The value of T1 2 must be strictly positive. A value near 0 K corresponds to a
behavior close to a pure substance.
Enter a Latent heat from phase 1 and phase 2 L12 (SI unit: J/kg). The default is
333 kJ/kg. Enter any additional latent heat values as per the Number of phase
transitions.
95
About the Phases

The different phases are ordered according to the temperatures of fusion. Hence, the
material properties of phase 1 are valid when T < Tpc, 1 2 while the material
properties of phase 2 hold for T > Tpc, 1 2.
When more than one transition is modeled, the number of phases exceeds 2 and new
variables are created (for example, Tpc, 2 3, T2 3 or L2 3). The phase change
temperatures Tpc, j j + 1 are increasing and satisfy
T pc, 1 2 < T pc, 2 3 <
This defines distinct domains of temperature bounded by Tpc, j 1 j and Tpc, j j + 1
where the material properties of phase j only apply.
In addition, the values of Tj j + 1 are chosen so that the ranges between
Tpc, j j + 1 Tj j + 1/2 and Tpc, j j + 1 + Tj j + 1/2 do not overlap. If this
condition is not satisfied, unexpected behaviors can occur because some phases would
never form completely. The values of Tj j + 1 must all be strictly positive.
PHASE
For each Phase section (based on the Number of phase transitions) select or enter the
following:
Select a Material, phase [1,2...], which can point to any material in the model. The
default uses the Domain material.
The defaults for the following use values From material. Or select User defined to enter
a different value or expression for each:
The default Thermal conductivity kphase[1,2,...] (SI unit: W/(mK)) uses the material
values for phase i. If User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric,
or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal conductivity, and enter
another value or expression. The default is 1 W/(mK).
Density phase[1,2,...] (SI unit: kg/m3). The default is 1000 kg/m3.
Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp,phase[1,2,...] (SI unit: J/(kgK)). The default is
4200 J/(kgK).
Ratio of specific heats phase[1,2,...] (dimensionless). The default is 1.1
The Heat Transfer with Phase Change Feature
96 |
Thermal Insulation
The Thermal Insulation node is the default boundary condition for all Heat Transfer
interfaces. This boundary condition means that there is no heat flux across the
boundary:
n ( kT ) = 0
and hence specifies where the domain is well insulated. Intuitively, this equation says
that the temperature gradient across the boundary is zero. For this to be true, the
temperature on one side of the boundary must equal the temperature on the other
side. Because there is no temperature difference across the boundary, heat cannot
transfer across it.
Temperature
Use the Temperature node to specify the temperature somewhere in the geometry, for
example, on boundaries.
TE M P E R A T U R E
The equation for this condition is T = T0 where T0 is the prescribed temperature on

the boundary. Enter the value or expression for the Temperature T0 (SI unit: K). The
default is 293.15 K.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS

By default Classic constraints is selected. Select the Use weak constraints check box to
replace the standard constraints with a weak implementation. Select the Discontinuous
Galerkin constraints button when Classic constraints do not work satisfactorily.
The Discontinuous Galerkin constraints option is especially useful to
prevent oscillations on inlet boundaries where convection dominates.
Unlike the Classic constraints, these constraints do not enforce the
temperature on the boundary extremities. This is relevant on fluid inlets
where the temperature condition should not be enforced on the walls at
the inlet extremities.
97
Outflow
The Outflow node provides a suitable boundary condition for convection-dominated
heat transfer at outlet boundaries. In a model with convective heat transfer, this
condition states that the only heat transfer occurring across the boundary is by
convection. The temperature gradient in the normal direction is zero, and there is no
radiation. This is usually a good approximation of the conditions at an outlet boundary
in a heat transfer model with fluid flow.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
In most cases, the Outflow node does not require any user input. If
required, select the boundaries that are convection-dominated outlet
boundaries.
Symmetry
The Symmetry node provides a boundary condition for symmetry boundaries. This
boundary condition is similar to a Thermal Insulation condition, and it means that
there is no heat flux across the boundary.
The symmetry condition only applies to the temperature field. It has no
effect on the radiosity (surface-to-surface radiation) and on the radiative
intensity (radiation in participating media).
Heat Flux
Use the Heat Flux node to add heat flux across boundaries and edges. A positive heat
flux adds heat to the domain. This feature is not applicable to inlet boundaries.
For inlet boundaries, use the Inflow Heat Flux condition instead.
98 |
For a thorough introduction about how to calculate heat transfer

coefficients, see Incropera and DeWitt in Ref. 1.
HEAT FLUX
Click to select the General inward heat flux (the default), Convective heat flux, or Overall
heat transfer rate button.
General Inward Heat Flux

If General inward heat flux q0 (SI unit: W/m2) is selected, it adds to the total flux across
the selected boundaries. Enter a value for q0 to represent a heat flux that enters the
domain. For example, any electric heater is well represented by this condition, and its
geometry can be omitted. The default is 0 W/m2.

Enter an External temperature, Text (SI unit: K). The default is 293.15 K. The value
depends on the geometry and the ambient flow conditions. Convective heat flux is
defined by q0 = h(Text T).
Select a Heat transfer coefficient h (SI unit: W/(m2K)) to control the type of
convective heat flux to modelUser defined (the default), External natural convection,
Internal natural convection, External forced convection, or Internal forced convection.
Refer to the rest of these instructions for all options except User defined.
Select a FluidAir (the default), Transformer oil, or Water. If Air is selected, also enter
an Absolute pressure, pA (SI unit: Pa). The default is 1 atm.
External Natural Convection
If External natural convection is selected, choose Vertical wall, Inclined wall, Horizontal
plate, upside, or Horizontal plate, downside from the list under Heat transfer coefficient.
If Vertical wall is selected, enter a Wall height L (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.
If Inclined wall is selected, enter a Wall height L (SI unit: m) and the Tilt angle
(SI unit: rad). The tilt angle is the angle between the wall and the vertical direction,
= 0 for vertical walls. The default is 0 rad.
If Horizontal plate, upside or Horizontal plate, downside is selected, define the Plate
diameter (area/perimeter) L (SI unit: m). L is approximated by the ratio between the
surface area and its perimeter. The default is 0 m.
Internal Natural Convection
99
If Internal natural convection is selected, choose Narrow chimney, parallel plates or

Narrow chimney, circular tube from the list under Heat transfer coefficient.
If Narrow chimney, parallel plates is selected, enter a Plate distance L (SI unit: m) and
a Chimney height H (SI unit: m). The defaults are 0 m.
If Narrow chimney, circular tube is selected, enter a Tube diameter D (SI unit: m) and
a Chimney height H (SI unit: m). The defaults are 0 m.
External Forced Convection
If External forced convection is selected, choose Plate, averaged transfer coefficient or

Plate, local transfer coefficient from the list under Heat transfer coefficient.
If Plate, averaged transfer coefficient is selected, enter a Plate length L (SI unit: m)
and a Velocity, external fluid Uext (SI unit: m/s). The defaults are 0 m and 0 m/s.
If Plate, local transfer coefficient is selected, enter a Position along the plate xpl
(SI unit: m) and a Velocity, external fluid Uext (SI unit: m/s). The defaults are 0 m
and 0 m/s.
Internal Forced Convection
If Internal forced convection is selected, the only option is Isothermal tube. Enter a
Tube diameter D (SI unit: m); the default is 0 m, and a Velocity, external fluid Uext
(SI unit: m/s); the default is 0 m/s.
Overall Heat Transfer Rate

If Overall heat transfer rate is selected, enter the heat rate qtot (SI unit: W) across the
boundaries where the Heat Flux node is active. The default is 0 W. In this case
q0 = qtot A, where A is the total area of the selected boundaries.
FRAME SELECTION
The settings are the same as for the Heat Source node and are described under the
corresponding Frame Selection section.
100 |
Power Transistor: model library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/power_
transistor
Free Convection in a Water Glass: model library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorial_Models,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/
cold_water_glass

Use the Periodic Heat Condition to add periodic heat conditions to boundary pairs. The
Destination Selection subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent
node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
PERIODIC HEAT CONDITION
Enter a Temperature offset T (SI unit: K) to the temperature periodicity. The default
value is 0 K, so that the source and destination temperatures are equal.
See Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodesfor links
to more information.

The Boundary Heat Source models a heat source (or heat sink) that is embedded in the
boundary. When selected as a Pair Boundary Heat Source, it also prescribes that the
temperature field is continuous across the pair.
BOUNDARY HEAT SOURCE
Click the General source (the default) or Overall heat transfer rate button.
If General source is selected, enter a value for the boundary heat source Qb
(SI unit: W/m2) when the default option, User defined, is selected. A positive Qb
corresponds to heating and a negative Qb corresponds to cooling. The default is 0
W/m2. For the general boundary heat source Qb, there are predefined heat sources
available when simulating heat transfer together with electrical or electromagnetic
101
interfaces. Such sources represent, for example, ohmic heating and induction
heating.
If Overall heat transfer rate is selected, enter the heat rate Pb,tot (SI unit: W). The
default is 0 W. In this case Qb = Pb, tot A, where A is the total area of the selected
boundaries.
FRAME SELECTION
SOURCE POSITION
Use Source position to choose a side where the heat source is defined. It has three
allowed values, Upside, Downside and Layer.
This section is active when Advanced Physics Options are enabled and is effective only
when the temperatures on each side of the boundary are different. Typically when
Boundary Heat Source contributes with a Thin Layer feature.
Diffuse Surface
Use the Diffuse Surface condition to add radiation to boundaries. Choose this feature
from the Radiation submenu.
RADIATION SETTINGS
Select a Radiation direction based on the geometric normal (nx, ny, nz)Negative
normal direction or Positive normal direction (the default).
This setting has no effect unless the temperature differs from one side of the boundary
to the other.
SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION
If the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected under Physical Model for the
physics interface, this section is made available. Select the Include surface-to-surface
102 |
radiation check box to define additional settings as described for the Surface-to-Surface
Radiation interface Diffuse Surface feature.
AMBIENT
Enter an Ambient temperature Tamb (SI unit: K). The default is 293.15 K.
SURFACE EMISSIVITY
The default Surface emissivity (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) is taken

From material. An emissivity of 0 means that the surface emits no radiation at all and
an emissivity of 1 means that it is a perfect blackbody. Select User defined to enter a
different value. Default value is 0.
Continuity
The Continuity node can be added to pairs. It prescribes that the temperature field is
continuous across the pair. Continuity is only suitable for pairs where the boundaries
match.
Thin Layer
This feature combines and replaces the Thin Thermally Resistive Layer and
Highly Conductive Layer features. The Highly Conductive Layer feature
was only available with the Heat Transfer Module and many features in
the Thin Layer node also require that license.
Use the Thin Layer feature to define thermal and thickness properties of a thermally
resistive material layer located on boundaries. With the addition of the Heat Transfer
Module, you can also model heat transfer in thin highly conductive layers.
These additional subnodes are available from the context menu (right-click the parent
node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu:
Layer Heat Source (Thin Layer)to add a layer internal heat source, Qs, within the
layer.
103
Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer)to add a heat flux through a specified set of
boundaries.
Temperature (Thin Layer) to set a prescribed temperature condition on a specified
set of boundaries.
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Layer)to add a surface-to-ambient radiation
for the layer end.
The Thin Layer Feature
THIN LAYER
Select a Layer typeResistive (the default) Conductive, or General.
Resistive
For Resistive select Layer properties (the default) or Thermal resistance from the Specify
list.
For Layer properties, enter a value or expression for the Layer thickness ds (SI
unit: m). The default is 0.01 m.
For Thermal resistance enter a value or expression for the Thermal resistance Rs
(SI unit: Km2/W). The default is 0 Km2/W.
By default the Multiple layers check box is not selected. Click to select the check box
if Layer properties is selected above and to define multiple sandwiched thin layers
with different thermal conductivities.
Conductive
For Conductive enter a value or expression for the Layer thickness ds (SI unit: m). The
default is 0.01 m.
HEAT CONDUCTION
This section is not available when Layer type is set to Resistive and Specify is set to
Thermal Resistance in the Thin Layer settings.
Resistive (Layer Type)

The default Layer thermal conductivity ks (SI unit: W/(mK)) is taken From material.
Select User defined then choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic to enter
another value or expression. The default is 0 W/(mK).
104 |
Conductive (Layer Type)

For Conductive the default Layer thermal conductivity ks (SI unit: W/(mK)) is taken
From material. Select User defined then choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or
Anisotropic to enter another value or expression. The default is 0 W/(mK).
If the thickness is zero, the thin layer does not take effect.
General (Layer Type)

Select the Number of layers to define (1 to 5) and set the properties for each layer
selected.
Select an option from the Layer (1, 2, 3, 4, or 5) list to assign a material to each layer.
The default setting, Boundary material, takes the material from the boundary.
For each layer, enter the Layer thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default is 0.005 m.
The default Thermal conductivity ks (SI unit: W/(mK)) is taken From material,
which is then taken from the material selected in Layer (1, 2, ...). Select User defined
to enter another value or expression. The default is 0 W/(mK).
THERMODYNAMICS
This section is available when the Layer type is General or Conductive. Set the following
properties for each Layer.
By default the Layer density s (SI unit: kg/m3) and Layer heat capacity Cs
(SI unit: J/kgK) values are taken From material. Select User defined to enter other
values or expressions. Default values are 0 kg/m3 and 0 J/kgK.
When Thin Layer feature is used in a heat interface coupled to a flow
interface using a Non-Isothermal Flow multiphysics coupling, Resistive and
General layer types are only supported when there is no wall functions.
The Conductive layer type is always supported.
THIN LAYER OPACITY
This section is only available when the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected
under the Physical Model section on a physics interface.
Choose Opaque (the default) or Transparent to set the layer's opacity type.
105
This is needed when a thin layer (with Layer type as Resistive or General) contributes
with any boundary condition from the Radiation menu. It picks the side where
irradiation starts from.
LAYER DISCRETIZATION
This section is only available when the Layer type is set to General.
Define the Number of elements used for discretizing the layer thickness (the default
is 2).
Layer Heat Source (Thin Layer)

Use a Layer Heat Source subnode to add an internal heat source, Qs, within the thin
layer. Add one or more heat sources. The subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the Thin Layer parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
LAYER HEAT SOURCE
Select the General source (the default) or Overall heat transfer rate button to define Qs.
When the General source button is selected, enter a value or expression for Qs
(SI unit: W/m3) as a heat source per volume. The default is 0 W/m3.
If the Overall heat transfer rate button is selected, define the heat rate Ps, tot (SI unit:
W). In this case Qs = Ps, tot V where V = Ads with A equal to the area of the
boundary selection. The default is 0 W.
Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer)

Use the Line Heat Flux subnode to add heat flux across boundaries of a thin layer. A
positive heat flux adds heat to the layer. The subnode is available from the context
menu (right-click the Thin Layer parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu.
LINE HEAT FLUX
Select either the General inward heat flux (the default), Inward heat flux, or Overall heat
transfer rate buttons. This last option is only available in 3D components.
When General inward heat flux q0 (SI unit: W/m2) is selected, it adds to the total
flux across the selected edges. Enter a value for q0 to represent a heat flux that enters
the layer. For example, any electric heater is well represented by this condition, and
its geometry can be omitted. The default is 0 W/m2.
106 |
If Inward heat flux is selected (in the form q0 = h(Text T)), enter the Heat transfer
coefficient h (SI unit: W/(m2K)). The default value is 0 W/(m2K). Enter an
External temperature Text (SI unit: K). The default value is 293.15 K. The value
depends on the geometry and the ambient flow conditions.
If Overall heat transfer rate is selected, enter the heat rate qtot (SI unit: W). In this
case q0 = qtot A where A = Lds with L equal to the length of the edge selection.
The default is 0 W. This option is only available in 3D components.
FRAME SELECTION
This section is only available in 3D components. The settings are the same for the Heat
Source node and described under the Frame Selection section.
Temperature (Thin Layer)

Use the Temperature subnode to specify the temperature on a set of lines (geometrical
edges in 3D or geometrical points in 2D and 2D axisymmetric) that represent thin
boundaries of a layer. This subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Thin Layer parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
Only edges (3D) or points (2D and 2D axisymmetric) adjacent to the

boundaries can be selected in the parent node.
Enter the value or expression for the Temperature T0 (SI unit: K). The equation for this
condition is T = T0 where T0 is the prescribed temperature on the edges. The default
is 293.15 K.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS

See Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes for links to more
information.
107
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Layer)

Use the Surface-to-Ambient Radiation subnode to add surface-to-ambient radiation to
lines (geometrical edges in 3D or geometrical points in 2D and 2D axisymmetric) that
represent thin boundaries of a thin layer. This subnode is available from the context
menu (right-click the Thin Layer parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu.
The net inward heat flux from surface-to-ambient radiation is
4
q = ( T amb T )
where is the surface emissivity, is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (a predefined
physical constant), and Tamb is the ambient temperature.
SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT RADIATION
an emissivity of 1 means that it is a perfect blackbody. The default is 0.
Thin Rod
Use the Thin Rod feature to define the thermal and radius properties of conductive rods
located on edges in a 3D model.
These additional subnodes are available from the context menu (right-click the Thin
Rod parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu:
Line Heat Source (Thin Rod)to add an internal heat source, Ql, within the rod.
Temperature (Thin Rod)to set a prescribed temperature condition on a specified
set of points.
Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod)to add a heat flux through a specified set of points.
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Rod)to add surface-to-ambient radiation at
the rod end points.
THIN ROD
Enter a value for the Rod radius rl (SI unit: m). The default is 0.01 m.
108 |
HEAT CONDUCTION
The default Thermal conductivity kl (SI unit: W/(mK)) is taken From material. Select
User defined then choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic to enter another
value or expression. The default is 0 W/(mK).
THERMODYNAMICS
By default the Density l (SI unit: kg/m3) and the Heat capacity at constant pressure
Cl (SI unit: J/kgK) values are taken From material. Select User defined to enter other
values or expressions. Default values are 0 kg/m3 and 0 J/kgK.
Line Heat Source (Thin Rod)

Use a Line Heat Source subnode to add an internal heat source, Ql, within the rod. Add
one or more heat sources. The subnode is available from the context menu (right-click
the Thin Rod parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
LINE HEAT SOURCE
Select the General source (the default) or Overall heat transfer rate button to define Ql.
When the General source button is selected, enter a value or expression for Ql
(SI unit: W/m3) as a heat source per volume. The default is 0 W/m3.
If the Overall heat transfer rate button is selected, define the heat rate Pl, tot (SI unit:
W). In this case Ql = Pl, tot V. The default is 0 W.
Temperature (Thin Rod)

Use the Temperature subnode to specify the temperature on a set of points that
represent boundaries of a rod. This subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the Thin Rod parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
Only points adjacent to the boundaries can be selected in the parent node.
Enter the value or expression for the Temperature T0 (SI unit: K). The equation for this
condition is T = T0 where T0 is the prescribed temperature on the points. The default
is 293.15 K.
109
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS

information.
Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod)

Use the Point Heat Flux subnode to add heat flux at points of a thin rod. A positive heat
flux adds heat to the rod. The subnode is available from the context menu (right-click
the Thin Rod parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
HEAT FLUX
Select either the General inward heat flux (the default) or Inward heat flux buttons.
When General inward heat flux q0 (SI unit: W/m2) is selected, it adds to the total flux
across the selected points. Enter a value for q0 to represent a heat flux that enters the
rod. The default is 0 W/m2.
If Inward heat flux is selected (in the form q0 = h(Text T)), enter the Heat transfer
coefficient h (SI unit: W/(m2K)). The default value is 0 W/(m2K). Enter an External
temperature Text (SI unit: K). The default value is 293.15 K. The value depends on the
geometry and the ambient flow conditions.
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Rod)

Use the Surface-to-Ambient Radiation subnode to add surface-to-ambient radiation to
points that represent boundaries of a thin rod. This subnode is available from the
context menu (right-click the Thin Rod parent node) or from the Physics toolbar,
Attributes menu.
The net inward heat flux from surface-to-ambient radiation is
4
q 0 = ( T amb T )
110 |

an emissivity of 1 means that it is a perfect blackbody. The default is 0.
Thermal Contact
The Thermal Contact node defines correlations for the conductance h at the interface
of two bodies in contact. It can be added to pairs by selecting Pair Thermal Contact from
the Pairs menu.
The conductance h is involved in the heat flux across the surfaces in contact according
to:
n d ( k d T d ) = h ( T u T d ) + rQ fric
n u ( k u T u ) = h ( T d T u ) + ( 1 r )Q fric
where u and d subscripts refer respectively to the upside and downside of the slit.
Pair Thermal Contact should be activated on a Identity Pair or on a Contact
Pair where a structural mechanics physics interface defines a contact pair
feature.
CONTACT
Constriction Conductance Correlation

Choose the Constriction conductance correlationCooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation
(the default), Mikic elastic correlation, or User defined. If User defined is selected, enter
a value or expression for the Constriction conductance hc (SI unit: W/(m2K)). The
default is 0 W/(m2K).
Gap Conductance Correlation

Choose the Gap conductance correlationUser defined or Parallel-plate gap gas
conductance (the second option is only available if Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation
or Mikic elastic correlation is chosen as the Constriction conductance correlation).
If User defined is selected, enter a value for the Gap conductance hg
111
Radiative Conductance Correlation

When the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected under the Physical Model
section on a physics interface, choose the Radiative conductance correlationUser
defined (the default) or Gray-diffuse parallel surfaces.
If User defined is selected, enter a value for the Radiative conductance hT
CONTACT SURFACE PROPERTIES
This section displays if Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation or Mikic elastic correlation

are chosen under Contact.
Enter values for the:
Asperities average height asp (SI unit: m). The default is 1 m.
Asperities average slope masp (dimensionless). The default is 0.4.
Contact pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default is 0 Pa.
When Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation is selected, choose a Hardness definition
Microhardness (the default), Vickers hardness, or Brinell hardness.
If Microhardness is selected, enter a value for Hc (SI unit: Pa). The default is 3 GPa.
If Vickers hardness is selected, enter a value for the Vickers correlation coefficient c1
(SI unit: Pa) and Vickers size index c2 (dimensionless). The defaults are 5 GPa and
0.1, respectively.
If Brinell hardness is selected, enter a value for HB (SI unit: Pa). The default is 3 GPa.
HB should be between 1.30 and 7.60 GPa.
When Mikic elastic correlation is selected, choose the Contact interface Youngs modulus
definitionWeighted harmonic mean (the default) or User defined.
If Weighted harmonic mean is selected, enter values or expressions for the Youngs
modulus E (SI unit: Pa) and Poissons ratio v (dimensionless). The defaults are 0.
If User defined enter another value or expression for the Contact interface Youngs
modulus Econtact (SI unit: Pa). The default is 1 GPa.
GAP PROPERTIES
This section is available when Parallel-plate gap gas conductance is selected as the Gap
conductance correlation under Contact.
The default Gas thermal conductivity kgap (SI unit: W/(mK)) is taken From material.
If User defined is selected, also choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic
112 |
based on the characteristics of the gas thermal conductivity, and enter another value or
expression. The default is 0.025 W/(mK).
Also enter the following:
Gas pressure pgap (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1 atm.
Gas thermal accommodation parameter (dimensionless). The default is 1.7.
Gas fluid parameter (dimensionless). The default is 1.7.
Gas particles diameter D (SI unit: m). The default value is 0.37 nm.
RADIATIVE CONDUCTANCE
This section is available when Gray-diffuse parallel surfaces is selected as the Radiative
conductance correlation under Contact.
By default the Surface emissivity (dimensionless) is taken From material. Select User
defined to enter another value or expression. The default is 1.
THERMAL FRICTION
Select a Heat partition coefficient definitionCharrons relation (the default) or User

defined. If User defined is selected, enter a value for the Heat partition coefficient r
(dimensionless). The default is 0.5.

Select either the General source (the default) or Overall heat transfer rate.
If General source is selected, enter a frictional heat source Qfric (SI unit: W/m2). The
default is 0 W/m2.
If Overall heat transfer rate is selected, enter the heat rate Pfric, tot (SI unit: W). The
default is 0 W.
The Thermal Contact Feature
Line Heat Source

The Line Heat Source node models a heat source (or sink) that is so thin that it has no
thickness in the model geometry. Select this node from the Edges or Points submenu.
The Line Heat Source node is available in 3D on edges. In 2D and 2D axisymmetric, it
is available on points.
113
In theory, the temperature in a line source in 3D is plus or minus infinity (to

compensate for the fact that the heat source does not have any volume). The finite
element discretization used in COMSOL Multiphysics returns a finite temperature
distribution along the line, but that distribution must be interpreted in a weak sense.
LINE HEAT SOURCE
When General source is selected, enter a value for the distributed heat source, Ql
(SI unit: W/m) in unit power per unit length. A positive Ql corresponds to heating
while a negative Ql corresponds to cooling. The default is 0 W/m.
If Overall heat transfer rate is selected, enter the heat rate Pl, tot (SI unit: W). The
default is 0 W.
HEAT SOURCE RADIUS
Select the Specify heat source radius check box to define the Heat source radius R
(SI unit: m). This averages the source on a cylinder of given radius around the line.
This option avoids obtaining an increasing temperature value at the line when meshing
finer than this radius. It makes use of the diskavg operator for averaging around the
source.
See Built-In Operators in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

for additional information.
FRAME SELECTION
Point Heat Source

The Point Heat Source node, available for 3D components, models a heat source (or
sink) that is so small that it can be considered to have no spatial extension. Select this
node from the Points menu.
114 |
In theory, the temperature in a point source in 3D is plus infinity (to compensate for
the fact that the heat source does not have a spatial extension). The finite element
discretization used in COMSOL Multiphysics returns a finite value, but that value
must be interpreted in a weak sense.
PO IN T H EAT SO URC E
Enter the Point heat source Qp (SI unit: W) in unit power. A positive Qp corresponds
to heating while a negative Qp corresponds to cooling. The default is 0 W.
HEAT SOURCE RADIUS
(SI unit: m). This averages the source on a ball or disk of given radius around the point.
This option avoids obtaining an increasing temperature shift at the point when
meshing finer than this radius. It makes use of the ballavg or diskavg operator for
averaging around the source.

FRAME SELECTION
This section is not visible if the Specify heat source radius option is disabled. The settings
are the same as for the Heat Source node and are described under the corresponding
Frame Selection section.
Line Heat Source on Axis

The Line Heat Source on Axis node, available for 2D axisymmetric components, models
a heat source (or sink) that is so thin that it has no thickness in the model geometry.
The settings are the same as for the Line Heat Source node.
Point Heat Source on Axis

The Point Heat Source on Axis node, available for 2D axisymmetric components, models
a heat source (or sink) that is so small that it can be considered to have no spatial
115
extension. Select this node from the Points menu. The settings are the same as for the
Point Heat Source node.
The Thermoelastic Damping subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Heat Transfer in Solids parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The
Qted input can take the thermoelastic damping contribution straight from the solid
mechanics interfaces.
THERMOELASTIC DAMPING
Enter a value for Qted (SI unit: W/m3). Default is 0 W/m3.
Pressure Work
The Pressure Work subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Heat
Transfer in Fluids parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
It adds the following contribution to the right-hand side of the Heat Transfer in Fluids
equation:
p A
Q p = p T ---------- + u p A
t
(3-3)
where p is the coefficient of thermal expansion defined as:

1
p = ---
T p
The pressure work is computed using the relative pressure.
Viscous Dissipation
This feature was previously called Viscous Heating.
The Viscous Dissipation subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Heat Transfer in Fluids, or the Heat Transfer in Porous Media, or the Heat Transfer
with Phase Change parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The Qvd
116 |
input can take the viscous dissipation term contribution straight from the fluid flow
interfaces.
VISCOUS DISSIPATION
Enter a value for Qvd (SI unit: W/m3) if User defined option is selected, or choose from
the available contributions of viscous dissipation from fluid flow interfaces.
Inflow Heat Flux

Use the Inflow Heat Flux node to model inflow of heat through a virtual domain with
a heat source. The temperature at the outer boundary of the virtual domain is known.
This boundary condition estimates the heat flux through the system boundary
A
n ( kT ) = q 0 ( u n ) ------------------- + ( h in h ext )u n
un
(3-4)
where A is the total area of the selected boundaries and

h in h ext =
T in
ext
1
-
--- 1 + T
---- -----
dp
ext
p
pA
C p dT +
(3-5)
A positive heat flux adds heat to the domain. This feature is applicable to inlet
boundaries of non solid domains.
INFLOW HEAT FLUX
Select the Inward heat flux (the default) or Overall heat transfer rate buttons.
When Inward heat flux is selected, define q0 (SI unit: W/m2) to add to the total flux
across the selected boundaries. The default value is 0 W/m2.
When Overall heat transfer rate is selected, define the heat rate qtot (SI unit: W). In
this case q0 = qtot A. The default is 0 W.
For either selection, enter a value or expression for the External temperature Text
(SI unit: K) (the default is 273.15 K) and the External absolute pressure pext
(SI unit: Pa) (the default is 1 atm).
Open Boundary
The Open Boundary node adds a boundary condition for modeling heat flux across an
open boundary; the heat can flow out of the domain or into the domain with a
117
specified exterior temperature. Use this node to limit a modeling domain that extends
in an open fashion.
OPEN BOUNDARY
Enter the exterior Temperature T0 (SI unit: K) outside the open boundary.
The Out-of-Plane Radiation node models surface-to-ambient radiation on the upside
and downside for 1D and 2D components. The feature adds the following
contribution to the right-hand side of Equation 3-6 or Equation 3-7:
4
4
4
4
u ( T amb
, u T ) + d ( T amb, d T )
Compare to the equation in the modeling section Surface-to-Ambient

Radiation.
UPSIDE PARAMETERS
The default Surface emissivity u (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) is taken

From material. Select User defined to enter another value. An emissivity of 0 means that
the surface emits no radiation at all while an emissivity of 1 means that it is a perfect
blackbody. The default is 0.
Enter an Ambient temperature Tamb, u (SI unit: K). The default is 293.15 K.
DOWNSIDE PARAMETERS
Follow the instructions for the Upside Parameters section to define the downside
parameters d and Tamb, d.

For 1D and 2D components, the Out-of-Plane Heat Flux node adds a heat flux q0,u for
the upside heat flux and a heat flux q0,d for the downward heat flux to the right-hand
side of Equation 3-6 or Equation 3-7:
118 |
q 0, u + q 0, d
The convective heat flux adds the following contribution
h u ( T ext, u T ) + h d ( T ext, d T )
to the right-hand side of Equation 3-6 or Equation 3-7
T
d z C p ------- ( d z kT ) = d z Q
t
(3-6)
T
C p d z ------- + u T = ( d z kT ) + d z Q
t
(3-7)
These settings are the same as for the Heat Flux node.
Surface Resistor: model library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Stress/surface_resistor
Thin Film
The Thin Film node behaves like Heat Transfer in Fluids but is applicable on
boundaries.
FILM PROPERTIES
Enter a Film thickness df (SI unit: m). The default is 0.01 m.

The settings for the Model Inputs, Heat Conduction, Fluid, and
Thermodynamics, Fluid sections are the same as for Heat Transfer in Fluids.
119
Theory for the Heat Transfer

Interfaces
The Heat Transfer Interface theory is described in this section. This section reviews the
theory about the heat transfer equations in COMSOL Multiphysics and heat transfer
in general. For more detailed discussions of the fundamentals of heat transfer, see Ref.
1 and Ref. 2.
In this section:
What is Heat Transfer?
The Heat Equation
The Isothermal Domain Feature
The Thin Rod Feature
References for the Heat Transfer Interfaces
What is Heat Transfer?

Heat transfer is defined as the movement of energy due to a difference in temperature.
It is characterized by the following mechanisms:
ConductionHeat conduction occurs as a consequence of different mechanisms in
different media. Theoretically it takes place in a gas through collisions of molecules:
in a fluid through oscillations of each molecule in a cage formed by its nearest
neighbors; in metals mainly by electrons carrying heat and in other solids by
molecular motion which in crystals take the form of lattice vibrations known as
phonons. Typical for heat conduction is that the heat flux is proportional to the
temperature gradient.
ConvectionHeat convection (sometimes called heat advection) takes place
through the net displacement of a fluid that transports the heat content with its
velocity. The term convection (especially convective cooling and convective heating)
120 |
also refers to the heat dissipation from a solid surface to a fluid, typically described
by a heat transfer coefficient.
RadiationHeat transfer by radiation takes place through the transport of
photons. Participating (or semitransparent) media absorb, emit and scatter photons.
Opaque surfaces absorb or reflect them.
The Heat Equation

The fundamental law governing all heat transfer is the first law of thermodynamics,
commonly referred to as the principle of conservation of energy. However, internal
energy, U, is a rather inconvenient quantity to measure and use in simulations.
Therefore, the basic law is usually rewritten in terms of the temperature, T. For a fluid,
the resulting heat equation is:
T p
T
C p ------- + ( u )T = ( q ) + :S ---- ------- ------ + ( u )p + Q
t
T p t
(3-8)
where
is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)
Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kgK))
T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2)
p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
S is the strain-rate tensor (SI unit: 1/s):
1
S = --- ( u + ( u ) T )
2
Q contains heat sources other than viscous dissipation (SI unit: W/m3)
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
121
For a detailed discussion of the fundamentals of heat transfer, see Ref. 1.

Specific heat capacity at constant pressure is the amount of energy
required to raise one unit of mass of a substance by one degree while
maintained at constant pressure. This quantity is also commonly referred
to as specific heat or specific heat capacity.
In deriving Equation 3-8, a number of thermodynamic relations have been used. The
equation also assumes that mass is always conserved, which means that the density and
the velocity must be related through:
+ ( v ) = 0
t
The Heat Transfer interfaces use Fouriers law of heat conduction, which states that
the conductive heat flux, q, is proportional to the temperature gradient:
T
q i = k -------x i
(3-9)
where k is the thermal conductivity (SI unit: W/(mK)). In a solid, the thermal
conductivity can be anisotropic (that is, it has different values in different directions).
Then k becomes a tensor
k xx k xy k xz
k = k yx k yy k yz
k zx k zy k zz
and the conductive heat flux is given by
qi =
------- kij x
j
j
Fouriers law applies for symmetric thermal conductivity tensors.

Nonsymmetric tensors lead to unphysical results.
The second term on the right-hand side of Equation 3-8 represents viscous dissipation
in the fluid. An analogous term arises from the internal viscous damping of a solid. The
operation : is a contraction and can in this case be written on the following form:
122 |
a:b =
anm bnm
n m
The third term represents pressure work and is the result of heating under adiabatic
compression as well as some thermoacoustic effects. It is generally small for low Mach
number flows. A similar term can be included to account for thermoelastic effects in
solids:
S
Q ted = T: ------t
where S is the second Piola-Kirchhoff tensor and is the coefficient of thermal
expansion.
Inserting Equation 3-9 into Equation 3-8, reordering the terms and ignoring viscous
dissipation and pressure work put the heat equation into a more familiar form:
T
C p ------- + C p u T = ( kT ) + Q
t
The Heat Transfer in Fluids interface solves this equation for the temperature, T. If the
velocity is set to zero, the equation governing purely conductive heat transfer is
obtained:
T
C p ------- + ( k T ) = Q
t

For the Heat Transfer in Fluids interface, you have an option to choose moist air as the
fluid type. This is provided to calculate the relative humidity and to deduce if there is
condensation. The following theory assumes that the moist air is an ideal gas.
HUMIDITY
Moisture Content
The moisture content (also called mixing ratio or humidity ratio) is defined as the ratio
of water vapor mass mv to dry air mass ma:
123
pv Mv
mv
x vap = ------- = -------------ma
pa M a
(3-10)
where pv is the water vapor partial pressure, pa is the dry air partial pressure, and Ma
and Mv are the molar mass of dry air and water vapor, respectively. Without
condensation, the moisture content is not affected by temperature and pressure.
The Moisture content represents a ratio of mass, and it is thus a dimensionless number
(dimensionless).
Relative Humidity
The relative humidity of an air mixture is expressed as follows:
pv
= -------p sat
(3-11)
where pv is the water vapor partial pressure and psat is the saturation pressure of water
vapor.
According to Daltons law, the total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of all the
partial pressures of each individual gas; that is, p = pv + pa where pa is the dry air
partial pressure.
The relative humidity formulation is often used to quantify humidity. However, for the
same quantity of moisture content, the relative humidity changes with temperature
and pressure, so in order to compare different values of , it has to be at the same
temperature and pressure conditions.
This quantity is very useful to study the condensation as it defines the boundary
between the liquid phase and the vapor phase. In fact, when the relative humidity
reaches unity, it means that the vapor is saturated and that water vapor condenses.
The Reference relative humidity (SI unit: 1) is a quantity defined between 0 and 1,
where 0 corresponds to dry air and 1 to a water vapor-saturated air. This Reference
relative humidity associated to the Reference temperature and the Reference pressure are
124 |
used to calculate the moisture content. Then the thermodynamical properties of moist
air can be deduced through the mixture formula described below.
The Reference relative humidity cannot be greater than one, above which
value the water vapor is condensing. If the value is greater than one, the
Reference relative humidity value is forced to be one. The condensation
area cannot be simulated.
Specific Humidity
The specific humidity is defined as the ratio of water vapor mv to the total mass
mtot = mv + ma:
mv
= ----------m tot
(3-12)
When the water vapor only accounts for a few percent in the total mass,
the moisture content and the specific humidity are very close: xvap
(only for low values). For larger values of , the two quantities are more
precisely related by: xvap = (1 ).
Concentration
The concentration is defined by:
nv
c v = -----V
(3-13)
where nv is the amount of water vapor in mol and V is the total volume. The water
vapor concentration is defined in this SI unit: mol/m3.
According to the ideal gas hypothesis, the saturation concentration is defined as
follows:
p sat ( T )
c sat = -----------------RT
SATURATION STATE
The saturation state is reached when the relative humidity reaches one. It means that
the partial pressure of the water vapor is equal to the saturation pressure (which
depends on the temperature too).
125
From Ref. 6, the saturation pressure can be defined using the following expression:
p sat ( T ) = 610,7 [ Pa ] 10
T 273,15 [ K ]
7,5 -------------------------------------T 35,85 [ K ]
(3-14)
The temperature and saturation pressure can easily be deduced from this formulation.
MOIST AIR PROPERTIES
The thermodynamical properties of moist air can be found with some mixture laws.
Preliminary Definitions
Molar Fraction The molar fraction of dry air Xa and the molar fraction of water vapor
Xv are defined such as:

p p sat
pa
na
X a = --------- = ----- = --------------------p
n tot
p
(3-15)
p sat
pv
nv
X v = --------- = ----- = -----------n tot
p
p
(3-16)
where na and nv are respectively the amount of dry air and water vapor, ntot is the total
amount of moist air in mol, where pa and pv are the partial pressure of dry air and water
vapor, p is the pressure, is the relative humidity, and psat is the saturation pressure.
Xa + Xv = 1
Relation Between Relative Humidity And Moisture Content Moisture content and
relative humidity can be linked with the following expression:

x vap p
= --------------------------------------M
v
p sat -------- + x vap
Ma
(3-17)
Mixture Properties
The thermodynamical properties are built through a mixture formula. The expressions
depend on dry air properties and pure steam properties and are balanced by the mass
fraction.
126 |
Density: According to the ideal gas law, the density mixture m expression is defined
as follows:
p
m = -------- ( M a X a + M v X v )
RT
(3-18)
where Ma and Mv are respectively the molar mass of dry air and water vapor,
respectively, and Xa and Xv are the molar fraction of dry air and water vapor,
respectively.
The ideal gas assumption sets the compressibility factor and the
enhancement factor to the unity. In fact, the accuracy lost by this
assumption is small as the pure steam represents a small fraction.
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure: According to Ref. 5, the heat capacity at
constant pressure of a mixture is:

Ma
Mv
c p,m = --------- X a c p,a + --------- X v c p,v
Mm
Mm
(3-19)
where Mm represents the mixture molar fraction and is defined by

Mm = XaMa + XvMv and where cp,a and cp,v are the heat capacity at constant pressure
of dry air and steam, respectively.
Dynamic viscosity: According to Ref. 4 and Ref. 5, the dynamic viscosity is defined as
follows:
m =
Xi i
-------------------------X j ij
i = a,v
(3-20)
j = a,v
where ij is given by
1
---
ij
2
1
---
i 2 Mj 4
1 + ----- -------
j
Mi
= ----------------------------------------------1
Mi
8 1 + -------
M j
--2
Here, a and v are the dynamic viscosity of dry air and steam, respectively.
127
Thermal conductivity: According to Ref. 4 and Ref. 5, the thermal conductivity of the
mixture is defined similarly:
km =
Xi ki
-------------------------X j ij
i = a,v
(3-21)
j = a,v
where ka and kv are the thermal conductivity of dry air and steam, respectively.
Pure Component Properties

The dry air and steam properties used to define the mixture properties are
temperature-dependent high-order polynomials. The polynomials have been
computed according to Ref. 1 for dry air properties and Ref. 7 for pure steam
properties. The steam properties are based on the Industrial Formulation
IAPWS-IF97.
The valid temperature range is 200 K < T < 1200 K for dry air properties and
273.15 K < T < 873.15 K for steam properties.
Results and Analysis Variables

The following variables are provided to display the related quantities:
Moisture content xvap.
Vapor mass fraction omega_moist.
Concentration of water vapor c.
Relative humidity phi. This variable corresponds to the calculated with the system
temperature and pressure.
Condensation indicator condInd; this indicator is set to 1 if condensation has been
detected ( = 1) and 0 if not.
Functions
Three functions are defined and can be used as feature parameters as well as in post
processing.
ht.fluid1.fc(RH,T, pA), where RH is the relative humidity 0 1, T is the
temperature (SI unit: K) and pA is the pressure (SI unit: Pa). It returns the
corresponding water vapor concentration (SI unit: mol/m^3).
The concentration computation assumes that the ideal gas assumption is

valid.
128 |
ht.fluid1.fxvap(RH, T, pA), where RH is the relative humidity 0 1, T is

the temperature (SI units: K) and pA is the pressure (SI units Pa). It returns the
moisture content (SI unit: 1).
ht.fluid1.fpsat(T), where T is the temperature (SI unit: K). It returns the
saturation pressure (SI unit: Pa).

The Heat Transfer with Phase Change feature node is used to solve the heat equation
after specifying the properties of a phase change material according to the apparent
heat capacity formulation.
Instead of adding a latent heat L in the energy balance equation when the material
reaches its phase change temperature Tpc, it is assumed that the transformation occurs
in a temperature interval between Tpc T/2 and Tpc + T/2. In this interval, the
material phase is modeled by a smoothed function, , representing the fraction of
phase before transition, which is equal to 1 before Tpc T/2 and to 0 after
Tpc + T/2. The density, , and the specific enthalpy, H, are expressed by:
= phase1 + ( 1 ) phase2
H = phase1 H phase1 + ( 1 ) phase2 H phase2
where the indices phase1 and phase2 indicate a material in phase 1 or in phase 2,
respectively. Differentiating with respect to temperature, this equality provides the
following formula for the specific heat capacity:
phase1 H phase1 + ( 1 ) phase2 H phase2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cp =
T
which becomes, after some formal transformations:
d m
1
C p = --- ( 1 phase1 C p, phase1 + 2 phase2 C p, phase2 ) + ( H phase2 H phase1 )
dT
Here, 1 and 2 are equal to and 1, respectively. The mass fraction, m, is defined
from phase1, phase2 and according to:
1 2 phase2 1 phase1
m = --- ---------------------------------------------------2
129
It is equal to 1 2 before transformation and 1 2 after transformation. The specific

heat capacity is the sum of an equivalent heat capacity Ceq:
1
C eq = --- ( 1 phase1 C p, phase1 + 2 phase2 C p, phase2 )
and the distribution of latent heat CL:

C L ( T ) = ( H phase2 H phase1 )
d m
dT
In the ideal case, when 1 is the Heaviside function (equal to 0 before

Tpc and to 1 after Tpc), dm dT is the Dirac pulse.
Therefore, CL is the enthalpy jump L at temperature Tpc that is added
when you have a pure substance.
The latent heat distribution CL is approximated by
CL ( T ) = L
d m
dT
so that the total heat per unit volume released during the phase transformation
coincides with the latent heat:
T
T pc + -------2
C L ( T ) dT
T
T pc -------2
= L
T
T pc + -------- d
2
m
dT
T
d
T
T pc -------2
= L
The latent heat L can depend on the absolute pressure. It should not
depend on the temperature.
Finally, the apparent heat capacity Cp, used in the heat equation, is given by:
1
C p = --- ( 1 phase1 C p, phase1 + 2 phase2 C p, phase2 ) + C L
The effective thermal conductivity reduces to:

k = 1 k phase1 + 2 k phase2
and the effective density is:
130 |
= 1 phase1 + 2 phase2
To satisfy energy and mass conservation in phase change models, particular attention
should be paid to the density in time simulations. When the material density is not
constant over time, for example, dependent on the temperature, volume change is
expected. The transport velocity field and the density must be defined so that mass is
conserved locally.
Moving Mesh Interface (described in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual) can be used to account for model deformation.
The Isothermal Domain Feature

The Isothermal Domain feature considers the temperature to be homogeneous in
space but not necessarily in time. This is an approximation adapted to situations where
a domain is nearly at the average temperature and with small fluctuations, for instance,
solid objects made of conductive material immersed in water, or global temperature of
a heated and well insulated room adjacent to a cold environment.
Recalling Equation 3-8 given previously in The Heat Equation section, without
pressure work and viscous dissipation, the equation to be solved reduces to:
C p
dT
= q0
dt
where q0 includes heat sources but also incoming and outgoing heat flux. Integrating
this equation over the domain leads to:
MC p
dT
= Q0
dt
(3-22)
where the domain mass, heat capacity at constant pressure, and heat source are
M =
dv
V
1
C p = ----- C p dv
M
Q0 =
q 0 dv
V
131
The exterior boundaries of each Isothermal Domain need the heat exchange to be
specified.
Isothermal Domain 3
Isothermal Domain 2
Isothermal Domain 1
Isothermal Domain Interfaces
Figure 3-1: Interfaces at exterior boundaries of each Isothermal Domain.

COMSOL Multiphysics provides four types of interface: thermal insulation,
ventilation, convective heat flux and thermal contact.
THERMAL INSULATION
The Thermal insulation condition prevents any heat transfer between both adjacent
domains.
VE N T I L A T I O N
The Ventilation condition is used for cases when an isothermal domain is considered
fluid and has an adjacent domain containing the same fluid. An opening lets the fluid
going from one domain to another with a determined mass flux, denoted by d u or
u d, respectively along or opposite to the geometrical normal vector. The
Ventilation condition is written
Q0 = d u Hd u d Hu
132 |
(3-23)
CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX
The Convective heat flux condition is adapted to cases when an isothermal domain is
considered solid and is adjacent to a fluid. Convection occurs at the interface with a
specified heat transfer coefficient, h. The interface condition reads
Q0 = h ( Tu Td )
(3-24)
THERMAL CONTACT
When an isothermal domain is considered solid and is adjacent to another solid,

thermal contact occurs and is characterized by a given thermal resistance, Rs. At the
interface, the condition Thermal contact reads
Tu Td
Q 0 = -------------------Rs
(3-25)

R E S I S T I V E L A Y E R TY P E
This theory is applicable when Resistive is selected as the Layer type.

The Thin Layer node defines the thickness and thermal conductivity of a resistive
material located on boundaries. This material can be formed of one or more layers. The
resistive material can also be defined through the thermal resistance:
ds
R s = -----ks
The heat flux across the Thin Layer is defined by
Tu Td
n d ( k d T d ) = k s -------------------ds
Td Tu
n u ( k u T u ) = k s -------------------ds
where the u and d subscripts refer to the upside and downside of the layer, respectively.
133
Figure 3-2 shows how Thin Layer splits the temperature into Tu and Td on interior
boundaries:
Downside domain
of the boundary
Upside domain
of the boundary
Td
Tu
Thin Layer boundary
Figure 3-2: Upside and downside temperatures at a thin layer applied on an interior
boundary. The thin layer is represented by the gray domain.
On exterior boundaries, Thin Layer introduces a new degree of freedom represented by
the variable TextFace. Depending on whether the heat domain is on the upside or the
downside of the boundary, TextFace is equal to Tu or Td and the same thing goes for
the dependent variable T. An example is illustrated in the figure below:
Downside domain
of the boundary
T = Td
Tu = TextFace
Thin Layer boundary
Figure 3-3: Upside and downside temperatures at a thin layer applied on an exterior
boundary.
When using the pair Thin Layer node, then the u and d subscripts refer to
the upside and the downside of the pair, respectively, instead of the layer.
134 |
Like any pair feature, the Thin Layer condition contributes to any other
pair feature. However, do not use two conditions of the same type on the
same pair. In order to model a thin resistive layer made of several
materials, use the Multiple layers option, which is available with the Heat
Transfer Module.
When the material has a multilayer structure ks and ds in the expressions above are
replaced by dtot and ktot, which are defined according to Equation 3-26 and
Equation 3-27:
nl
d tot =
dsj
(3-26)
j=1
d tot
k tot = ----------------nl
d sj
------k sj
(3-27)
j=1
where nl is the number of layers.

C O N D U C T I V E L A Y E R TY P E
When Conductive is selected as the Layer type for the Thin Layer feature, it is efficient
for modeling heat transfer in thin layers without the need to create a fine mesh for
them. This module supports heat transfer in conductive layers in 3D, 2D, and 2D
axisymmetry. The material in the thin layer must be a good thermal conductor. A good
example is a copper trace on a printed circuit board, where the traces are good thermal
conductors compared to the boards substrate material. More generally, the Thin Layer
feature can be applied in a part of a geometry with the following properties:
The part is a thin layer compared to the thickness of the adjacent geometry
The part is a good thermal conductor compared to the adjacent geometry
Because the layer is very thin and has a high thermal conductivity, you can assume that
no variations in temperature and in-plane heat flux exist along the layers thickness.
Furthermore, think of the difference in heat flux in the layers normal direction
between its upper and lower face as a heat source or sink that is smeared out along the
layer thickness.
135
A significant benefit is that a layer can be represented as a boundary instead of a

domain, which simplifies the geometry and reduces the required number of mesh
elements. Figure 3-4 shows an example where a conductive layer reduces the mesh
density significantly.
Copper wire modeled

with a mesh
Copper wire represented as a

conductive layer
Figure 3-4: Modeling a copper wire as a domain (top) requires a denser mesh compared to
modeling it as a boundary with a conductive layer (bottom).
To describe heat transfer in conductive layers, the Thin Layer feature uses a variant of
the heat equation that describes the in-plane heat flux in the layer:
T
d s s C s ------- + T ( d s k s TT ) = q q + d s Q s = q s
t
(3-28)
Here the operator T denotes the del or nabla operator projected onto the plane of
the conductive layer. The properties in the equation are:
s is the layer density (kg/m3)
Cs is the layer heat capacity (J/(kgK))
ks is the layer thermal conductivity at constant pressure (W/(mK))
ds is the layer thickness (m)
q is the heat flux from the surroundings into the layer (W/m2)
q is the heat flux from the layer into the domain (W/m2)
Qs represents internal heat sources within the conductive layer (W/m3)
qs is the net outflux of heat through the top and bottom faces of the layer (W/m2)
With the above boundary equation inserted, the general heat flux boundary condition
becomes
136 |
T
n q = d s s C p, s ------- T ( d s k s TT ) on
t
Heat Transfer in a Surface-Mount Package for a Silicon Chip:

model library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/surface
_mount_package
Copper Layer on Silica Glass: model library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorial_Models,_Thin_Structure/copper_layer
GENERAL LAYER TYPE
The General layer type option uses the extra dimensions technology to add the intervals
attached to the boundary selection. When General is selected as a type, it adds the
following contributions:
Q s Cs
T
+ t ( k s t T xdim )
t xdim
Where Txdim is an auxiliary dependent variable defined on the 1D extra dimension.

The constraint T=Txdim is specified on each side of the extra dimension to connect T
to Txdim.
This is how the extra dimensions are used with the General option in Thin Layer:
When Layer type is set to General, the parameter Number of layers is activated. Each
layer has its settings (material properties and thickness).
Each valid value of Number of layers creates a new 1D extra dimension based on
multiple intervals. The number of intervals corresponds to the number of layers and
the length of each interval is related to the thickness.
The number of mesh points for each interval is set to 2 by default. This value cannot
be changed by the user since the extra dimension is not visible in the user interface.
As an example, here is what happens if Number of layers is set to 3:
A 1D extra dimension is created. This extra dimension contains 3 intervals. The first
interval starts at 0 and ends at ds1, the second interval starts at ds1 and ends at ds1+ds2
and the third interval starts at ds1+ds2 and ends at ds1+ds2+ds3.
Here ds1, ds2 and ds3 are the thickness' of the first, the second and the third layer
respectively.
137
The Thermal Contact Feature

The Thermal Contact feature node has correlations to evaluate the joint conductance
at two contacting surfaces.
The heat fluxes at the upside and downside boundaries depend on the temperature
difference according to the relations:
n d ( k d T d ) = h ( T u T d ) + rQ fric
n u ( k u T u ) = h ( T d T u ) + ( 1 r )Q fric
At a microscopic level, contact is made at a finite number of spots as in Figure 3-5.
masp,u
asp,u
Figure 3-5: Contacting surfaces at the microscopic level.

The joint conductance h has three contributions: the constriction conductance, hc,
from the contact spots, the gap conductance, hg, due to the fluid at the interstitial
space, and the radiative conductance, hr:
h = hc + hg + hr
SURFACE ASPERITIES
The microscopic surface asperities are characterized by the average height u,asp and
d,asp and the average slope mu,asp and md,asp. The RMS values asp and masp are
(4.16 in Ref. 8):
asp =
u2, asp + d2, asp
m asp =
m u2, asp + m d2, asp
CONSTRICTION CONDUCTANCE
Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY) Correlation

The Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY) correlation is valid for isotropic rough surfaces
and has been formulated using a model assuming plastic deformation of the surface
asperities. However, this model does not compute nor store the plastic deformations
138 |
of the asperities. It means that, despite that a plastic deformation of the asperities is
assumed, this contact model has no memory. For example, if a load is applied twice the
thermal contact is identical in both cases. The Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY)
correlation relates hc to the asperities and pressure load at the contact interface:
m asp p 0.95
h c = 1.25k contact ----------- -------
asp H c
Here, Hc is the microhardness of the softer material, p is the contact pressure, and
kcontact is the harmonic mean of the contacting surface conductivities:
2k u k d
k contact = -----------------ku + kd
When ku (resp. kd) is not isotropic, it is replaced by its normal

conductivity nTkun (resp. nTkdn).
The relative pressure p/Hc can be evaluated by specifying Hc directly or using the
following relation (4.16.1 in Ref. 8) for the relative pressure using c1 and c2, the
Vickers correlation coefficient and size index:
1
---------------------------------
( 1 + 0.071c 2 )
p
p
------- = --------------------------------------------------
c2
Hc
asp

- m asp
c 1 1.62 --------
The coefficients c1 and c2 are the Vickers correlation coefficient and size index,
respectively, and 0 is equal to 1 m. For materials with Brinell hardness between 1.30
and 7.60 GPa, c1 and c2 are given by the correlation below (4.16.1 in Ref. 8):
HB 2
HB 3
HB
c1
------= 4.0 5.77 -------- + 4.0 -------- 0.61 --------
H0
H0
H0
H0
HB
c 2 = 0.37 + 0.442 -------c1
The Brinell hardness is denoted by HB, and H0 is equal to 3.178 GPa.
139
Mikic Elastic Correlation

The Mikic correlation is valid for isotropic rough surfaces and assumes elastic
deformations of surface asperities. It gives hc by the following relation:
0.94
m asp
2p
h c = 1.54k contact ----------- ------------------------
asp mE contact
Here, Econtact is an effective Youngs modulus for the contact interface, satisfying
(4.16.3 in Ref. 8):
1 u2 1 d2
1 -----------------= --------------- + --------------E contact
Eu
Ed
where Eu and Ed are the Youngs moduli of the two contacting surfaces and u and d
are the Poissons ratios.
GAP CONDUCTANCE
The gap conductance due to interstitial fluid cannot be neglected for high fluid
thermal conductivity or high contact pressure. The parallel-plate gap gas correlation
assumes that the interstitial fluid is a gas and defines hg by:
kg
h g = -----------------Y + Mg
Here kg is the gas conductivity, Y denotes the mean separation thickness (see
Figure 3-5), and Mg is the gas parameter equal to:
M g =
kB Tg
= -----------------------2
2D p g
In these relations, is the contact thermal accommodation parameter, is a gas

property parameter (equal to 1.7 for air), is the gas mean free path, kB is the
Boltzmann constant, D is the average gas particle diameter, pg is the gas pressure
(often the atmospheric pressure), and Tg is the gap temperature equal to:
Tu + Td
T g = -------------------2
RADIATIVE CONDUCTANCE
At high temperatures, above 600 C, radiative conductance needs to be considered.

The gray-diffuse parallel plate model provides the following formula for hr:
140 |
u d
h r = ---------------------------------- ( T u3 + T u2 T d + T u T d2 + T d3 )
u + d u d
which implies that:
u d
h r ( T u T d ) = ---------------------------------- ( T u4 T d4 )
u + d u d
u d
h r ( T d T u ) = ---------------------------------- ( T d4 T u4 )
u + d u d
THERMAL FRICTION
The friction heat, Qfric, is partitioned into rQfric and (1 r)Qfric at the contact
interface. If the two bodies are identical, r and (1 r) would be 0.5 so that half of the
friction heat goes to each surface. However, in the general case where the two bodies
are made of different materials, the partition rate might not be 0.5. The Charrons
relation (Ref. 9) defines r as:
1
r = --------------1 + d
d =
u C p, u k u
------------------------ d C p, d k d
and symmetrically, (1 r) is:

1
( 1 r ) = --------------1 + u
u =
d C p, d k d
------------------------ u C p, u k u
For anisotropic conductivities, nTkdn (resp. nTkun) replaces kd (resp.

ku).
Thermal Contact
Contact Switch: model library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/contact_switch
141
The Thin Rod Feature

The Thin Rod feature is similar to Thin Layer with Layer type set as Conductive. It
provides a lumped heat transfer model to model highly thermally conductive rods as
edges.
The edge condition reads:
q = Al Ql T ( Al kl T T )
with
A l = r l
References for the Heat Transfer Interfaces

1. F.P. Incropera, D.P. DeWitt, T.L. Bergman, and A.S. Lavine, Fundamentals of
Heat and Mass Transfer, John Wiley & Sons, 6th ed., 2006.
3. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, 2007.
4. J. Zhang, A. Gupta, and J. Bakera, Effect of Relative Humidity on the Prediction
of Natural Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients, Heat Transfer Engineering, vol.
28, no. 4, pp. 335342, 2007.
5. P.T. Tsilingiris, Thermophysical and Transport Properties of Humid Air at
Temperature Range Between 0 and 100 C, Energy Conversion and Management,
vol. 29, no. 2008, pp. 10981110, 2007.
6. Monteith, J.L., Unsworth, M.H. (1990), Principles of environmental physics.
Edward Arnold; London, etc.; 290 pp.
7. W. Wagner, and H-J Kretzschmar, International Steam Tables, 2nd ed., Springer,
2008.
8. A. Bejan et al., Heat Transfer Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
9. F. Charron, Partage de la chaleur entre deux corps frottants, Publication
Scientifique et Technique du Ministre de l'Air, no. 182, 1943.
142 |
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media

Interface
This chapter details the porous media version of the heat transfer physics interface
found under the Heat Transfer branch (
Interfaces section.
). Also see About the Heat Transfer
In this chapter:
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
143
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media

Interface
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface (
), found under the Heat Transfer
branch (
) when adding a physics interface, is used to model heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation in porous media. A Heat Transfer in Porous
Media model is active by default on all domains. All functionality for including other
domain types, such as a solid domain, is also available.
The temperature equation defined in porous media domains corresponds to the
convection-diffusion equation with thermodynamic properties averaging models to
account for both solid matrix and fluid properties.
The physics interface is an extension of the generic Heat Transfer interface. When this
physics interface is added, the following default nodes are added in the Model Builder
Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Thermal Insulation (the default boundary condition), and
Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click Heat Transfer in Porous Media
to select physics features from the context menu.
The capability to define material properties, boundary conditions, and more for
porous media heat transfer is activated by selecting the Heat transfer in porous media
check box. (Figure 4-1 ).
Figure 4-1: The capability to model porous media heat transfer is activated by selecting the
Heat transfer in porous media check box in any Settings window for Heat Transfer (ht)
under Physical Model.
The rest of the settings for this physics interface are the same as for the
Heat Transfer interface.
144 |
C H A P T E R 4 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N P O R O U S M E D I A I N T E R F A C E

in Porous Media Interface
Transfer in Porous Media Interface
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface has the following nodes described in this
section:
Thermal Dispersion
Fracture
The rest of the domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes are described for The
Heat Transfer Interface and listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and
Pair Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interfaces.

The Heat Transfer in Porous Media node is used to specify the thermal properties of a
porous matrix. The Thermal Dispersion subnode is available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. The Heat
Transfer in Porous Media model uses the following version of the heat equation to
model heat transfer in fluids:
T
( C p ) eff ------- + C p u T = ( k eff T ) + Q
t
(4-1)
with the following material properties:

is the fluid density.
Cp is the fluid heat capacity at constant pressure.
(Cp)eff is the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant pressure.
T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N P O R O U S M E D I A I N T E R F A C E
145
keff is the effective thermal conductivity (a scalar or a tensor if the thermal

conductivity is anisotropic).
u is the fluid velocity field, either an analytic expression or the velocity field from a
Fluid Flow physics interface. u should be interpreted as the Darcy velocity, that is,
the volume flow rate per unit cross-sectional area. The average linear velocity (the
velocity within the pores) can be calculated as uL = u/L, where L is the fluids
volume fraction, or equivalently the porosity.
Q is the heat source (or sink). Add one or several heat sources as separate physics
features.
When using the ideal gas law to describe a fluid, specifying is sufficient
to evaluate Cp. For common diatomic gases such as air, = 1.4 is the
standard value. Most liquids have = 1.1 while water has = 1.0. is used
in the streamline stabilization and in the variables for heat fluxes and total
energy fluxes. It is also used if the ideal gas law is applied. See
Thermodynamics, Porous Matrix.
With the Heat Transfer Module, the Opaque subnode is added by default
to the entire selection when Surface-to-surface radiation is activated. The
selection can be edited.
FLUID MATERIAL
Select any component material from the list to define Fluid material. The default uses
the Domain material.
HEAT CONDUCTION, FLUID
The default Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) is taken From material. If User
vector q and the temperature gradient T as in q = kT which is
and temperature.
146 |
THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3), Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)), and Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless) for a general gas or
liquid use values From material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions.
Select a Fluid typeGas/Liquid, Moist air, or Ideal gas.
Gas/Liquid
Select Gas/Liquid to specify the Density, the Heat capacity at constant pressure, and the
Ratio of specific heats for a general gas or liquid. The default settings are to use data
From material. Select User defined to enter another value for the density, the heat
capacity, or the ratio of specific heats.
Ideal Gas
Select Ideal gas to use the ideal gas law to describe the fluid. Then:
Select a Gas constant typeSpecific gas constant Rs (SI unit: J/(kgK)) or Mean
molar mass Mn (SI unit: kg/mol). For both properties, the default setting is to use
the property value from the material. Select User defined to enter another value for
either of these material properties.
If Mean molar mass is selected, the software uses the universal gas constant
R = 8.314 J/(molK), which is a built-in physical constant.
From the list under Specify Cp or , select Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)) or Ratio of specific heats (dimensionless). For both properties,
the default setting is to use the property value From material. Select User defined to
define another value for either of these material properties.
For an ideal gas, specify either Cp or the ratio of specific heats, , but not
both since these, in that case, are dependent.
Moist Air
If Moist air is selected, the thermodynamics properties are defined as a function of the
quantity of vapor in the moist air. Four different options are available from the Input
quantity list to define the amount of vapor in the moist air:
Select Vapor mass fraction (the default) to define the vapor mass fraction
(SI unit: kg/kg).
147
Select Concentration to define the concentration of vapor (SI unit: mol/m3). Once
this option is selected a Concentration model input is automatically added in the
Models Inputs section.
Select Moisture content to define the moisture content of the moist air
(SI unit: kg/kg).
Select Relative humidity to define the quantity of vapor from a Reference relative
humidity (SI unit: 1), a Reference temperature (SI unit: K), and a Reference pressure
(SI unit: Pa). These three reference values are used to estimate the mass fraction of
vapor, which is used to define the thermodynamic properties of the moist air.
IMMOBILE SOLIDS
This section contains fields and values that are inputs to expressions defining material
properties. The Solid material list can point to any material in the component. Enter a
Volume fraction p (dimensionless) for the solid material.
HEAT CONDUCTION, POROUS MATRIX
The default Thermal conductivity kp (SI unit: W/(mK)) uses values From material. If
User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on
the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter another value or expression in
the field or matrix.
The thermal conductivity of the material describes the relationship
between the heat flux vector q and the temperature gradient T as
q = kpT, which is Fouriers law of heat conduction.
THERMODYNAMICS, POROUS MATRIX
3
The default Density p (SI unit: kg/m ) uses values From material. If User defined is
selected, enter another value or expression.
148 |
The default Specific heat capacity Cp,p (SI unit: J/(kgK)) uses values From material. If
User defined is selected, enter another value or expression.
The specific heat capacity describes the amount of heat energy required to
produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass of the solid material.
The effective volumetric heat capacity of the solid-liquid system is calculated from
( C p ) eff = p p C p, p + L C p
EFFECTIVE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Select an averaging model for Effective conductivityVolume average (default),

Reciprocal average, or Power law.
When Volume average is selected as the Effective conductivity, the effective
conductivity of the solid-fluid system is given by the weighted arithmetic mean of
fluid and porous matrix conductivities:
k eff = p k p + ( 1 p )k
When Reciprocal average is selected as the Effective conductivity, the effective
conductivity of the solid-fluid system is given by the weighted harmonic mean of
fluid and porous matrix conductivities:
1
1
--- = -----p + --------------pkp
k eff
k
If Power law is selected as the Effective conductivity, the effective conductivity of the
solid-fluid system is given by the weighted geometric mean of fluid and porous
matrix conductivities:
k eff = k pp k
( 1 p )
Thermal Dispersion
The Thermal Dispersion subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the
Heat Transfer in Porous Media parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes
menu. This adds an extra term kdispT to the right-hand side of the heat equation
T
t
149
and specifies values for the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities.

DISPERSIVITIES
Define the Longitudinal dispersivity lo (SI unit: m) and Transverse dispersivity tr

(SI unit: m).
For the Transverse dispersivity the Thermal Dispersion node defines the tensor of
dispersive thermal conductivity
( k disp ) ij = L C p, L D ij
where Dij is the dispersion tensor
uk ul
D ij = ijkl -----------u
and ijkl is the fourth order dispersivity tensor
lo tr
ijkl = tr ij kl + -------------------- ( ik jl + il jk )
2
Fracture
Use the Fracture node to allow heat transfer in fractures inside domains. It can also be
used to allow heat transfer in films.
The settings for the Model Inputs, Heat Conduction, Fluid, and
Thermodynamics, Fluid sections are the same as for Heat Transfer in Fluids.
FRACTURE PROPERTIES
Enter a Fracture thickness dfr (SI unit: m). The default is 0.01 m.
FLUID MATERIAL
By default, the Boundary material is used.

POROUS MATERIAL
By default, the Boundary material is used. Enter a Volume fraction fr (dimensionless).

The default is 0.
150 |
HEAT CONDUCTION, FRACTURE
The default Thermal conductivity kfr (SI unit: W/(mK)) is taken From material. If User

Select an Effective conductivityVolume average (the default) or Power law.
THERMODYNAMICS, FRACTURE
The default Density fr (SI unit: kg/m3) and Specific heat capacity Cp,fr (SI unit:
J/(kgK)) are taken From material. Select User defined to enter other values or
expressions. Default values are 0 kg/m3 and 0 J/(kgK).
Theory for Fracture Feature Node for node information
151
Theory for the Heat Transfer in

Porous Media Interface
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface uses the following version of the heat
equation (Ref. 1):
T
t
(4-2)
with the following material properties:

is the fluid density.
Cp is the fluid heat capacity at constant pressure.
(Cp)eff is the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant pressure.
keff is the effective thermal conductivity (a scalar or a tensor if the thermal
conductivity is anisotropic).
u is the fluid velocity field, either an analytic expression or the velocity field from a
Fluid Flow physics interface. u should be interpreted as the Darcy velocity, that is,
the volume flow rate per unit cross-sectional area. The average linear velocity (the
velocity within the pores) can be calculated as uL = u/L, where L is the fluids
volume fraction, or equivalently the porosity.
Q is the heat source (or sink). Add one or several heat sources as separate physics
features.
The effective thermal conductivity of the solid-fluid system, keff, is related to the
conductivity of the solid kp and to the conductivity of the fluid, k, and depends in a
complex way on the geometry of the medium:
In Ref. 2, three models are proposed for an isotropic medium:
If the heat conduction occurs in parallel in the solid and the fluid, then the effective
thermal conductivity is the weighted arithmetic mean of the conductivities k and kp:
k eff = p k p + L k
152 |
This volume average model provides an upper bound for the effective thermal
conductivity.
If the heat conduction takes place in series, with all of the heat flux passing through
both solid and fluid, then the effective thermal conductivity is the weighted
harmonic mean of the conductivities k and kp:
p
L
1------= ------ + -----kp k
k eff
This reciprocal average model provides a lower bound for the effective thermal
conductivity.
A last estimate is given by the weighted geometric mean of k and kp:
k eff = k pp k
This model provides a good estimate as long as k and kp are not too different from
each other.
When k and kp are equal the three models give the same effective thermal conductivity.
The effective volumetric heat capacity of the solid-fluid system is given by
( C p ) eff = p p C p, p + L C p
Here p denotes the solid materials volume fraction, which is related to the volume
fraction of the liquid L (or porosity) by
L + p = 1
For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time, and the first
term on the left-hand side of Equation 4-2 disappears.
Theory for Fracture Feature Node

When fractures occur in porous media, fluid flow tends to move faster than in the bulk
medium. The transport of heat occurs faster in the fractures that in the surrounding
medium, so in this sense, heat transfer in fractures filled with fluids is more similar to
a highly conductive layer than to a thin thermally resistive layer.
The mass transport in fractures can be modeled as Darcys law in a thin sheet of porous
medium:
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N P O R O U S M E D I A I N T E R F A C E
153

u = --- t p
where u is the tangential Darcys velocity (SI unit: m/s), is the fracture permeability
(SI unit: m2), the fluids dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas), and tp the tangential
gradient of the fluids pressure.
The continuity equation then reads:
d + t ( d fr u ) = d fr Q
t fr
where dfr is the fracture thickness (SI unit: m), its porosity, and Q is a possible mass
source/sink in the fracture. Typically, Darcys Law with tangential derivatives is solved
to compute mass transport, so in addition to the fluid properties, the fracture should
define its own permeability (or hydraulic conductivity in case the fluid is water),
porosity, and fracture thickness.
For heat transfer in fractures, the fracture also needs to define the density of the porous
sheet, heat capacity, and thermal conductivity.
The effective thermal conductivity of the fracture must be adjusted to the fracture
porosity and thermal conductivity of the fluid. In rocks and geological formations, the
fracture might also contain highly conductive material, different than the bulk porous
matrix.
The equation to solve for computing heat transfer in fractures is:
d fr ( C )
eff t
T + d fr ( C ) ( u t T ) = ( ( t ( d fr K
eff
t T ) ) + d fr ( Q h + q s T ) )
where (C)eff is the effective heat capacity at constant pressure of the fracture-fluid
volume, (C) is the fluids density and heat capacity, Keff is the effective thermal
conductivity of the fluid-fracture mixture, Qh and qs are possible heat source or sink
coefficients.
Fracture for node information
154 |
Reference for the Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface

1. J. Bear and Y. Bachmat, Introduction to Modeling of Transport Phenomena in
Porous Media, Kluwer Academic Publisher, 1990.
2. D.A. Nield and A. Bejan, Convection in Porous Media, in Convection Heat
Transfer, Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2013.
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N P O R O U S M E D I A I N T E R F A C E
155
156 |

This chapter details the bioheat transfer version of the heat transfer physics
interface found under the Heat Transfer branch (
Transfer Interfaces section.
). Also see About the Heat
In this chapter:
157

The Bioheat Transfer interface (
), selected under the Heat Transfer branch (
)
when adding a physics interface, is used to model heat transfer by conduction,
convection, and radiation. A Biological tissue model is active by default on all domains.
All functionality for including other domain types, such as a solid domain, are also
available.
The temperature equation defined in biological tissue domains corresponds to the
differential form of the Fourier's law with predefined contributions for bioheat
sources. In addition, tissue damage integral models can be included, based on a
temperature threshold or an energy absorption model.
the Model BuilderBiological Tissue (with a default Bioheat node), Thermal Insulation
(the default boundary condition), and Initial Values. All functionality to include both
solid and fluid domains are also available. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other
nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and sources. You can also
right-click Bioheat Transfer to select physics features from the context menu.
PHYSICAL MODEL
The Heat transfer in biological tissue check box is automatically selected.
The rest of the settings as well as the interior and exterior boundary
conditions are the same as for The Heat Transfer Interface.

Biological Tissue and Bioheat
Interfaces
Hepatic Tumor Ablation: model library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/tumor_ablation
158 |
C H A P T E R 5 : T H E B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
Biological Tissue
The Biological Tissue node adds the bioheat equation as the mathematical model for
heat transfer in biological tissue. See Equation 5-1. Optionally it can define a damage
model to account for overheating or freezing in tissues.
When parts of the model (for example, a heat source) are moving, also
right-click to add a Translational Motion subnode, which includes the
effect of the movement by translation that requires a moving coordinate
system.
The Opaque subnode is automatically added to the entire selection when

the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected on the Settings
window for Bioheat Transfer interface. The selection can be edited.
The default Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) uses values From material. If
the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter another value or expression in
the field or matrix. The defaults are 0 W/(mK).
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)) are taken From material. The heat capacity describes the amount of
heat energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass. If User
defined is selected, enter other values or expressions. The defaults are 0 kg/m3 and
0 J/(kgK), respectively.
DAMAGED TISSUE
This section contains the information about the method used in the analysis.
When the Include damage integral analysis check box is selected, choose Temperature
threshold (the default) or Energy absorption as Damage integral form.
If Temperature threshold is selected as Damage integral form, the section is divided into
two parts, one for hyperthermia analysis and one for cryogenic analysis, containing
each three parameters to be set.
T H E B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
159
For hyperthermia analysis:

Enter the Damage temperature Td,h (SI unit: K) to define the (high) temperature
that the tissue needs to reach to start getting damaged. The default is 323.15 K.
Enter the Damage time td,h (SI unit: s) to define the time needed for the necrosis to
happen while the temperature is above Td,h. The default is 50 s.
Enter the Temperature of necrosis Tn,h (SI unit: K) to define the (high) temperature
to be reached for the necrosis to happen instantly. The default is 373.15 K.
For cryogenic analysis:
Enter the Damage temperature Td,c (SI unit: K) to define the (low) temperature that
the tissue needs to reach to start getting damaged. The default is 273.15 K.
Enter the Damage time td,c (SI unit: s) to define the time needed for the necrosis to
happen while the temperature is below Td,c. The default is 50 s.
Enter the Temperature of necrosis Tn,c (SI unit: K) to define the (low) temperature
to be reached for the necrosis to happen instantly. The default is 253.15 K.
If Energy adsorption is selected as Damage integral form, enter values for:
The Frequency factor A (SI unit: 1/s). Default is taken From material. If User defined
is selected, enter a value or an expression. The default is 7.39 1039 s-1.
The Activation energy dE (SI unit: J/mol). Default is taken From material. If User
defined is selected, enter a value or an expression. The default is 2.577 105 J/mol.
Use Different Material Properties

When the Use different material properties for damaged tissue check box is selected,
choose a Damaged material which can point to any material in the model. The default
uses the Domain material. The healthy tissue properties correspond to the properties
specified in the Heat Conduction, Solid and Thermodynamics, Solid sections. The effective
tissue properties change from the healthy tissue properties to the damaged tissue
properties as the damage evolutes.
There are specific predefined materials available in the Bioheat material
database. See Materials Overview and Bioheat Material Database in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
HEAT CONDUCTION, DAMAGED TISSUE
This section is available when the Use different material properties for damaged tissue
check box is selected.
160 |
Select a Thermal conductivity kd (SI unit: W/(mK))From material (the default) or

User defined. If User defined is selected, choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or
Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter another
value or expression in the field or matrix. The default is 0 W/(mK).
THERMODYNAMICS, DAMAGED TISSUE
This section is available when the Use different material properties for damaged tissue
check box is selected.
The default Density d (SI unit: kg/m3) and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp,d
(SI unit: J/(kgK)) are taken From material. The heat capacity describes the amount of
heat energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass. If User
defined is selected, enter other values or expressions. The defaults are 0 kg/m3 and
0 J/(kgK), respectively.
Damaged Tissue Theory
Bioheat
A default Bioheat node is added to the Biological Tissue node. This feature provides
the source terms that represent blood perfusion and metabolism to model heat transfer
in biological tissue using the bioheat equation:
b Cb b (Tb T) + Qmet
The Bioheat subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent node)
or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
BIOHEAT
Enter values or expressions for these properties and source terms:

Arterial blood temperature Tb (SI unit: K), which is the temperature at which blood
leaves the arterial blood veins and enters the capillaries. T is the temperature in the
tissue, which is the dependent variable that is solved for and not a material property.
The default is 310.15 K.
Specific heat, blood Cb (SI unit: J/(kgK)), which describes the amount of heat
energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass of blood. The
default is 0 J/(kgK).
T H E B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
161
Blood perfusion rate b (SI unit: 1/s, which in this case means (m3/s)/m3),
describes the volume of blood per second that flows through a unit volume of tissue.
The default is 0 1/s.
Density, blood b (SI unit: kg/m3), which is the mass per volume of blood. The
default is 0 kg/m3.
Metabolic heat source Qmet (SI unit: W/m3), which describes heat generation from
metabolism. Enter this quantity as the unit power per unit volume. The default is
0 W/m3.
162 |
Theory for the Bioheat Transfer

Interface
The Bioheat Transfer Interface uses the bioheat equation and the corresponding
physics nodes in the heat transfer physics interface. This is used to model heat transfer
within biological tissue.
This feature uses Pennes approximation to represent heat sources from metabolism
and blood perfusion. The equation for conductive heat transfer using this
approximation reads:
Cp
T
+ ( k T ) = b C b b ( T b T ) + Q met
t
(5-1)
The density , heat capacity at constant pressure Cp, and thermal conductivity k are
the thermal properties of the tissue. For a steady-state problem the temperature does
not change with time and the first term disappears.
To model Equation 5-1 add the Biological Tissue model equation, with a Bioheat
feature. The Biological Tissue model provides the left-hand side of Equation 5-1 while
the Bioheat node provides the two source terms on the right-hand side of
Equation 5-1.
DAMAGED TISSUE THEORY
On the Biological Tissue node, select the Include damage integral analysis check box to
calculate tissue damage.
In hyperthermia processes, tissue necrosis (permanent damage or death of living
tissue) occurs when one of two things happen: too much thermal energy has been
absorbed, or a critical (high) temperature has been exceeded (typically boiling
temperature).
Correspondingly, COMSOL has two ways to model energy absorptiondirect
integration of the energy and integration of how long it has been above a certain
temperature.
In cryogenic processes, the tissue necrosis occurs instead when a critical (low)
temperature has been reached (typically freezing temperature). For this case
T H E O R Y F O R T H E B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
163
COMSOL makes the integration of how long the tissue has been below a certain
temperature.
First Form Integral

In the first form of Damage Integral, tissue necrosis occurs in two cases:
When the temperature T exceeds the hyperthermia damage temperature Tdh for
more than a certain time period tdh, and T is below the cryogenic damage
temperature Tdc for more than a certain time period tdc.
Instantly after T exceeds the hyperthermia necrosis temperature Tnh, or goes below
the cryogenic necrosis temperature Tnc.
In the first case, the damaged tissue indicator, 1, defined by
t
1
1
1 = ------- ( T > T dh )dt + ------- ( T < T dc )dt
t dh
t dc
is the ratio of the period of time when (T > Tdh) to the time limit tdh, plus the ratio of
the period of time when (T < Tdc) to the time limit tdc. It gives an indication of damage
state of the tissue. When it reaches 1, the tissue is necrotic. The fraction of necrotic
tissue corresponds to the quantity min(1,1).
In the second case, the necrosis time indicator, 2, defined by
t
2 =
( T > Tnh )dt + ( T < Tnc )dt

0
evaluates the period of time when (T > Tnh) plus the period of time when (T < Tnc).
If 2 > 0, the tissue is necrotic because it already reached the necrosis temperatures
Tnh or Tnc. Hence, the fraction of necrotic tissue due to immediate necrosis
corresponds to the quantity if(2>0,1,0).
Combining the two cases, the overall fraction of necrotic tissue, d, is equal to:
if(2>0,1,min(1,1))
Second Form Integral

The second form of Damage Integral is applicable only for hyperthermia processes and
provides the degree of tissue injury, , based on the Arrhenius equation:
164 |
dE
-----------
Ae RT dt
Here, A is the frequency factor (SI unit: s-1), and dE is the activation energy for the
irreversible damage reaction (SI unit: J/mol). The parameters A and dE are dependent
on the type of tissue and have been characterized for liver tissues by Jacques et al. (Ref.
2) (A = 7.39 1039 s-1 and E = 2.577 105 J/mol). The fraction of necrotic tissue
is then expressed by:
d = 1 e
Heat Equation
The material properties of the damaged tissue can be redefined to take into account
the influence of tissue injury. If d, Cp,d, and kd denote the density, heat capacity at
constant pressure, and thermal conductivity of the necrotic tissue, respectively, then
two effective quantities are defined:
The effective thermal conductivity, keff=d kd +(1-d)k
The effective effective heat capacity at constant pressure,
(dCp)eff=d dCp,d +(1-d)Cp
In these equalities, d takes one of the two definitions given above according to the
integral form chosen:
if ( ( 2 > 0, 1, min( 1, 1 ) ) first form integral

d =
1 e
second form integral
References for the Bioheat Interface

2. S. Jacques, S. Rastegar, S. Thomsen, and M. Motamedi, Nonlinear Finite-element
Analysis The Role of Dynamic Changes in Blood Perfusion and Optical Properties in
Laser Coagulation of Tissue, IEEE J. Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics,
vol. 2, issue 4, pp. 922933, 1996.
T H E O R Y F O R T H E B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
165
166 |
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells

Interface
This chapter details the thin shells version of the heat transfer physics interface
found under the Heat Transfer branch (
Interfaces section.
). Also see About the Heat Transfer
In this chapter:
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface
167
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells

Interface
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) interface (
), found under the Heat Transfer
branch (
), is used to model heat transfer by conduction and radiation in thin
structures. A Thin Conductive Layer model is active by default on all boundaries. All
functionalities for including other boundary contributions, such as surface-to-surface
radiation, are also available.
The temperature equation defined on shells corresponds to the tangential differential
form of the Fourier's law (see Equation 6-2) that may contain additional contributions
such as heat sources.
The physics interface is available for 2D components, 3D components, and for
axisymmetric components with cylindrical coordinates in 2D.
When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
BuilderThin Conductive Layer, Insulation/Continuity (a default boundary condition),
and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add additional nodes that implement,
for example, edge or point conditions, and heat sources. You can also right-click Heat
Transfer in Thin Shells to select physics features from the context menu.
SETTINGS

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is htsh.
SHELL THICKNESS
Define the Shell thickness ds (SI unit: m) (see Equation 6-2). The default is 0.01 m.
OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS
For 2D models, define the Out-of-plane thickness dz (SI unit: m) (see Equation 6-2).
The default is 1 m.
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C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S I N T E R F A C E
Select the Surface-to-surface radiation check box to add a Radiation Settings section. By
selecting this check box you can also add an Opaque node.
RADIATION SETTINGS
To display this section for any version of the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface, select
the Surface-to-surface radiation check box under the Surface-to-surface Radiation
section.
See The Heat Transfer Interface for details about the Surface-to-surface
radiation method and Radiation resolution settings.
Define the Wavelength dependence of emissivity.
Keep the default value, Constant, to define a diffuse gray radiation model. In this
case, the surface emissivity has the same definition for all wavelengths. The surface
emissivity can still depend on other quantities, in particular on the temperature.
Select Solar and ambient to define a diffuse spectral radiation model with two
spectral bands, one for short wavelengths, [0, 1], (solar radiation) and one for large
wavelengths, [1, +[, (ambient radiation). It is then possible to define the Intervals
endpoint (SI unit: m), 1, to adjust the wavelength intervals corresponding to the
solar and ambient radiation. The surface properties can then be defined for each
spectral band. In particular it is possible to define the solar absorptivity for short
wavelengths and the surface emissivity for large wavelengths.
Choose Multiple spectral bands and set the Number of wavelength bands value (2 to
5), to define a diffuse spectral radiation model. It is then possible to provide a
definition of the surface emissivity for each spectral band. Update Intervals endpoint
(SI unit: m), 1, 2, ..., to define the wavelength intervals [i 1, i[ for i from 1 to
the Number of wavelength bands. Note that the first and the last endpoints, 0 and
N (with N equal to the value selected to define the Number of wavelength bands),
are predefined and equal to 0 and + respectively.
Modify the Transparent media refractive index if it is different from 1 that corresponds
to vacuum refractive index and that is usually a good approximation for air refractive
index.
Also select the Use radiation groups check box to enable the ability of defining radiation
groups, which can, in many cases, speed up the radiation calculations.
T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S I N T E R F A C E
169
Select the Surface-to-surface radiation methodHemicube (the default) or Direct area

integration. See below for descriptions of each method.
If Direct area integration is selected, select the Radiation integration order. Sharp
angles and small gaps between surfaces can require a higher integration order for
more accuracy but also more computational cost to evaluate the irradiation.
If Hemicube is selected, select the Radiation resolution256 is the default.
Select Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic or Quintic to define the
Discretization level used for the surface radiosity shape function.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Temperature T. The variable name can
be changed, but the names of dependent variables must be unique within a model.
ADVANCED SETTINGS
Add both a Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) and Moving Mesh (ale) interface (found
under the Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch when adding a physics interface) then
) and select Advanced Physics Options to display this section.
click the Show button (
When the model contains moving mesh, the Enable conversions between material and
spatial frame check box is selected by default.
This option has no effect when the model does not contain a moving frame since
material and spatial frames are identical. With moving mesh, and when this option is
active, the heat transfer physics interface automatically account for deformation effects
on heat transfer properties. In particular the effects for volume changes on the density
are considered. Rotation effects on thermal conductivity of an anisotropic material
and, more generally, deformation effects on arbitrary thermal conductivity, are also
covered. When the Enable conversions between material and spatial frame check box is
not selected, the feature inputs (for example, Heat Source, Heat Flux, Boundary Heat
Source, and Line Heat Source) are not converted and all are defined on the spatial
frame.
170 |
DISCRETIZATION

) on the Model Builder and then select
Discretization. See Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes for links
in Thin Shells Interface
Shell Conduction: model library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorial_Models,_Thin_Structure/shell_conduction
Transfer in Thin Shells Interface
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface has these boundary, edge, point and pair
nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu
(Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).
The following are described in this section:
Change Thickness
Heat Source (Point or Edge

Condition)
Diffuse Surface
Heat Source (3D Point Condition)
Heat Flux
Initial Values
Heat Flux (Edge or Point

Condition)
Insulation/Continuity
Heat Source
Thin Layered Shell
171
These nodes are described for the radiation Heat Transfer interfaces:
Diffuse Mirror
Radiation Group
Opaque
Temperature

The Change Effective Thickness node models edges (3D components) or point (2D and
2D axisymmetric components) with another thickness than the overall thickness that
is specified in the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface Shell Thickness section (0.01 m
by default). It defines the height of the part of the edge that is exposed to the ambient
surroundings.
CHANGE EFFECTIVE THICKNESS
Enter a value for the Effective thickness de (SI unit: m). The default is 0.01 m. This
value replaces the overall thickness in the selection.
Change Thickness
Use the Change Thickness node to give parts of the shell a different thickness than that
what is specified on the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface Shell Thickness section.
CHANGE THICKNESS
Specify a value for the Shell thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default value is 0.01 m. This
value replaces the overall thickness for the boundaries that are selected.
Heat Flux
The Heat Flux node adds a heat flux q0,u for the upside heat flux and a heat flux q0,d
for the downward heat flux to the right-hand side of Equation 6-1:
172 |
q 0, u + q 0, d
In 2D above contribution is multiplied by dz to account for the

out-of-plane thickness.
For the convective heat flux the following term
q 0 = h u ( T ext, u T ) + h d ( T ext, d T )
is added to the right-hand side of Equation 6-1
T
d s C p ------- ( d s kT ) = d s Q + q 0
t
(6-1)
FRAME SELECTION
To display this section add both a Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) and Moving
Mesh (ale) interface (found under the Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch when adding
) and select Advanced Physics
a physics interface). Then click the Show button (
Options.
The rest of the settings are the same for the Heat Flux node as described under the
Frame Selection section for The Heat Transfer Interface.
UPSIDE CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX
Select between specifying the upside convective heat flux directly or as a convective
term using a heat transfer coefficient.
General Inward Heat Flux

The General inward heat flux button is selected by default. Enter a value or expression
for the inward (or outward, if the quantity is negative) heat flux through the upside
(SI unit: W/m2) in the q0, u field. The default is 0 W/m2.

Click the Convective heat flux button to specify an inward (or outward, if the quantity
is negative) heat flux through the upside (SI unit: W/m2) as hu (Text, u T).
Select a Heat transfer coefficient hu (SI unit: W/(m2K)) to control the type of
convective heat flux to modelUser defined (the default), External natural convection,
Internal natural convection, External forced convection, or Internal forced convection. If
convective flux is only required on the downside, use the default, which sets hu = 0.
173
For all of the options, enter an External temperature, Text, u (SI unit: K).
The rest of the settings are the same for the Heat Flux node, as described for the Heat
Transfer interface under Convective Heat Flux.
DOWNSIDE INWARD HEAT FLUX
The controls in the Downside Inward Heat Flux section are identical to those in the
Upside Inward Heat Flux section except that they apply to the downside instead of the
upside.
Heat Flux (Edge or Point Condition)

Use the Heat Flux node to add heat flux across boundaries. A positive heat flux adds
heat to the domain. The Boundary Heat Flux feature adds a heat source (or sink) to
edges. It adds a heat flux q = deq0.
In 2D, q = dedzq0 to account for the out-of-plane thickness.
FRAME SELECTION
To display this section add both a Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) and Moving
Mesh (ale) interface (found under the Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch when adding
) and select Advanced Physics
a physics interface). Then click the Show button (
Options. The rest of the settings are the same for the Heat Flux node as described under
the Frame Selection section.
HEAT FLUX
See the Heat Flux node, Heat Flux settings section for The Heat Transfer Interface,
which are the same for this physics interface.
174 |
Use the Surface-to-Ambient Radiation condition to add surface-to-ambient radiation to
edges. The net inward heat flux from surface-to-ambient radiation is
4
n ( d k T T ) = ( T amb T )

In 2D, above equation contains an additional factor, dz, to account for
the out-of-plane thickness.

an emissivity of 1 means that it is a perfect blackbody. Select User defined to enter a
different value.
Heat Source
The Heat Source node adds a thermal source Q. It adds the following contributions to
the right-hand side of Equation 6-2: dsQ.
The Heat Source describes heat generation within the shell. Express heating and cooling
with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one or more nodes as required; all
heat sources within a boundary contribute to the total heat source. Specify the heat
source as the heat per volume in the domain, as linear heat source, or as a heat rate.
In 2D components the heat source is also multiplied by dz to account for

HEAT SOURCE
See the Heat Source node, Heat Source settings section for The Heat Transfer
Interface, which are the same for this physics interface.
175
FRAME SELECTION
The settings are the same for the Heat Source node Frame Selection section
Heat Source (Point or Edge Condition)

The Heat Source node models a linear heat source (or sink). It adds a heat source
q = Ql, q = deQb or q = Pl, tot L. A positive q means heating while a negative q means
cooling.
In 2D components, above equation contains an additional factor, dz, to
account for the out-of-plane thickness since selected points correspond to
edges in a 3D geometry.
EDGE OR POINT HEAT SOURCE
If General source is selected, from the Edge heat source type list, select Heat source
defined per unit of length (the default) or Heat source defined per unit of area.
If Heat source defined per unit of length is selected, enter a value for the distributed
heat source, Ql (SI unit: W/m) in unit power per unit length. Positive Ql is heating
while a negative Ql is cooling. The default is 0 W/m.
If Heat source defined per unit of area is selected, enter the boundary heat source Qb
(SI unit: W/m2). A positive Qb is heating and a negative Qb is cooling. The default
is 0 W/m2.
If Overall heat transfer rate is selected, enter the heat rate Ptot (SI unit: W). The default
is 0 W. In this case Ql = Ptot L, where L is the total length of the selected boundaries.
FRAME SELECTION
176 |
Heat Source (3D Point Condition)

The Heat Source node, available in 3D and 2D axisymmetric components only, models
a point heat source (or sink).
PO IN T H EAT SO URC E
Enter the Point heat source Qp (SI unit: W) in unit power. A positive Qp corresponds
to heating while a negative Qp corresponds to cooling. The default is 0 W.
HEAT SOURCE RADIUS
(SI unit: m). This averages the source on a cylinder of given radius around the line.
This option avoids obtaining an increasing temperature value at the line when meshing
finer than this radius. It makes use of the diskavg operator for averaging around the
source.

FRAME SELECTION
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the temperature that can serve as an
initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.
If more than one set of initial values is needed, add an Initial Values node from the
Physics toolbar.
IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Temperature T. The default is
approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20 C).
177
Insulation/Continuity
The Insulation/Continuity node is the default edge condition. On external edges, this
edge condition means that there is no heat flux across the edge:
n ( k g T ) = 0
On internal edges, this edge condition means that the temperature field and its flux is
continuous across the edge.
Diffuse Surface
The Diffuse Surface node models surface-to-ambient radiation on the upside and
downside. The feature adds the following contribution to the right-hand side of
Equation 6-1:
4
4
4
4
u ( T amb
, u T ) + d ( T amb, d T )
In 2D, above equation contains an additional factor, dz, to account for

If the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected under Physical Model for the
physics interface, this section is made available. Select the Include surface-to-surface
radiation check box to define additional settings as described for The
Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface>Diffuse Surface feature.
AMBIENT
Enter an Ambient temperature on both sides of the shell, Tamb,u and Tamb,d (SI unit:
K). The default for both values is 293.15 K.
SURFACE EMISSIVITY
Define the Surface emissivity on the upside and downside, respectively. The surface
emissivities use values From material. Select User defined to enter another value. The
default is 0.
The default for both Material on upside and Material on downside use Boundary material.
The list contains other options based on the materials defined in the model.
178 |
Set the surface emissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0 represents diffuse
mirror and 1 is appropriate for a perfect blackbody. The proper value for a physical
material lies somewhere in-between and can be found from tables or measurements.

The Thin Conductive Layer node adds the heat equation for conductive heat transfer in
shells (see Equation 6-2).
Thermal Conductivity Tensor Components
By default, the Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) uses values From material. If
the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter other values or expressions in
the field or matrix.
Specify the Density (SI unit: kg/m3) and the Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
(SI unit: J/(kgK)) to describe the amount of heat energy required to produce a unit
temperature change in a unit mass. The default settings use values From material for
both. If User defined is selected, enter other values or expressions.
Thin Layered Shell

Use the Thin Layered Shell on the boundary level. This overrides Thin Conductive
Layer to enable modeling multiple sandwich layers in the shell interface.
HEAT CONDUCTION
Select the Number of layers to define (1 to 5) and set the properties for each layer
selected.
Select an option from the Layer (1, 2, 3, 4, or 5) list to assign a material to each layer.
The default setting, Boundary material, takes the material from the boundary.
179
For each layer, enter the Layer thickness ds (SI unit: m). The default is 0.0050 m.
The default Thermal conductivity ks (SI unit: W/(mK)) is taken From material,
which is then taken from the material selected in Layer (1, 2, ...). Select User defined
to enter another value or expression. The default is 0.01 W/(mK).
THERMODYNAMICS
Set the following properties for each Layer.

By default the Layer density s (SI unit: kg/m3) and Layer heat capacity Cs
(SI unit: J/kgK) values are taken From material. Select User defined to enter another
value or expression.
LAYER DISCRETIZATION
This section is only available when the Layer type is set to General.
Define the Number of elements per layer used for the discretization of the thickness for
each layer (the default is 2).
180 |
Theory for the Heat Transfer in Thin

Shells Interface
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface theory is described in this section:
About Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
Heat Transfer Equation in Thin Conductive Shell
Heat Transfer Equation in Thin Layered Shells
About Heat Transfer in Thin Shells

The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface supports two types of heat transfer:
conduction and out-of-plane heat transfer. It is suitable for solving
thermal-conduction problems in thin structures. Because the thermal conductivity
across the shell thickness is very large or the shell is so thin, assume constant
temperature through the shell thickness.
The Thin Conductive Layer node is the main feature. It adds the equation for the
temperature and has a Settings window for defining the thermal conductivity, the heat
capacity and the density:
d C p
T
+ T ( d k g T T ) = 0
s
t
(6-2)
In 2D, Equation 6-2 contains an additional factor, dz, to account for the
Heat Transfer Equation in Thin Conductive Shell

The dependent variable is the temperature T. The physics interface is defined on
boundaries. The governing equation for heat transfer in thin shells is:
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S I N T E R F A C E
181
d s C p
T
+ T ( d s k g TT ) = d s Q + d s h ( T ext, u T ) + d s h ( T ext, d T )
u
d
t
(6-3)
4
+ d s ( T 4 amb, u T ) + d s ( T 4 amb, d T ) + d s q + d s q
u
d
u
d
In 2D, Equation 6-3 contains an additional factor, dz, to account for the
Where T is the tangential derivative along the shell and
ds is the shell thickness (SI unit: m)
Cp is the heat capacity (SI unit: J/(kgK)
kg is the thermal conductivity (SI unit: W/(mK)
Q is the heat source (SI unit: W/m3)
hu and hd are the out-of-plane heat transfer coefficients, upside and downside
(SI unit: W/(m2K))
Text, u and Text, d are the out-of-plane external temperatures, upside and downside
(SI unit: K)
u and d are the out-of-plane surface emissivities, upside and downside (SI unit: 1),
Tamb, u and Tamb, d are the out-of-plane ambient temperatures, upside and
downside (SI unit: K)
qu and qd are the out-of-plane inward heat fluxes, upside and downside
(SI unit: W/m2)
Heat Transfer Equation in Thin Layered Shells

To model multiple sandwiched layers with different material properties and
thicknesses, Thin Layered Shell is the feature to use instead of the default one which is
Thin Conductive Layer. This feature attaches an extra dimension in 1D to the
boundary on which it is applied. This creates a product space between the boundary
and the 1D extra dimension.
The governing equation is:
T xdim
s C s ----------------- + T ( k s TT xdim ) = 0
t
182 |
(6-4)
where Txdim is an auxiliary dependent variable defined on the product space.

The connection between T and Txdim is satisfied through the following integral over
the extra dimension:
1
T = -----ds
xdim Txdim dlxdim
The following notations are used:

s is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)
Cs is the heat capacity (SI unit: J/(kgK)
ks is the thermal conductivity (SI unit: W/(mK)
ds is the shell thickness (SI unit: m)
Adding Extra Dimensions to a Model and Using Extra Dimensions in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

The thermal conductivity kg describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q
and the temperature gradient TT as in
q = k g TT
which is Fouriers law of heat conduction (see also The Heat Equation).
The tensor components are specified in the shell local coordinate system, which is
defined from the geometric tangent and normal vectors. The local x direction, exl, is
the surface tangent vector t1 and the local z direction, ezl, is the normal vector n.
Their cross product defines the third orthogonal direction such that:
e xl =
t1
e yl =
e xl e zl
e zl =
= n t1
From this, a transformation matrix between the shells local coordinate system and the
global coordinate system can be constructed in the following way:
T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S I N T E R F A C E
183
e xlx e ylx e zlx

A = e xly e yly e zly
e xlz e ylz e zlz
The thermal conductivity tensor, kg, can be expressed as
k g = AkA t
184 |
Radiation Physics Interfaces

This chapter describes the physics interfaces for modeling radiative heat transfer,
which are found under the Heat Transfer>Radiation branch (
the Heat Transfer Interfaces section.
). Also see About
In this chapter:
The Radiation Branch Versions of the Heat Transfer Interface
Theory for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
The Radiation in Participating Media Interface
185
The Radiation Branch Versions of the

Heat Transfer Interface
The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface

The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation (ht) interface (
), found under
), is used to model heat transfer by conduction, convection,
the Radiation branch (
and radiation, including surface-to-surface radiation.
A Heat Transfer in Solids model is active by default on all domains and
Surface-to-Surface Radiation option of the Heat Transfer interface is enabled. All
functionality for including other heat transfer models, such as Heat Transfer in Fluids,
is also available.
The radiosity equation defined on boundaries where surface-to-surface radiation is
enabled corresponds to the radiosity method equation.
When this physics interface is added, the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is
selected in the Physical Model section of the main Settings window for Heat Transfer.
The following default nodes are also added to the Model BuilderHeat Transfer in Solids
(with a default Opaque node), Thermal Insulation, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation to select physics
features from the context menu.
See the Radiation Settings section for The Surface-To-Surface Radiation
Interface. The rest of the settings are the same as for The Heat Transfer
Interface.
186 |
CHAPTER 7: RADIATION PHYSICS INTERFACES
Thermo-Photo-Voltaic Cell: model library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/tpv_cell
The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface

The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media (ht) interface (
), found under
), is used to model heat transfer by
the Heat Transfer>Radiation branch (
conduction, convection, and radiation, including radiation in participating
(semi-transparent) media.
A Heat Transfer in Solids model is active by default on all domains and Radiation in
Participating Media option of the Heat Transfer interface is enabled. All functionality
for including other heat transfer models, like Heat Transfer in Fluids, is also available.
The radiative intensity equations defined in participating media domains correspond
to the Rosseland, P1 or discrete ordinates method equations depending on the
selected approximation.
When this physics interface is added, the Radiation in participating media check box is
selected in the Physical Model section of the main Settings window for Heat Transfer.
The following default nodes are also added to the Model BuilderHeat Transfer in
Solids, Initial Values, Thermal Insulation, Opaque Surface, and Continuity on Interior
Boundary. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions. You can also right-click Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media to select physics features from the context menu.
Except for the Participating Media Settings, the rest of the settings are the
same as for The Heat Transfer Interface.
PARTICIPATING MEDIA SETTINGS
Radiation Discretization Method

Select a Radiation discretization methodDiscrete ordinates method (the default),
Rosseland approximation, or P1 approximation.
When Discrete ordinates method is selected, Opaque Surface and Continuity on
Interior Boundary are automatically added as a default feature.
When P1 approximation is selected, Opaque Surface is automatically added as a
default feature and both this and Incident Intensity are made available from the
T H E R A D I A T I O N B R A N C H VE R S I O N S O F T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
187
Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users),
or the context menu (all users). Continuity on Interior Boundary is not available.
When Rosseland approximation is selected, neither Continuity on Interior Boundary
nor Opaque Surface is included or available.
The choice of Radiation discretization method also offers different settings
for the Radiation in Participating Media (Heat Transfer Interface) (all
methods), Opaque Surface (P1 approximation), and Incident Intensity
(P1 approximation) nodes.
Refractive Index
For either selection, define the Refractive index nr (dimensionless) of the participating
media. The same refractive index is used for the whole model.
Performance Index
When Discrete ordinates method is selected, choose a Performance index Pindex from the
list. Select a value between 0 and 1 that modifies the strategy used to define automatic
solver settings. The default is 0.4. With small values, a robust setting for the solver is
expected. With large values (up to 1), less memory is needed to solve the model.
Discrete Ordinates Method

When Discrete ordinates method is selected, choose the Discrete ordinates method order
from the list. This order defines the discretization of the radiative intensity direction.
In 3D, S2, S4, S6, and S8 generate 8, 24, 48, and 80 directions,
respectively. The default is S4.
respectively.
For additional background theory also see Discrete Ordinates Method,

Discrete Ordinates Method Implementation in 2D, Rosseland
Approximation Theory, and P1 Approximation Theory.
Discretization
If Discrete ordinates method or P1 approximation is selected, select the Discretization
levelConstant, Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.
188 |
Branch Versions of the Heat Transfer Interface
Both The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface and The Heat
Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface are versions of the Heat
Transfer interface. The domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes and subnodes
are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu
(Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).
Except for those noted below, the rest of the features are described for the Heat
Transfer interface and listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair
Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interfaces.
Other nodes available include:
Opaque
Diffuse Mirror
Opaque Surface
Diffuse Surface

(Heat Transfer Interface)
Incident Intensity
Radiation in Participating Media (Heat Transfer Interface)

The Radiation in Participating Media node uses the radiative transfer equation
s
I ( ) = I b ( T ) I ( ) + -----4
I ( ) ( , ) d
(7-1)
where
I () is the radiation intensity (function of the position, the wavelength and the
direction ,
T is the temperature,
is the absorption coefficient
189
= + s is the extinction coefficient

s is the scattering coefficient,
Ib(T) is the blackbody radiation intensity,
(', ) is the scattering phase function.
When Rosseland approximation or P1 approximation is selected as the
Radiation discretization method for the physics interface, there is
additional theory, equations, and variables described in Rosseland

Approximation Theory and P1 Approximation Theory.
The following equation is the blackbody radiation intensity and n is the refractive
index:
2
n T
I b ( T ) = ----------------
It also adds the radiative heat source term in the heat transfer equation:
Q = q = ( G 4I ( T ) )
r
r
b
MODELS INPUTS
There is one standard model inputthe Temperature T (SI unit: K). The
default is to use the heat transfer dependent variable.
RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA
This section is available when Rosseland approximation is selected as the Radiation

discretization method for the physics interface. It provides two ways of defining the
Extinction coefficient R. Depending on the available quantities, it can be specified
directly or defined as the sum of the absorption and scattering coefficients. Also see
Rosseland Approximation Theory.
Select an option from the Specify media properties listAbsorption and scattering
coefficients (the default) or Extinction coefficient.
Absorption and scattering coefficients is selected, go to the Absorption and Scattering
settings sections. In this case R is defined as R=+s.
190 |
If Extinction coefficient is selected, the default Rosseland mean extinction coefficient

R (SI unit: 1/m) uses the value From material. If User defined is selected, enter
another value or expression.
ABSORPTION
The default Absorption coefficient (SI unit: 1/m) uses the value From material. The
absorption coefficient defines the amount of radiation, I(), that is absorbed by the
medium. If User defined is selected, enter another value or expression.
SCATTERING
The default Scattering coefficient s (SI unit: 1/m) uses the value From material. If User
defined is selected, enter another value or expression. The default is 0.
When Discrete ordinates method or P1 approximation as the Radiation discretization

method for the physics interface, select the Scattering typeIsotropic, Linear
anisotropic, or Polynomial anisotropic (only with Discrete ordinates method). This
provides different options to define the scattering phase function using the cosine of
the scattering angle, 0:
Isotropic (the default) corresponds to the scattering phase function (0) = 1.
If Linear anisotropic is selected, it defines the scattering phase function as
(0) = 1 + a10. Enter the Legendre coefficient a1.
If Polynomial anisotropic is selected, it defines the scattering phase function
12
( 0 ) = 1 +
am Pm ( 0 )
m=1
Enter the Legendre coefficients a1, , a12 as required.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
When Discrete ordinates method is selected as the Radiation discretization method for
the physics interface, enter an Initial incident radiation I (SI unit: W/m2). The default
is ht.Ibinit.
When P1 approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method for the physics
interface, enter an Initial radiative intensity G (SI unit: W/m2). The default is
(4*pi)*ht.Ibinit.
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The Surface-To-Surface Radiation

Interface
The Surface-to-Surface Radiation (rad) interface (
), found under the Heat
), is used to model heat transfer by radiation. It treats
thermal radiation as an energy transfer between boundaries and external heat sources
where the medium does not participate in the radiation (radiation in transparent
media).
Transfer>Radiation branch (
Whereas the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface computes the
temperature field, this physics interface requires it as model input.
If the medium participates in the radiation (semi-transparent medium), then use the
Radiation in Participating Media interface instead.
The radiosity equation defined on boundaries where surface-to-surface radiation is
enabled corresponds to the radiosity method equation.
From the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions. You can also right-click Surface-to-Surface Radiation to select physics
features from the context menu. For the Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface, select a
Stationary or Time Dependent study as a preset study type. The surface-to-surface
radiation is always stationary (that is, the radiation time scale is assumed to be shorter
than any other time scale), but the physics interface is compatible with all standard
study types.
Absolute (thermodynamical) temperature units must be used. See
Specifying Model Equation Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.
SETTINGS

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The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is rad.
RADIATION SETTINGS
This section is always visible in the Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface. To display

this section for any version of the Heat Transfer interface, select the Surface-to-surface
radiation check box under the Physical Model section.
Define the Wavelength dependence of emissivity.
Keep the default value, Constant, to define a diffuse gray radiation model. In this
case, the surface emissivity has the same definition for all wavelengths. The surface
emissivity can still depend on other quantities, in particular on the temperature.
Select Solar and ambient to define a diffuse spectral radiation model with two
spectral bands, one for short wavelengths, [0, 1], (solar radiation) and one for large
wavelengths, [1, +[, (ambient radiation). It is then possible to define the Intervals
endpoint (SI unit: m), 1, to adjust the wavelength intervals corresponding to the
solar and ambient radiation. The surface properties can then be defined for each
spectral band. In particular it is possible to define the solar absorptivity for short
wavelengths and the surface emissivity for large wavelengths.
Choose Multiple spectral bands and set the Number of wavelength bands value (2 to
5), to define a diffuse spectral radiation model. It is then possible to provide a
definition of the surface emissivity for each spectral band. Update Intervals endpoint
(SI unit: m), 1, 2, ..., to define the wavelength intervals [i 1, i[ for i from 1 to
the Number of wavelength bands. Note that the first and the last endpoints, 0 and
N (with N equal to the value selected to define the Number of wavelength bands),
are predefined and equal to 0 and + respectively.
Modify the Transparent media refractive index if it is different from 1 that corresponds
to vacuum refractive index and that is usually a good approximation for air refractive
index.
Also select the Use radiation groups check box to enable the ability to define radiation
groups, which can, in many cases, speed up the radiation calculations.
Select the Surface-to-surface radiation methodHemicube (the default) or Direct area
integration. See below for descriptions of each method.
If Direct area integration is selected, select a Radiation integration order4 is the

default.
If Hemicube is selected, select a Radiation resolution256 is the default.
T H E S U R F A C E - TO - S U R F A C E R A D I A T I O N I N T E R F A C E
193
Select Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic or Quintic to define the
Discretization level used for the surface radiosity shape function.
Hemicube
Hemicube is the default method for the heat transfer physics interfaces. The more
sophisticated and general hemicube method uses a z-buffered projection on the sides
of a hemicube (with generalizations to 2D and 1D) to account for shadowing effects.
Think of it as rendering digital images of the geometry in five different directions (in
3D; in 2D only three directions are needed), and counting the pixels in each mesh
element to evaluate its view factor.
Its accuracy can be influenced by setting the Radiation resolution of the virtual
snapshots. The number of z-buffer pixels on each side of the 3D hemicube equals the
specified resolution squared. Thus the time required to evaluate the irradiation
increases quadratically with resolution. In 2D, the number of z-buffer pixels is
proportional to the resolution property, and thus the time is, as well.
For an axisymmetric geometry, Gm and Famb must be evaluated in a corresponding
3D geometry obtained by revolving the 2D boundaries about the axis. COMSOL
Multiphysics creates this virtual 3D geometry by revolving the 2D boundary mesh into
a 3D mesh. The resolution can be controlled in the azimuthal direction by setting the
number of azimuthal sectors, which is the same as the number of elements to a full
revolution. Try to balance this number against the mesh resolution in the rz-plane.
Direct Area Integration

COMSOL Multiphysics evaluates the mutual irradiation between surface directly,
without considering which face elements are obstructed by others. This means that
shadowing effects (that is, surface elements being obstructed in nonconvex cases) are
not taken into account. Elements facing away from each other are, however, excluded
from the integrals.
Direct area integration is fast and accurate for simple geometries with no shadowing,
or where the shadowing can be handled by manually assigning boundaries to different
groups.
If shadowing is ignored, global energy is not conserved. Control the
accuracy by specifying a Radiation integration order. Sharp angles and small
gaps between surfaces may require a higher integration order for accuracy
but also more time to evaluate the irradiation.
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DISCRETIZATION

) and select Discretization. See
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes for links to more
information. This section is empty for Surface-to-Surface Radiation (rad) interface
which defines the shape functions discretization in Radiation Settings.
Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface has these domain, boundary, edge, point,
and pair nodes available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).
Diffuse Mirror
Opaque
Diffuse Surface
Radiation Group
Opaque
The Opaque subnode enables to define the surface-to-surface radiation direction on
boundaries surrounding the domains where the Opaque node is defined. When the
Radiation direction is defined by Opacity controlled in surface-to-surface boundary
features, surface-to-surface radiation propagates in non-opaque domains. Alternatively
195
the Radiation direction can be defined using the normal orientation or on both sides of
boundaries. In this case the Opaque node is ignored.
To add an Opaque node either right-click the main physics interface node
or, on the Physics toolbar click Domains and select Opaque. For The Heat
Transfer in Thin Shells Interface you first need to select the
Surface-to-Surface Radiation check box on the physics interface Settings
window.
OPAQUE
When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Constant in the physics interface

settings, this section is empty. The opacity is then defined for all wavelengths.
When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple
spectral bands in the physics interface settings, select the spectral bands for which the
opacity is defined by selecting corresponding Opaque on spectral band i check box. By

default the Opaque feature is active for all spectral bands.
The Wavelength dependence of emissivity is defined in the physics
interface settings, in the Radiation Settings section.
If this feature is combined with heat transfer in 2D and 1D, the
thickness is assumed to be infinite for the view factor computation. The
user defined value for d is still used in the heat transfer equation.
Diffuse Surface
The Diffuse Surface boundary condition feature handles radiation with view factor
calculation. The feature adds one radiosity shape function per spectral interval to its
selection and uses it as surface radiosity.
The Diffuse Surface boundary condition adds a radiative heat source contribution
q = G e b ( T )
on the side of the boundary where the radiation is defined. Where the radiation is
defined on both sides the radiative heat source is defined on both sides too.
196 |
MODEL INPUTS
properties. If such user-defined property groups have been added, the model inputs
are included here.
There is one standard model inputthe Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default is the
temperature variable in the Heat Transfer interface or 293.15 K in the
Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface. This model input is used in the expression for
the blackbody radiation intensity and, when multiple wavelength intervals are used, for
the fractional emissive power. The temperature model input is also used to determine
the variable that receives the radiative heat source. When the model input does not
contain a dependent variable, the radiative heat source is ignored.
RADIATION SETTINGS

settings, select a Radiation direction based on the geometric normal (nx, ny, nz)
Opacity controlled (the default), Negative normal direction, Positive normal direction, or
Both sides.
Opacity controlled requires that each boundary is adjacent to exactly one opaque
domain. Opacity is controlled by the Opaque boundary condition.
Select Negative normal direction to specify that the surface radiates in the negative
normal direction. An arrow indicates the negative normal direction that corresponds
to the direction of the radiation emitted by the surface.
Select Positive normal direction if the surface radiates in the positive normal
direction. An arrow indicates the positive normal direction that corresponds to the
direction of the radiation emitted by the surface.
Select Both sides if the surface radiates on both sides.
spectral bands in the physics interface settings, select a Radiation direction for each
spectral bandOpacity controlled (the default), Negative normal direction, Positive

normal direction, Both sides, or None. The Radiation direction defines the radiation
direction for each spectral band similarly as when Wavelength dependence of emissivity
is Constant. Defining a radiation direction for each spectral band makes it possible to
build models where the transparency/opacity properties defers between spectral
bands. This is useful for example to represent glass opaque to radiation outside of the
0.3-2.5 m wavelength range.
197
The additional choice, None is used when adjacent domains are either both transparent
or both opaque for a given spectral band.
The Wavelength dependence of emissivity is defined in the physics interface

settings, in the Radiation Settings section.
AMBIENT
Select Define ambient temperature on each side when the ambient temperature differs
between the sides of a boundary. This is needed to define ambient temperature for a
surface that radiates on both sides and that is exposed to a hot temperature on one side
(for example, fire) and to a cold temperature on the other side (for example, external
temperature). By default Define ambient temperature on each side is not selected.
Enter an Ambient temperature Tamb (SI unit: K). The default is 293.15 K. When Define
ambient temperature on each side is selected, define the Ambient temperature Tamb, u
and Tamb, d on the up and down side respectively. The geometric normal points from
the down side to the up side.
Set Tamb to the far-away temperature in directions where no other
boundaries obstruct the view. Inside a closed cavity, the ambient view
factor, Famb, is theoretically zero and the value of Tamb therefore should
not matter. It is, however, good practice to set Tamb to T or to a typical
temperature value for the cavity surfaces in such cases because that
minimizes errors introduced by the finite resolution of the view factor
evaluation.
SURF ACE FRA CTION AL EMISS IVE POWER
This section is available only when Wavelength dependence of emissivity is

Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands.
198 |
When the Fractional emissive power is Blackbody/Graybody, the fractional emissive

power is automatically computed for each spectral band as a function of the band
endpoints and surface temperature.

When the Fractional emissive power is User defined, define the Fractional emissive power,
FEPBi for each spectral band. All fractional emissive powers are expected to be in [0,1]
and their sum is expected to be equal to 1.
SURFACE EMISSIVITY
In diffuse gray and diffuse spectral radiation models, the surface emissivity
and the absorptivity must be equal. For this reason it is equivalent to
define the surface emissivity or the absorptivity.
The surface emissivity settings are defined per spectral interval.
When the Radiation direction is Opacity controlled, Negative normal direction, or Positive
normal direction for a spectral band, by default, the Surface emissivity (dimensionless)
uses values From material. This is a property of the material surface that depends both
on the material itself and the structure of the surface. Make sure that a material is
defined at the boundary level (by default materials are defined at the domain level).
When the Radiation direction is set to Both sides for a spectral band, define the Material
on upside and Material on downside:
The defaults for both Material on upside and Material on downside use Boundary
material. The list contains other options based on the materials defined in the
model.
Define the Surface emissivity on the upside and downside, respectively. The
geometric normal points from the down side to the up side. Set the surface
emissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0 represents diffuse mirror and 1 is
appropriate for a perfect blackbody. The proper value for a physical material lies
somewhere in-between and can be found from tables or measurements.
199
When the Radiation direction is set to None for a spectral band, no information is
needed for this spectral band in the Surface Emissivity section.

INITIAL VALUES
The surface radiosity initial values are defined per spectral interval.
When the Radiation direction is Opacity controlled, Negative normal direction, or Positive
normal direction for a spectral band Bi, the default Surface radiosity, JBi,init
(SI unit: W/m2) is defined as
J Bi, init = Bi e b ( T init ) + ( 1 Bi )e b ( T amb )

When Both sides is selected as the Radiation direction,
Enter initial values for the Surface radiosity JBi, init, u and JBi, init, d (SI unit: W/m2).
The default Surface radiosity is ht.JBiinitU and ht.JBiinitD (SI unit: W/m2).
J Bi, init, u = Bi, u e b ( T init ) + ( 1 Bi, u )e b ( T amb, u )
J Bi, init, d = Bi, d e b ( T init ) + ( 1 Bi, d )e b ( T amb, d )
When None is selected as the Radiation direction, no surface radiosity is defined hence
no initial value is needed.
In the notation used here, Bi stands for B1, B2,... up to the maximum
number of spectral intervals.
When the model contains one spectral interval, JBi, init, JBi, init, u and
JBi, init, d are named, respectively, Jinit, Jinit, u and Jinit, d.
200 |
Diffuse Mirror
The Diffuse Mirror node is a variant of the surface-to-surface radiation node with a
surface emissivity equal to zero. Diffuse mirror surfaces are common as approximations
of a surface that is well insulated on one side and for which convection effects can be
neglected on the opposite (radiating) side. It resembles a mirror that absorbs all
irradiation and then radiates it back in all directions. The node adds radiosity shape
function for each spectral band to its selection and uses it as surface radiosity.
The radiative heat flux on a diffuse mirror boundary is zero.
MODEL INPUTS
properties. If such user-defined property groups have been added, the model inputs
are included here.
There is one standard model inputthe Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default is the
temperature variable in the Heat Transfer interface or 293.15 K in the
Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface. It is used in the blackbody radiation intensity
expression.
RADIATION SETTINGS
Select the Radiation direction Opacity controlled (the default), Negative normal
direction, Positive normal direction, or Both sides. For information about these options,
see Diffuse Surface.
AMBIENT
These settings are the same as for the Diffuse Surface node.
IN IT IA L VA LUES
These settings are the same as for the Diffuse Surface node.
If this feature is combined with heat transfer in 2D and 1D, the thickness
is assumed to be infinite for the view factor computation. The user
defined value for d is still used in the heat transfer equation.
201
Use the Prescribed Radiosity node to specify radiosity on the boundary for each spectral
band. Radiosity can be defined as blackbody or graybody radiation. A user-defined
surface radiosity expression can also be defined.
MODEL INPUTS
These settings are the same as for Diffuse Mirror.

RADIATION DIRECTION

settings, select a Radiation direction based on the geometric normal (nx, ny, nz)
Opacity controlled (the default), Negative normal direction, Positive normal direction, or
Both sides.
Opacity controlled requires that each boundary is adjacent to exactly one opaque
domain. Opacity is controlled by the Opaque boundary condition.
Select Negative normal direction to specify that the surface radiates in the negative
normal direction.
Select Positive normal direction if the surface radiates in the positive normal
direction.
Select Both sides if the surface radiates on both sides.
spectral bands in the physics interface settings, select a Radiation direction for each
spectral bandOpacity controlled (the default), Negative normal direction, Positive

normal direction, or Both sides, or None. The Radiation direction defines the radiation
direction for each spectral band similarly as when Wavelength dependence of emissivity
is Constant.
202 |
RADIOSITY
Radiosity does not directly affect the boundary condition on the boundary
where it is specified, but rather how that boundary affects others through
radiation.
Select a Radiosity expressionGraybody radiation (the default), Blackbody radiation, or
User defined.
Blackbody Radiation
When Blackbody radiation is selected it sets the surface radiosity expression
corresponding to a blackbody.
settings, it defines J = eb(T) when radiation is defined on one side or Ju = eb(Tu)
and Jd = eb(Td) when radiation is defined on both sides.
spectral bands, it defines for each spectral band JBi = FEPBi(T)eb(T) when radiation
is defined on one side or JBi,d = FEPBi,d(Td)eb(Td) and Ju = FEPBi,u(Tu)eb(Tu)
when radiation is defined on both sides.
When the temperature varies across a pair (for example when a Thin
Layer condition is active on the same boundary), the temperature used
to define the radiosity is evaluated on the side where the surface
radiation is defined.
The blackbody hemispherical total emissive power is defined by
eb(T) = n2T4
Graybody Radiation
When Graybody radiation is selected it sets the surface radiosity expression
corresponding to a graybody.
By default, the Surface emissivity (dimensionless) is defined From material. In this
case, make sure that a material is defined at the boundary level (materials are defined
by default at the domain level). If User defined is selected for the Surface emissivity, enter
another value for .
203
If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Constant in the physics interface settings,

when radiation is defined on one side, define the Surface emissivity to set
J = eb(T), or
when radiation is defined on both sides, define the Material on upside, the Surface
emissivity u, Material on downside and the Surface emissivity d on the upside and
downside, respectively. The surface radiosity on upside and downside is then defined
by Ju = ueb(Tu) and Jd = deb(Td) respectively.
If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral
bands, for all spectral bands,
when radiation is defined on one side for Bi spectral band, define the Surface
emissivity Bi to set JBi = FEPBiBieb(T), or
when radiation is defined on both sides for Bi spectral band, define the Material on
upside, the Surface emissivity Bi, u, Material on downside and the Surface emissivity
Bi, d on the upside and downside, respectively. The surface radiosity on upside and
downside is then defined by Ju = FEPBi(Tu)Bi, ueb(Tu) and
Jd = FEPBi(Td)Bi, deb(Td) respectively.
The surface emissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0 represents
diffuse mirror and 1 is appropriate for a perfect blackbody. The proper
value for a physical material lies somewhere in-between and can be found
from tables or measurements.
User Defined
If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Constant in the physics interface settings
and Radiosity expression is set to User defined, it sets the surface radiosity expression to
J = J0, which specifies how the radiosity of a boundary is evaluated when that
boundary is visible in the calculation of the irradiation onto another boundary in the
model. Enter a Surface radiosity expression, J0 (SI unit: W/m2). The default is 0
W/m2. When the Radiation direction is set to Both sides (under Radiation Settings) also
define the surface Radiosity expression J0i, u and J0i, d on the upside and downside,
respectively. The geometric normal points from the downside to the upside.
If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands,
similar settings are available for each spectral band.
204 |
Radiation Group
Add a Radiation Group to a Surface-to-Surface Radiation (rad) interface
or any version of a Heat Transfer (ht) interface where the
Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected.
Select the Use radiation groups check box under Radiation Settings. By
default the check box is not selected, which means that all radiative
boundaries belong to the same radiation group.
The Radiation Group node enables you to specify radiation groups to speed up the
radiation calculations and gather boundaries in a radiation problem that have a chance
to see one another.
When the Use radiation groups check box is selected, the node is automatically added
to the Model Builder and contains all boundaries selected in the Prescribed Radiosity
feature.
When the Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral
bands, the radiation groups are defined per spectral band.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
This section should contain any boundary that is selected in a Surface-to-Surface

Radiation, a Diffuse Mirror, or a Prescribed Radiosity node and that has a chance to see
one of the boundary that is already selected in the Radiation Group.
RADIATION GROUP
When the Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Constant, the radiation group is valid
for all wavelengths, this is empty.
When the Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple
spectral bands, the radiation group is defined for all spectral bands by default. Clear
205
Radiation group defined on spectral band i check boxes to remove Bi spectral band from
this radiation group.
Radiation Group Boundaries

The External Radiation Source node is selected from the Global submenu
and is available for 2D and 3D components in the Surface-to-Surface
Radiation (rad) interface or in any version of a Heat Transfer (ht)
interface where the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected.
Add an External Radiation Source to define an external radiation source as a point or
directional radiation source with view factor calculation. Each External Radiation
Source feature contributes to the incident radiative heat flux on all spectral bands, GBi
on all the boundaries where a Diffuse Surface or Diffuse Mirror boundary condition is
active. The source contribution, Gext,Bi, is equal to the product of the view factor of
the source by the source radiosity. For radiation sources located on a point,
Gext,Bi=Fext,Bi Ps,Bi. For directional radiative source Gext,Bi = Fext,Bi q0,s.
The number of spectral bands is defined in the physics interface settings,
in the Radiation Settings. When only one spectral band is defined, the Bi
subscript in variable names is removed.
The external radiation sources are ignored on the boundaries when

neither Diffuse Surface nor Diffuse Mirror is active.
SOURCE
Select a Source positionPoint coordinate (the default) or Infinite distance. In 3D, Solar
position is also available as an option.
206 |
Point Coordinate
If Point coordinate is selected, define the Source location xs (SI unit: m) and the Source
power Ps (SI unit: W, default is 0 W). The source radiates uniformly in all directions.
set the Source power definition to Blackbody or User defined. When Blackbody is selected,
enter the Source temperature, Ts (SI unit: K, default is 5780 K), to define the source
power on the spectral band Bi as Ps,Bi= FEPBi(Ts)Ps where FEPBi(Ts) is the
fractional blackbody emissive power over Bi interval at Ts. When User defined is
selected, enter an expression to define the source power on each spectral band Bi, Ps,Bi
(SI unit: W, default is 0 W).
xs should not belong to any surface where a Diffuse Surface or Diffuse

Mirror boundary condition is active.

Infinite Distance
If Infinite distance is selected, define the Incident radiation direction is (dimensionless)
and the Source heat flux q0,s (SI unit: W/m2). The default is 0 W/m2.
set the Source heat flux definition to Blackbody or User defined. When Blackbody is
selected, enter the Source temperature, Ts (SI unit: K, default is 5780 K), to define the
source heat flux on the spectral band Bi as q0,s,Bi= q0,sFEPBi(Ts)q0,s where
FEPBi(Ts) is the fractional blackbody emissive power over Bi interval at Ts. When User
defined is selected, enter an expression to define the source heat flux on each spectral
band Bi, q0,s,Bi (SI unit: W, default is 0 W).
Solar Position
Solar position is available for 3D components. When this option is
selected, use it to estimate the external radiative heat source due to the
sun.
North, West, and the up directions correspond to the x, y, and z
directions, respectively.
207
Select an option from the Location defined by listCoordinates (the default) or City.
If City is selected, choose a predefined city and country combination from the list. Click
to select the Include daylight saving time (Time zone + 1) check box to add one hour to
the default setting for the city selected. For example, if New York City, USA is selected
and the default standard time zone is UTC -5 hours, when the check box is selected,
the daylight saving time is used instead (UTC -4 hours).
If Coordinates is selected, or your city is not listed in the Location defined by table, define
the following parameters:
Latitude, a decimal value, positive in the northern hemisphere (the default is
Greenwich UK latitude, 51.479). Enter a value without a unit to avoid double
conversion. This is because the latitude value is expected to represent degrees but
the models unit for angles may be different (for example, the SI unit for the angle
is radians).
Longitude, a decimal value, positive at the East of the Prime Meridian (the default is
Greenwich UK longitude, 0.01064). Enter a value without a unit to avoid double
conversion. This is because the latitude value is expected to represent degrees but
the models unit for angles may be different (for example, the SI unit for the angle
is radians).
Time zone, the number of hours to add to UTC to get local time (the default is
Greenwich UK time zone, 0). For example in New York City, USA the time zone is
UTC -5 hours (standard time zone) or UTC -4 hours (with daylight saving time).
For either selection, in the Date table enter the:
Day, the default is 01. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion. This
is because the value is expected to represent days but the models unit for time may
be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds).
Month, the default is 6 (June). Enter a value without a unit to avoid double
conversion. This is because the value is expected to represent months but the
models unit for time may be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds).
Year, the default is 2012. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion.
This is because the value is expected to represent years but the models unit for time
may be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds). The solar position is
accurate for a date between 2000 and 2199.
208 |
For either selection, in the Local time table enter the:

Hour, the default is 12. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion. This
is because the value is expected to represent hours but the models unit for time may
be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds).
Minute, the default is 0. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion.
This is because the value is expected to represent minutes but the models unit for
time may be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds).
Second, the default is 0.
The sun position is updated if the location, date, or local time changes
during a simulation. In particular for transient analysis, if the unit system
for the time is in seconds (the default), the time change can be taken into
account by adding t to the Second field in the Local time table.
For either selection, in the Solar irradiance field Is (SI unit: W/m2) define the incident
radiative intensity coming from the sun. The default is 1000 W/m2. Is represents the
heat flux received from the sun by a surface perpendicular to the sun rays. When
surfaces are not perpendicular to the sun rays the heat flux received from the sun
depends on the incident angle.
the solar irradiance is divided among all spectral bands Bi as q0,s,Bi=
q0,sFEPBi(Tsun)q0,s where FEPBi(Tsun) is the fractional blackbody emissive power
over Bi interval at Tsun=5780K.
209
Theory for the Surface-to-Surface

Radiation Interface
The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface theory is described in this section:
Wavelength Dependence of Surface Emissivity and Absorptivity
The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Gray Surfaces
The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Spectral Surfaces
About Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Guidelines for Solving Surface-to-Surface Radiation Problems
References for the Radiation Interfaces
Wavelength Dependence of Surface Emissivity and Absorptivity

The surface properties for radiation, the emissivity and absorptivity can be dependent
on the angle of emission/absorption, surface temperature or radiation wavelength.
The emissivity and absorptivity are defined in Ref. 2.
The surface-to-surface radiation feature in the Heat Transfer module implements the
radiosity method that enables arbitrary temperature dependence and assumes that the
emissivity and absorptivity is independent of the angle of emission/absorption. It is
also possible to account for wavelength dependence on the surface emissivity and
absorptivity.
PLANK SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION
The Plancks distribution of emissive power for a blackbody in vacuum is given as a

function of the surface temperature and of wavelength.
The blackbody hemispherical emissive power is noted eb, (, T) and defined as
210 |
2n 2 C 1
e b, ( , T ) = -----------------------------C2
------
5 T
e 1
(7-2)
were
is the wavelength in vacuum
C1 = hc02
C2 = hc0/k
h is the Plancks constant
k is the Boltzmann constant
c0 is the speed of the light in vacuum
The graphs below show the hemispherical spectral emissive power for a blackbody at
5780 K (sun blackbody temperature) and for a blackbody at 300 K. The dotted vertical
lines delimit the visible wavelength (0.4 to 0.7 m).
Figure 7-1: Planck distribution of a blackbody at 5780 K.
THEORY FOR THE SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION INTERFACE
211
Figure 7-2: Planck distribution of a blackbody at 300 K.

The integral of eb, (, T) over a spectral band represents the power radiated on the
spectral band and is defined by
2
eb, ( , T ) d = F T T 0 eb, ( , T ) d = F T T n2 T4
1
where F 1 T 2 T is the fractional blackbody emissive power,

2
F 1 T 2 T =
e ( , T ) d
--------------------------------------- b,
e
(
,
T
)
d
0 b,
1
One can notice that

F 1 T 2 T = F 0 2 T F 0 1 T and F 0 = 1
212 |
Note also that

eb ( T ) =
0 eb, ( , T ) d =
n 2 T 4
as defined for a black surface by the Stefan-Boltzmann law.

DIFFUSE-GRAY SURFACES
Diffuse-gray surfaces correspond to the hypothesis that surface properties are

independent of the radiation wavelength and of the angle between the surface normal
and the radiation direction.
The assumption that the surface emissivity is independent of the radiation wavelength
is often valid when most of the radiative power is concentrated on a relatively narrow
spectral band. This is likely the case when the radiation is emitted by surface at
temperatures in limited range.
This setting is rarely applicable if there is a solar radiation.
213
SOLAR AND AMBIENT SPECTRAL BANDS
When solar radiation is part of the model, it is possible to enhance diffuse-gray surface
model by considering two spectral bands: one for short wavelengths and one for large
wavelengths.
It is interesting to notice that about 97% of the radiated power
from a blackbody at 5800 K is at wavelengths of 2.5 m or shorter.
from a blackbody at 700 K is at wavelengths of 2.5 m or longer.
Figure 7-3: Normalized Planck distribution of blackbodies at 700 K and 5800 K

Many problems have a solar load, but the peak temperatures are below 700 K.
In such cases, it is appropriate to use a two-band approach with a solar band (for
wavelengths shorter than 2.5 m) and a ambient band (for wavelengths above
2.5 m). For each surface, properties are then described in terms of a solar absorptivity
and an emissivity.
214 |
Solar irradiation,
< 2.5 m
Re-radiation to
surroundings,
> 2.5 m
Figure 7-4: Absorption of solar radiation and emission to surroundings.

By splitting the bands at the default of 2.5 m, the fraction of absorbed solar radiation
on each surface is defined primarily by the solar absorptivity.
The re-radiation at longer wavelengths (objects below ~700 K) and the re-absorption
of this radiation is defined primarily via the emissivity
Emissivity
Wavelength
Figure 7-5: Solar and ambient spectral band approximation of the surface emissivity by a
constant per band emissivity
215
GENERAL DIFFUSE-SPECTRAL SURFACES
Diffuse-spectral surfaces correspond to the hypothesis that surface properties are

wavelength dependent but independent of the angle between the surface normal and
the radiation direction.
The heat transfer module enables to define constant surface properties per spectral
bands (with up to 5 spectral bands) and to adjust spectral intervals endpoints.
Emissivity
Wavelength
The multiple spectral bands approach is used in cases when the surface emissivity varies
significantly over the bands of interest.
The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Gray Surfaces

The radiation interacts with convective and conductive heat transfer through the
source term in the Heat Flux and Boundary Heat Source boundary conditions. By
definition, this source must be the difference between incident radiation and radiation
leaving the surface. According to the equation given by
q = GJ
where
G is the incoming radiative heat flux, or irradiation (SI unit: W/m2).
J is the total outgoing radiative flux, or radiosity (SI unit: W/m2).
The irradiation, G, at a point can in general be written as a sum according to:
G = G m + G ext + G amb
where
Gm is the mutual irradiation, coming from other boundaries in the model
(SI unit: W/m2).
216 |
(7-3)
Gext is the irradiation from external radiation sources (SI unit: W/m2). Gext is the
sum of the products, for each external source, of the external heat sources view
factor by the corresponding source radiosity. For radiation sources located on a
point, Gext=Fext(x_s) Ps. For directional radiative source Gext=Fext(i_s) q0,s.
G ext =
Gext Ps + Gext q0, s
G amb = n 2 F amb T amb is the ambient irradiation. Famb is an ambient view factor
whose value is equal to the fraction of the field of view that is not covered by other
boundaries. Therefore, by definition, 0 Famb 1 must hold at all points. Tamb is
the assumed far-away temperature in the directions included in Famb.
The radiosity, J, is the sum of the reflected irradiation and the emitted irradiation. For
diffuse-gray surfaces, J is defined by:
J = G + e b ( T )
where
is the surface reflectivity which is equal to 1- for diffuse-gray surfaces.
is the surface emissivity, a dimensionless number in the range 0 1.
Diffuse-gray surface hypothesis corresponds to surfaces where is independent on
the radiation wavelength.
4
e b ( T ) = n 2 T is the blackbody hemispherical total emissive power.

n is the transparent media refractive index.
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (a predefined physical constant equal to
5.670400108 W/(m2T4)).
T is the surface temperature (SI unit: K)
The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface includes these radiation types:
Diffuse Surface is the default radiation type. It requires accurate evaluation of the
mutual irradiation, Gm. The incident radiation at one point on the boundary is a
function of the exiting radiation, or radiosity, J (W/m2), at every other point in
view. The radiosity, in turn, is a function of Gm, which leads to an implicit radiation
balance:
J = ( 1 )G + e b ( T ) = ( 1 ) ( G m ( J ) + G ext + G amb ) + e b ( T )
(7-4)
Diffuse Mirror is a variant of the Diffuse Surface radiation type with = 0. Reradiation
surfaces are common as an approximation of a surface that is well insulated on one
217
side and for which convection effects can be neglected on the opposite (radiating)
side (see Ref. 4). It resembles a mirror that absorbs all irradiation and then radiates
it back in all directions.
Prescribed radiosity makes it possible to specify graybody radiation. The radiosity
expression is then eb(T). A user-defined surface radiosity expression can also be
defined.
The Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface treats the radiosity J as a shape function
unless J is prescribed.
The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Spectral Surfaces

For a general diffuse spectral surface:
J =
=0 ( , T )eb, ( , T ) d
where
(,T) is the hemispherical spectral surface emissivity, a dimensionless number in
the range 0 1. Diffuse-spectral surface corresponds to a surface where is
dependent on the radiation wavelength and surface temperature.
T is the surface temperature (SI unit: K)
eb, (,T) is the blackbody hemispherical emissive power defined by Equation 7-2.
The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface assumes that the surface emissivity and
opacity properties are constant per spectral band. It defines N spectral bands (N=2
when solar and ambient radiation model is used),
B i = [ i 1, i [ i [[ 1..N ]] with 0 = 0 and N =
The surface properties can then be defined per spectral band:
Surface emissivity on Bi: i ( T ) = ( , T ) [ i 1, i [
Ambient irradiation on Bi, assuming that the ambient fractional emissive power
corresponds to the one of a blackbody at Tamb:
G amb, i =
i1
G amb ( ) d = F i 1 T i T F amb e b ( T amb )
External radiation sources on Bi with q 0, s, i and P s, i the external radiation source

heat flux and source power over Bi i [[ 1..N ]] :
218 |
G ext, i =
i1
G ext ( ) d = F ext, i ( i s )q 0, s, i
or
G ext, i =
i1
G ext ( ) d = F ext, i ( i s )P s, i
When the external source fractional emissive power corresponds to the one of a
blackbody at Text, external radiation sources on Bi can be defined from the external
radiation source heat flux, q 0, s , and source power over all wavelength, P s :
G ext, i = F ext, i F i 1 T i T ( i s )q 0, s
or
G ext, i = F ext, i F i 1 T i T ( i s )P s
The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface includes these radiation types:
Diffuse Surface is the default radiation type. The incident radiation over Bi spectral
band at one point on the boundary is a function of the exiting radiation, or
radiosity, Ji (W/m2), at every other point in view. The radiosity, in turn, is a
function of Gm,i, which leads to an implicit radiation balance:
J i = ( 1 i )G i + i e b ( T ) = ( 1 i ) ( G m, i ( J i ) + G ext, i + G amb, i ) + i e b ( T ) (7-5)
Diffuse Mirror is a variant of the Diffuse Surface radiation type with i = 0. Reradiation
surfaces are common as an approximation of a surface that is well insulated on one
side and for which convection effects can be neglected on the opposite (radiating)
side (see Ref. 4). It resembles a mirror that absorbs all irradiation and then radiates
it back in all directions.
Prescribed Radiosity makes it possible to specify the surface radiation for each spectral
band. Using graybody radiation definition, the radiosity is then F 1 T 2 T e b ( T ) .
A user-defined surface radiosity expression can also be defined.
The Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface treats the radiosity Ji as a shape function
unless Ji is prescribed.
219

The strategy for evaluating view factors is central to any radiation simulation. Loosely
speaking, a view factor is a measure of how much influence the radiosity at a given part
of the boundary has on the irradiation at some other part.
The quantities Gm and Famb in Equation 7-4 are not strictly view factors in the
traditional sense. Famb is the view factor of the ambient portion of the field of view,
which is considered to be a single boundary with constant radiosity
J amb = e b ( T amb )
Gm, on the other hand, is the integral over all visible points of a differential view factor
times the radiosity of the corresponding source point. In the discrete model, think of
it as a product of a view factor matrix and a radiosity vector. This is, however, not
necessarily the way the calculation is performed.
A separate evaluation is performed for each unique point where Gm or Famb is
requested, typically for each quadrature point during solution. Differential view factors
are normally computed only once, the first time they are needed, and then stored in
memory until next time the model definition or the mesh is changed.
The Heat Transfer Module supports two surface-to-surface radiation methods, which
are selected in the Radiation Settings section from the Heat Transfer interface.
View factors are always calculated directly from the mesh, which is a
polygonal, flat-faceted representation of the geometry. To improve the
accuracy of the radiative heat transfer simulation, the mesh must be
refined rather than raising the element order.
VIEW FACTOR FOR EXTERNAL RADIATION SOURCES
In 3D, the view factor for a point at finite distance is given by

2
cos ( 4r )
where is the angle between the normal to the irradiated surface and the direction of
the source, and r is the distance from the source. For a source at infinity, the view factor
is given by cos .
In 2D the view factor for a point at finite distance is given by
cos ( 2r )
220 |
and the view factor for a source at infinity is cos .

SO LA R PO SITION
The sun is the most common example of an external radiation source. The position of
the sun is necessary to determine the direction of the corresponding external radiation
source. The direction of sunlight (zenith angle and the solar elevation) is automatically
computed from the latitude, longitude, time zone, date, and time using similar
method as described in Ref. 6. The estimated solar position is accurate for a date
between year 2000 and 2199, due to an approximation used in the Julian Day
calculation.
The zenith angle (zen) and the azimuth (azi) angles of the sun are converted into a
direction vector (isx, isy, isz) in Cartesian coordinates assuming that the North, the
West, and the up directions correspond to the x, y, and z directions, respectively, in the
model. The relation between azi, zen and (isx, isy, isz) is given by:
is x = cos ( azi ) sin ( zen )
is y = sin ( azi ) sin ( zen )
is z = cos ( zen )
RADIATION IN AXISYMMETRIC GEOMETRIES
For an axisymmetric geometry, Gm and Famb must be evaluated in a corresponding

3D geometry obtained by revolving the 2D boundaries about the axis. COMSOL
Multiphysics creates this virtual 3D geometry by revolving the 2D boundary mesh into
a 3D mesh. The resolution can be controlled in the azimuthal direction by setting the
number of azimuthal sectors, which is the same as the number of elements to a full
revolution. Try to balance this number against the mesh resolution in the rz-plane.
This number, Azimuthal sectors, is accessible from the Radiation Settings section in
physics interfaces for heat transfer.
Select between the hemicube and the direct area integration methods also in axial
symmetry. Their settings work the same way as in 3D.
While Gm and Famb are in fact evaluated in a full 3D, the number of
points where they are requested is limited to the quadrature points on the
boundary of a 2D geometry. The savings compared to a full 3D
simulation are therefore substantial despite the full 3D view factor code
being used.
221
About Surface-to-Surface Radiation

Surface-to-surface radiation is more complex than those topics discussed in the section
Radiative Heat Transfer in Transparent Media. It includes radiation from both the
ambient surroundings and from other surfaces. A generalized equation for the
irradiative flux is:
G = G m + G ext + G amb
(7-6)
where
Gm is the mutual irradiation (SI unit: W/m2) arriving from other surfaces in the
modeled geometry, Gm is determined from the geometry and the local
temperatures of the surrounding boundaries.
Gext is irradiation from external sources (SI unit: W/m2).
Gamb = Fambeb(Tamb) is the ambient irradiation (SI unit: W/m2), Famb is the
ambient view factor and Tamb is the assumed far-away temperature in the directions
included in Famb. Famb describes the portion of the view from each point that is
covered by ambient conditions.
The following sections derive the equations for Gm, Gext and Gamb for a general 3D
case.
Consider a point x on a surface as in Figure 7-6. Point x can see points on other
surfaces as well as the ambient surrounding. Assume that the points on the other
surfaces have a local radiosity, J', while the ambient surrounding has a constant
temperature, Tamb.
222 |
Figure 7-6: Example geometry for surface-to-surface radiation.

The mutual irradiation at point x is given by the following surface integral:
Gm =
( n' r ) ( n r )
- J' dS
----------------------------------4
r
S'
The heat flux that arrives from x depends on the local radiosity J projected onto x.
The projection is computed using the normal vectors n and n along with the vector
r, which points from x to x.
The ambient view factor, Famb, is determined from the integral of the surrounding
surfaces S', here denoted as F, determined from the integral below:
F amb = 1 F ' = 1
( n' r ) ( n r )
- dS
----------------------------------4
r
S'
The two last equations plug into Equation 7-6 to yield the final equation for irradiative
flux.
223
The equations used so far apply to the general 3D case. 2D geometries result in simpler
integrals. For 2D the resulting equations for the mutual irradiation and ambient view
factor are
Gm =
( n' r ) ( n r )
- J' dS
----------------------------------------3
2r
F amb = 1
(7-7)
S '
( n' r ) ( n r )
- dS
----------------------------------------3
2r
S '
where the integral over S ' denotes the line integral along the boundaries of the 2D
geometry.
In axisymmetric geometries, the irradiation and ambient view factor cannot be
computed directly from a closed-form expression. Instead, a virtual 3D geometry must
be constructed, and the view factors evaluated according to Equation 7-7.
Guidelines for Solving Surface-to-Surface Radiation Problems

The following guidelines are helpful when selecting solver settings for models that
involve surface-to-surface radiation:
Surface-to-surface radiation makes the Jacobian matrix of the discrete model partly
filled as opposed to the usual sparse matrix. The additional nonzero elements in the
matrix appear in the rows and columns corresponding to the radiosity degrees of
freedom. It is therefore common practice to keep the element order of the radiosity
variable, J, low. By default, linear Lagrange elements are used irrespective of the
shape-function order specified for the temperature. When you need to increase the
resolution of your temperature field, it might be worth considering raising the order
of the temperature elements instead of refining the mesh.
The Assembly block size parameter (found in the Advanced section of the solver
feature) can have a major influence on memory usage during the assembly of
problems where surface-to-surface radiation is enabled. When surface-to-surface is
detected, the solver sets the assembly block size at 100. Using a smaller block size
also leads to more frequent updates of the progress bar.
224 |

The Radiation Group node is only available when the Use radiation groups
check box is selected under Radiation Settings. By default this check box
is not selected, which means that all radiative boundaries belong to the
same radiation group.
For radiation problems, a boundary grouping can be applied to save computational
time. A radiation group can be defined using a Radiation Group node.
A default group contains all boundaries selected in a Diffuse Surface, Diffuse Mirror, or
Prescribed Radiosity node. When a node is added to another radiation group, it is
overridden in the default group. Then this boundary can be added to other radiation
groups without being overridden by the manually added radiation groups.
Be careful when grouping boundaries in axisymmetric geometries. The
grouping cannot be based on which boundaries have a free view toward
each other in the 2D geometry. Instead, consider the full 3D geometry,
obtained by revolving the model geometry about the z axis, when
defining groups.
For example, parallel vertical boundaries must typically belong to the
same group in 2D axisymmetric components, but to different groups in a
planar model using the same 2D geometry.
Figure 7-7 shows four examples of possible boundary groupings. On boundaries that
have no number, the user has NOT set a node among the Surface-to-Surface
Radiation, Diffuse Mirror, and Prescribed Radiosity nodes. These boundaries do not
irradiate other boundaries, neither do other boundaries irradiate them.
On boundaries that belong to one or more radiation group, the user has set a node
among the Surface-to-Surface Radiation, Diffuse Mirror, and Prescribed Radiosity
nodes. The numbers on each boundary specify different groups to which the boundary
belongs.
To obtain optimal computational performance, it is good practice to specify as many
groups as possible as opposed to specifying few but large groups. For example, in
Figure 7-7, case (b) is more efficient than case (d).
225
B
1
12
2
123
2
3
inefficient boundary grouping
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
Figure 7-7: Examples of radiation group boundaries.
References for the Radiation Interfaces

1. M.F. Modest, Radiative Heat Transfer, 2nd ed., Academic Press, San Diego,
California, 2003.
2. R. Sieger and J. Howell, Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, 4th ed., Taylor &
Francis, New York, 2002.
3. W.A. Fiveland, The Selection of Discrete Ordinate Quadrature Sets for Anisotropic
Scattering, Fundamentals of Radiation Transfer, HTD, vol. 160, ASME, 1991.
4. F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th
ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2002.
5. J.R. Welty, C.E. Wicks, and R.E. Wilson, Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat, and
Mass Transfer, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1983.
6. http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/grad/solcalc
226 |
T he R a di a t i o n i n Part i ci p at i n g Med i a
Interface
The Radiation in Participating Media (rpm) interface (
), found under the Heat
Transfer>Radiation branch (
), is used to model radiative heat transfer inside
participating (semi-transparent media) media.
Whereas the Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media interface computes
the temperature field, this physics interface requires it as model input.
If the medium does not participate in the radiation (transparent medium), then use the
Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface instead.
The radiative intensity equations defined in participating media domains correspond

to a P1 approximation or to the discrete ordinates method approximation equations
depending on the selected approximation.
When the physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
BuilderRadiation in Participating Media, Wall, Continuity on Interior Boundary, and
Initial Values. Right-click the main node to add boundary conditions or other features.
Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions. You can also right-click Radiation in participating media to select
physics features from the context menu.
To display this section select the Radiation in participating media check box under
Physical Model on any version of the Settings window for Heat Transfer.
PARTICIPATING MEDIA SETTINGS
Radiation Discretization Method

Select a Radiation discretization methodDiscrete ordinates method (the default) or P1
approximation.
When Discrete ordinates method is selected, Opaque Surface and Continuity on
Interior Boundary are automatically added as a default feature.
When P1 approximation is selected, Opaque Surface is automatically added as a
default feature and both this and Incident Intensity are made available from the
THE RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA INTERFACE
227
Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users),
or the context menu (all users). Continuity on Interior Boundary is not available.
The choice of Radiation discretization method also offers different settings
for the Radiation in Participating Media (Heat Transfer Interface) (all
methods), Opaque Surface (P1 approximation), and Incident Intensity
(P1 approximation) nodes.
Refractive Index
For either selection, define the Refractive index nr (dimensionless) of the participating
media. The same refractive index is used for the whole model.
Performance Index
When Discrete ordinates method is selected, choose a Performance index Pindex from the
list. Select a value between 0 and 1 that modifies the strategy used to define automatic
solver settings. The default is 0.4. With small values, a robust setting for the solver is
expected. With large values (up to 1), less memory is needed to solve the model.

When Discrete ordinates method is selected, choose the Discrete ordinates method order
from the list. This order defines the discretization of the radiative intensity direction.
respectively. The default is S4.
respectively.
For additional background theory also see Discrete Ordinates Method,

Discrete Ordinates Method Implementation in 2D, and P1
Approximation Theory.
Discretization
If Discrete ordinates method or P1 approximation is selected, select the Discretization
levelConstant, Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.
228 |
SETTINGS

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is rpm.
Radiative Heat Transfer in Finite Cylindrical Media: model library
path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Models/cylinder_participating_media
Radiative Heat Transfer in a Utility Boiler: model library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/boiler
in Participating Media Interface
The Radiation in Participating Media Interface has these domain, boundary, edge,
point, and pair nodes available and described here:
Radiation in Participating Media (rpm Interface)
These nodes are described for other physics interfaces:
Incident Intensity
Opaque Surface
Radiation in Participating Media (rpm Interface)

The Radiation in Participating Media node uses the radiative transfer equation
s
I ( ) = I b ( T ) I ( ) + -----4
I ( ) ( , ) d
(7-8)
where
I() is the radiative intensity in the direction
229
T is the temperature
, = + s and s are absorption, extinction, and scattering coefficients
Ib is the blackbody radiative intensity
is the scattering phase function.
When P1 approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method
for the physics interface, there is additional theory, equations, and
variables described in P1 Approximation Theory.
In the following equation Ib is the blackbody radiation intensity and n is the refractive
index:
2
n T
I b ( T ) = ----------------
Ib is involved in the radiative heat source term:
Q r = q r = ( G 4I b ( T ) )
where G is defined by
4
G =
I ( )
ABSORPTION
The default Absorption coefficient (SI unit: 1/m) uses the value From material. The
absorption coefficient defines the amount of radiation, I(), that is absorbed by the
medium. If User defined is selected, enter another value or expression.
SCATTERING
The default Scattering coefficient s (SI unit: 1/m) uses the value From material. If User
defined is selected, enter another value or expression. The default is 0.
Select the Scattering typeIsotropic, Linear anisotropic, or Polynomial anisotropic (only
with Discrete ordinates method). This provides different options to define the scattering
phase function using the cosine of the scattering angle, 0:
Isotropic (the default) corresponds to the scattering phase function ( 0 ) = 1 .
230 |
If Linear anisotropic is selected, it defines the scattering phase function as

( 0 ) = 1 + a 1 0 . Enter the Legendre coefficient a1.
If Polynomial anisotropic is selected, it defines the scattering phase function
12
( 0 ) = 1 +
am Pm ( 0 )
m=1
Enter the Legendre coefficients a1, , a12 as required.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
When Discrete ordinates method is selected as the Radiation discretization method for
the physics interface, enter an Initial radiative intensity I (SI unit: W/m2). The default
is rpm.Ibinit.
When P1 approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method for the physics
interface, enter an Initial incident radiation G (SI unit: W/m2). The default is
(4*pi)*rpm.Ibinit.
Opaque Surface
The Opaque Surface node defines a boundary opaque to radiation. The Opaque Surface
node prescribes incident intensities on a boundary and accounts for the net radiative
heat flux, qw, that is absorbed by the surface.
The Opaque Surface node is available for The Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media Interface version of the Heat Transfer interface. It is also available
for The Radiation in Participating Media Interface.
MODELS INPUTS
This section contains fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define
material properties. If such user-defined materials are added, the model inputs appear
here.
231
There is one standard model inputthe Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default is
293.15 K and is used in the blackbody radiative intensity expression.
The boundary temperature definition can differ from that of the

temperature in the adjacent domain.
WA LL SE TTIN GS
Select a Wall type to define the behavior of the wallGray wall or Black wall.
Gray Wall
If Gray wall is selected the default Surface emissivity value is taken From material (a
material defined on the boundaries). Select User defined to enter another value or
expression.
An emissivity of 0 means that the surface emits no radiation at all and that all outgoing
radiation is diffusely reflected by this boundary. An emissivity of 1 means that the
surface is a perfect blackbody, outgoing radiation is fully absorbed on this boundary.
Radiative intensity (W/m2 in SI units) along incoming discrete directions on this
boundary is defined by
1 w
I i, bnd = w I b ( T ) + --------------- q out
Black Wall
If Black wall is selected, no user input is required and the radiative intensity along the
incoming discrete directions on this boundary is defined by
I i, bnd = I b ( T )
Values of radiative intensity along outgoing discrete directions are not prescribed.
Incident Intensity
Use an Incident Intensity node to specify the radiative intensity along incident
directions on a boundary.
232 |
The Incident Intensity node is available for The Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media Interface version of the Heat Transfer interface. It is also available
for The Radiation in Participating Media Interface.
INCIDENT INTENSITY
Enter a Boundary radiation intensity Iwall (SI unit: W/m2). This represents the value
of radiative intensity along incoming discrete directions. Values of radiative intensity
on outgoing discrete directions are not prescribed.
When Discrete ordinates method is selected, the components of each
discrete ordinate vector can be used in this expression. The syntax is
name.sx, name.sy, name.sz where name is the physics interface node
name. By default, the Heat Transfer interface is ht so ht.sx, ht.sy, and
ht.sz correspond to the components of discrete ordinate vectors.

When Discrete ordinates method is selected, the Continuity on Interior Boundary node
enables intensity conservation across internal boundaries. It is the default boundary
condition for all internal boundaries. For P1 approximation and Rosseland
approximation this boundary condition is not available since it is not needed.
233
Theory for the Radiation in

Participating Media Interface
Radiation and Participating Media Interactions
Figure 7-8: Example of interactions between participating media and radiation.

In some applications the medium is not completely transparent and the radiation rays
interact with the medium.
Let I() denote the radiative intensity traveling in a given direction, . Different kinds
of interactions are observed:
Absorption: The medium absorbs a fraction of the incident radiation. The amount
of absorbed radiation is I(), where is the absorption coefficient.
Emission: The medium emits radiation in all directions. The amount of emitted
radiative intensity is equal to Ib, where Ib is the blackbody radiation intensity.
Scattering: A part of the radiation coming from a given direction is scattered in other
directions. The scattering properties of the medium are described by the scattering
phase function (i, j), which gives the probability that a ray coming from one
direction i is scattered into the direction j. The phase function (i, j) satisfies
234 |
1
-----4
( i, ) di
= 1
Radiative intensity in a given direction is attenuated and augmented by scattering:

- It is attenuated because a part of incident radiation in this direction is scattered
into other directions. The amount of radiation attenuated by scattering is sI().
- It is augmented because a part of radiative intensity coming from other directions
is scattered in all direction, including the direction we are looking at. The amount
of radiation augmented by scattering is obtained by integrating scattering coming
from all directions i:
------s
4
I ( i ) ( i, ) di
4
Radiative Transfer Equation

The balance of the radiative intensity including all contributions (propagation,
emission, absorption, and scattering) can now be formulated. The general radiative
transfer equation can be written as (see Ref. 1)
s
I ( ) = I b ( T ) I ( ) + -----4
I ( ) ( , ) d
(7-9)
where
I() is the radiative intensity at a given position following the direction
T is the temperature
, =+ s, s are absorption, extinction, and scattering coefficients, respectively
2
n T
I b ( T ) = ----------------
(7-10)
Equation 7-10 is the blackbody radiation intensity, and n is the refractive index of
the media
( ', ) is the phase function that gives the probability that a ray from the
direction is scattered into the direction. The phase functions definition is material
dependent and its definition can be complicated. It is common to use approximate
THEORY FOR THE RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA INTERFACE
235
scattering phase functions that are defined using the cosine of the scattering angle, 0.
The current implementation handles:
Isotropic phase function:
( ', ) = ( 0 ) = 1
Linear anisotropic phase function:
( 0 ) = 1 + a1 0
Polynomial anisotropic up to the 12th order:
12
( 0 ) = 1 +
an Pn ( 0 )
n=1
th
where Pn are n -order Legendre polynomials.

Legendre polynomials can be defined by the Rodriguez formula:
k
1 dk 2
P k ( x ) = ----------((x 1) )
k
k
2 k! d x
A quantity of interest is the incident radiation, denoted G and defined by

4
G =
I ( )
Boundary Condition for the Transfer Equation

For gray walls, corresponding to opaque surfaces reflecting diffusively and emitting,
the radiative intensity Ibnd() entering participating media along the direction is
d
I bnd ( ) = w I b ( T ) + ------ q out
for all such that n < 0
where
2
n T
I b ( T ) = ----------------
(7-11)
Equation 7-11 is the blackbody radiation intensity and n is the refractive index
w is the surface emissivity, which is in the range [0, 1]
236 |
d = 1 w is the diffusive reflectivity

n is the outward normal vector
qout is the heat flux striking the wall:
q out =
wj Ij n j
n j > 0
For black walls w = 1 and d = 0. Thus Ibnd() = Ib(T).
Heat Transfer Equation in Participating Media

Heat flux in gray media is defined by
4
qr =
I ( )
Heat flux divergence can be defined as a function of G and T (see Ref. 1):
Q r = q r = ( G 4I b ( T ) )
In order to couple radiation in participating media, radiative heat flux is taken into
account in addition to conductive heat flux: q = qc + qr. The heat transfer equation
reads
T p
T
C p ------- + ( u )T = ( q c + q r ) + :S ---- ------- ------ + ( u )p + Q
t
T p t
and is implemented using following form:
T p
T
C p ------- + ( u )T = q c + ( G 4nT 4 ) + :S ---- ------- ------ + ( u )p + Q
t
T p t
The discrete ordinates method is implemented for 3D and 2D

geometries.
237
Radiative intensity is defined for any direction , because the angular space is
continuous. In order to treat radiative intensity equation numerically, the angular space
is discretized.
The SN approximation provides a discretization of angular space into n = N(N + 2) in
3D (or n = N(N + 2)/2 in 2D) discrete directions. It consists of a set of directions and
quadrature weights. Several sets are available in the literature. A set should satisfy first,
second, and third moments (see Ref. 1); it is also recommended that the quadrature
fulfills the half moment for vectors of Cartesian basis. Since it is not possible to fulfill
exactly all these conditions, accuracy should be improved when N increases.
Following the conclusion of Ref. 3, the implementation uses LSE symmetric
quadrature for S2, S4, S6, and S8. LSE symmetric quadrature fulfills the half, first,
second, and third moments.
Thanks to angular space discretization, integrals over directions are replaced by
numerical quadratures of discrete directions:
4
I ( ) d
wj Ij
j=1
Depending on the value of N, a set of n dependent variables has to be defined and

solved for I1, I2, , In.
Each dependent variable obeys the equation
s
i I i = I b ( T ) I i + -----4
w j I j ( j, i )
j=1
with the boundary condition

d
I i, bnd = w I b ( T ) + ------ q out
for all i such that n i < 0
Discrete Ordinates Method Implementation in 2D

For a given index i, lets define 2 indexes, i+ and i-, so that
, i+ and i- have the same components in the (x,y) plane and
i+ and i- have opposite components in the z direction.
238 |
Assuming that a model is invariant in the z direction, we can write the DOM form of
the radiative transfer equation in two directions, i+ and i-:
i + I i +
s
= I b ( T ) I i+ + -----4
w j I j ( j, i )
+
j=1
s
i- I i- = I b ( T ) I i- + -----4
w j I j ( j, i )
-
j=1
By summing the two above equations and introducing Ii which is equal to I i- and I i+
(which are equal in 2D) we get:
n
s
2 i Ii = 2I b ( T ) 2Ii + -----4
wj Ij ( ( j, i ) + ( j, i ) )
+
j=1
which can be rewritten as:

s
i Ii = I b ( T ) Ii + -----8
wj Ij ( ( j, i ) + ( j, i ) )
+
j=1
In addition if ( i, j ) can be rewritten as a function of i j , as it is in COMSOL

Multiphysics implementation, then
( j+, i+ ) = ( j-, i - ) and ( j -, i + ) = ( j+, i- )
In addition
I j- ( j-, i+ ) + I j+ ( j+, i- ) = 2Ij ( j +, i- ) = 2Ij ( j-, i+ )
so we can simplify above equation:
s
i Ii = I b ( T ) Ii + -----4
w j I i ( j, i )
(7-12)
j=1
with
239
i, 1
i =
i, 2
0
since the third component of Ii is null in 2D.
One can also notice that
4
I ( ) d
n2
n2
wj Ij = wj Ij + wj Ij
-
j=1
j=1
wi Ii

(7-13)
j=1
with w i = 2w i .
Using results from Equation 7-12 and Equation 7-13 we can formulate DOM in 2D
using only radiative intensities, Ii , on half of the 3D DOM directions, i , except for
the scattering term. In other expressions than the scattering term, the z component of
the radiative intensities Ii and of the discrete directions i can by ignored (or set to
zero) and the weight wi, multiplied by 2.
Rosseland Approximation Theory

For The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface, Rosseland
approximation is available as a Radiation discretization method. Then for the Radiation
in Participating Media (Heat Transfer Interface) feature node this theory is applicable.
Rosseland approximation relies on the hypotheses that the participating media is
optically thick, that is >>1, where is the optical thickness defined by the integral of
absorption coefficient, , along a typical optical path:
=
0 ds
From a computational point of view this approximation has a very limited impact since
it does not introduce any extra degree of freedom to the heat equation. Instead it adds
non linear contribution to the thermal conductivity. This is a reason why this method
is popular for some applications where the optical thickness is large. Nevertheless,
because it gives a simple approximation of heat transfer by radiation in a participating
media, it should be carefully validated.
In this case, the radiative heat flux can be evaluated by (Ref. 1):
240 |
4
q r, = ------ i b,
For a gray media it leads to

4
q r = ---------- ( n 2 T 4 )
3 R
Assuming a constant refractive index, this can be rewritten as qr = kR T with
16n 2 T 3
k R = -----------------------3 R
and
16n 2 T 3
q r = ------------------------ T
3 R
One may notice that Rosseland approximation does not account at all for the scattering
in the participating media.
P1 Approximation Theory
For The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface and The
Radiation in Participating Media Interface, P1 approximation is available as a radiation
discretization method.
P1 approximation is the simplest approximation provided by the method of spherical
harmonics method (PN-method). This approximation provides additional accuracy
compared to Rosseland approximation even if it remains a very simple method. The
P1 method relies on the hypothesis that
the media is optically thick media: >>1, where is the optical thickness defined by
the integral of absorption coefficient, , along a typical optical path:
=
0 ds
and that the scattering is linear isotropic.

From a computational point of view this approximation has a limited impact since it
introduces an additional degree of freedom for G which is a scalar quantity and adds a
heat source/sink to the temperature equation to account for radiative heat transfer
241
contributions. This method however fails to represent accurately cases where the
radiative intensity propagation dominates over its diffusivity or where the scattering
effects cant be described by a linear isotropic phase function.
The P1 approximation accounts for the radiation transfer equation
s
I ( ) = I b ( T ) I ( ) + -----4
4
by solving following equation for G =
I ( ) ( , ) d
I ( ) d (Ref. 1):
( D P1 G ) = Q r
(7-14)
where
DP1is the P1 diffusion coefficient, defined as
1
D P1 = ------------------------------------3 + ( 3 a 1 )
a1 is the linear Legendre coefficient of the scattering phase function
Qr is the radiative heat source:
Q r = ( G 4I b )
(7-15)
The following boundary condition applies (Ref. 1):

n D P1 G = q r, net
where qr, net is the net radiative heat flux at the boundary.
RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA
For the Radiation in Participating Media (Heat Transfer Interface) and Radiation in
Participating Media (rpm Interface) feature nodes, the equation Equation 7-14 is
implemented.
In addition Qr, defined by Equation 7-15, is added as an heat source in the heat
transfer equation:
T p
T
C p ------- + ( u )T = q c + Q r + :S ---- ------- ------ + ( u )p + Q
t
T p t
242 |
OPAQUE SURFACE
The Opaque Surface node defines a boundary opaque to radiation and defines the
incident intensity on a boundary:
nDP1 G = qr, net
The Opaque Surface boundary condition accounts for the net radiative heat flux,
qr, net, in the heat balance.
Gray Wall
Radiative heat flux at the boundary depends on the surface emissivity, :
q r, net = -------------------- ( 4I b, w G )
2(2 )
with
n 2 T 4
I b, w = I b = ----------------
Black Wall
The radiative heat flux at the boundary expression simplifies to
1
n D P1 G = --- ( 4I b, w G )
2
with
n 2 T 4
I b, w = I b = ----------------
INCIDENT INTENSITY
The Incident Intensity node defines a boundary that receives incident radiative
intensity Iext and that is transparent for outgoing intensity. On these boundaries, the
relation between G, qr, net (net radiative heat flux) and Iext (incident radiative
intensity) is
G + 2q r, net = 4
I ext ( ) n d
n>0
by defining
243
I ext =
I ext ( ) n d
n>0
we have
1
q r, net = --- ( 4I ext G )
2
which defines the heat radiative heat flux and also contributes to G boundary
condition:
nDP1 G = qr, net
244 |
The Thermoelectric Effect Multiphysics

Interface
This chapter details the multiphysics heat transfer physics interface found under
the Heat Transfer branch (
). Also see About the Heat Transfer Interfaces section.
In this chapter:
245

When the predefined Thermoelectric Effect (
) interface is added (found under the
Heat Transfer branch (
) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows), it combines
the Electric Currents and the Heat Transfer interfaces for modeling
Peltier-Seebeck-Thomson effects. The electromagnetic heat source and thermoelectric
effect multiphysics couplings are added automatically.
The Thermoelectric Effect interface is used to model Peltier-Seebeck-Thomson
effects. This multiphysics interface adds an Electric Currents interface and a Heat
Transfer in Solids interface. The multiphysics couplings add the thermoelectric effect,
the electromagnetic power dissipation, and the electromagnetic material properties,
which can depend on the temperature.
Depending on any additional licensed products, stationary modeling and time-domain
modeling are supported in all space dimensions. In addition, combinations of
frequency-domain modeling for the Electric Currents interface and stationary
modeling for the Heat Transfer in Solids interface, called frequency-stationary and
frequency-transient modeling, are supported.
On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

As a predefined multiphysics coupling, Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids
interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a Multiphysics node is added,
which automatically includes the multiphysics coupling features Thermoelectric Effect,
Electromagnetic Heat Source, Boundary Thermoelectric Effect, Boundary Electromagnetic
Heat Source, and Temperature Coupling.
The Electric Currents interface calculates electric field, current and potential
distributions in conducting media under conditions where inductive effects are
negligible; that is, when the skin depth is much larger than the studied device.
Depending on the licensed products, time and frequency domain formulations that
account for capacitive effects are also provided. The Electric Currents interface solves
a current conservation equation based on Ohm's law using the scalar electric potential
as the dependent variable.
The Heat Transfer in Solids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation. A Heat Transfer in Solids model is active by
default on all domains. All functionality for including other domain types, like a fluid
domain, is also available. The temperature equation defined in solid domains
246 |
CHAPTER 8: THE THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACE
corresponds to the differential form of the Fourier's law that may contain additional
contributions like heat sources.
AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING
The Thermoelectric Effect multiphysics coupling is also available when there is at least
one compatible Heat Transfer physics interface and one compatible AC/DC physics
interface.
The compatible Heat Transfer physics interfaces are:
Heat Transfer in Solids and Heat Transfer in Fluids
Heat Transfer in Biological Tissue
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation and Heat Transfer with Radiation
in Participating Media
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
The compatible AC/DC physics interfaces are:
Electric Currents and Electric Currents, Shell
Magnetic Fields, Magnetic Field Formulation, and Magnetic and Electric Fields
Rotating Machinery, Magnetic
The Electric Currents, Shell, Magnetic Field Formulation, Magnetic and
Electric Fields, and Rotating Machinery, Magnetic interfaces require the
AC/DC Module.
SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES
When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example
Thermoelectric Effect, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces and the
coupling features.
However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.
For example, if single Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are added,
COMSOL adds an empty Multiphysics node. You can choose from the available
coupling features, Thermoelectric Effect, Electromagnetic Heat Source, Boundary
THE THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT INTERFACE
247
Thermoelectric Effect, Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source, and Temperature Coupling,
but the modified settings are not included.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics menu.
TABLE 8-1: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT INTERFACE
PHYSICS INTERFACE
248 |
MODIFIED SETTINGS
Electric Currents
No changes.
No changes.
The Domain Selection is the same as that of the

participating physics interfaces. The corresponding
Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids
interfaces are preselected in the Thermoelectric
Effect section.
Electromagnetic Heat Source

interfaces are preselected in the Electromagnetic
Heat Source section (described in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual).
Boundary Thermoelectric
Effect
The Boundary Selection is the same as the exterior

and interior boundaries of the Domain Selection of the
interfaces are preselected in the Boundary
Thermoelectric Effect section.
Boundary Electromagnetic
Heat Source

interfaces are preselected in the Boundary
Electromagnetic Heat Source section (described in
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual).
Temperature Coupling
The corresponding Electric Currents and Heat

Transfer in Solids interfaces are preselected in the
Temperature Coupling section (described in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual).
PHYSICS INTERFACE AND COUPLING FEATURES
Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.
Coupling Features
The Thermoelectric Effect and Boundary Thermoelectric Effect multiphysics
coupling nodes are described in this section.
The Electromagnetic Heat Source, Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source, and
Temperature Coupling coupling feature nodes are described in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for The Joule Heating Interface.
Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
users).
The available physics features for The Heat Transfer Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat Transfer
Interfaces.
The available physics features for The Electric Currents Interface are listed in
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electric Currents Interface
in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
Use the Thermoelectric Effect node (
) to account for a Peltier heat source or sink in
domains where electrical and thermal models are defined. This is achieved by adding
PJ contribution to the heat flux. The corresponding heat equation in an immobile
solid reads
C p
T
+ ( kT + PJ ) = Q
t
249
A Thermoelectric Effect node also adds the term ST to the current density, which
is then defined as:
J = ( V + ST )
The contribution to the heat flux affects all boundary conditions where
the conductive flux, kT, is involved. In particular the thermal
insulation condition becomes (kT + PJ) n = 0 (instead of
(kT) n = 0 when thermoelectric effect is not active).
In 2D, the thickness used in the multiphysics contributions is the one

defined in the electromagnetic physics interface.
SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.
The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is tee.
THERMOELECTRIC PROPERTIES
The default Seebeck coefficient S (SI unit: V/K) is taken From material. Select User
defined to enter other values or expressions.
THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT
This section defines the physics involved in the thermoelectric effect multiphysics
coupling.
Select the Heat Transfer interface associated to the temperature dependent variable.
Select the Electromagnetic interface associated to the electric potential dependent
variable.
250 |
Boundary Thermoelectric Effect

Use the Boundary Thermoelectric Effect node (
) to account for a Peltier heat source
or sink on boundaries where electric and thermal shells are defined. This is achieved by
adding PsJs contribution to the heat flux. The corresponding heat equation in an
immobile solid reads:
T
ds Cs + t ds ( ks t T + Ps Js ) = ds Q
s t
s
A Boundary Thermoelectric Effect node also contributes the term dssSstT to the
current density, which is then defined as:
Js = ds s ( t V + Ss t T )
In 2D, the thickness used the multiphysics contributions is the one

defined in the electromagnetic physics interface.
SETTINGS

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is btee.
BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries where boundary thermoelectric effect is
defined. Only boundaries where both Thin Layer and Electric Shielding are active can be
selected.
The weak contribution in only added when Layer type in Thin Layer is set to Conductive.
If Layer type is set to either Resistive or General, the weak contribution evaluates to 0.
251
THERMOELECTRIC PROPERTIES
The default Seebeck coefficient S (SI unit: V/K) is taken From material. Select User
defined to enter other values or expressions.
BOUNDARY THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT
This section defines the physics involved in the thermoelectric effect multiphysics
coupling.
Select the Heat transfer interface associated to the temperature dependent variable.
Select the Electromagnetic interface associated to the electric potential dependent
variable.
252 |

The Thermoelectric Effect Interface implements thermoelectric effect, which is the
direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage or vice versa. Devices
such as thermoelectric coolers for electronic cooling or portable refrigerators rely on
this effect. While Joule heating (resistive heating) is an irreversible phenomenon, the
thermoelectric effect is, in principle, reversible.
Historically, the thermoelectric effect is known by three different names, reflecting its
discovery in experiments by Seebeck, Peltier, and Thomson. The Seebeck effect is the
conversion of temperature differences into electricity, the Peltier effect is the
conversion of electricity to temperature differences, and the Thomson effect is heat
produced by the product of current density and temperature gradients. These effects
are thermodynamically related by the Thomson relations:
P = ST
dS
Th = T -------dT
where P is the Peltier coefficient (SI unit: V), S is the Seebeck coefficient
(SI unit: V/K), T is the temperature (SI unit: K), and Th is the Thomson coefficient
(SI unit: V/K). These relations show that all coefficients can be considered different
descriptions of one and the same quantity. The COMSOL formulation primarily uses
the Seebeck coefficient. The Peltier coefficient is also used as an intermediate variable,
but the Thomson coefficient is not used.
When simulating the thermoelectric effect, of interest are the flux quantitiesheat flux
q and electric current density J:
q = kT + PJ
J = ( V + ST )
Thermoelectric efficiency is measured by the figure of merit Z (SI unit: 1/K), defined
as:
S2
Z = ---------k
where is the electrical conductivity and k the thermal conductivity.
THEORY FOR THERMOELECTRIC EFFECTS
253
Some other quantities of relevance are the electric field E and the Joule heat source Q:
E = V
Q = JE
From these definitions, conservation of heat energy and electrical current in an
immobile solid reads:
C p
T
+q = Q
t
J = Qj
where is the density, Cp the heat capacity, and Qj is the current source.
Reference for the Thermoelectric Effect Interface

1. H. S. Lee, Thermal Design, John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
254 |
The Conjugate Heat Transfer

Multiphysics Interfaces
The Heat Transfer Module has multiphysics interfaces for conjugate heat transfer,
which are also under the Fluid Flow branch as Non-Isothermal Flow interfaces.
This chapter discusses multiphysics interfaces involving the Conjugate Heat Transfer
branch (
).
In this chapter:
The Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and
Turbulent Flow Interfaces
Theory for the Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces
255
The Non-Isothermal Flow and

Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar
Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
In this section:
Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces
The Non-Isothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features
Coupling Features
Non-Isothermal Flow
Flow Coupling
Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces

The Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces combine the heat
equation with either laminar flow or turbulent flow and use either a Heat Transfer in
Fluids or Heat Transfer in Solids domain model. The advantage of using the multiphysics
interfaces is that predefined couplings are available in both directions. In particular,
physics interfaces use the same definition of the density, which can therefore be a
function of both pressure and temperature. Solving this coupled system of equations
usually requires numerical stabilization accounting for the couplings, which the
predefined multiphysics interfaces also set up.
In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics, individual physics
interfaces (for example, Non-Isothermal Flow, Laminar Flow) were
added to the Model Builder. Now, a predefined multiphysics coupling
approach is used, improving the flexibility and design options for your
modeling. For specific details, see Multiphysics Modeling Approaches in
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
256 |
C H A P T E R 9 : T H E C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R M U L T I P H Y S I C S I N T E R F A C E S
The Non-Isothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Interfaces
When a multiphysics interface is added from the Fluid Flow>Non-Isothermal Flow
branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, one of the Single-Phase Flow
interfaces (laminar or turbulent flow) and Heat Transfer in Fluids are added to the
Model Builder.
In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the
multiphysics coupling feature Non-Isothermal Flow.
The Multiphysics Node in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.
The Laminar Flow interface (
a Laminar Flow interface.
) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface with
The Turbulent Flow, k- interface (

) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, k- interface.
) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids
The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k- interface (
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k- interface.
The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Interfaces
When a multiphysics interface is added from the Heat Transfer>Conjugate Heat Transfer
branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, Heat Transfer in Solids and one of
the Single-Phase Flow interfaces (laminar or turbulent flow) are added to the Model
Builder.
In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the
multiphysics coupling feature Non-Isothermal Flow.
The Multiphysics Node in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.
The Laminar Flow interface (
a Laminar Flow interface.
) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids interface with
T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R , L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W I N T E R F A C E S
The Turbulent Flow, k- interface (

) combines a Heat Transfer in Solids interface
with a Turbulent Flow, k- interface.
The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k- interface (
)combines a Heat Transfer in Solids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k- interface.
Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling features.
However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.
For example, if single Heat Transfer in Fluids and Laminar Flow interfaces are added,
COMSOL adds an empty Multiphysics node. When you right-click this node, you can
choose from the available coupling features, Non-Isothermal Flow, Temperature
Coupling, and Flow Coupling, but the modified settings are not included.
TABLE 9-1: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE NON-ISOTHERMAL FLOW PHYSICS INTERFACES
PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE
MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)
Discretization order from temperature Lagrange

shape function is 1.
A Heat Transfer in Fluids feature is added with a
default editable selection set to All domains.
none
Non-Isothermal Flow
The Fluid flow and Heat transfer interfaces are

pre-selected
Coupling Features
The Non-Isothermal Flow and Flow Coupling multiphysics coupling nodes are
described in this section. See Temperature Coupling in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.
Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.
258 |

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
users).

operating system you are using.
H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F L U I D S ( N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L OW )
The available physics features for The Heat Transfer Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interfaces. Also
see Heat Transfer in Fluids for details about that feature.
H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S ( C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R )
The available physics features for The Heat Transfer Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interfaces. Also
see Heat Transfer in Solids for details about that feature.
LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.
TU R B U L E N T F L O W, K -
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-e Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.
TU R B U L E N T F L O W, L O W R E K -
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-e Interface are listed
in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.
Non-Isothermal Flow
Use the Non-Isothermal Flow (
) multiphysics coupling to simulate fluid flows where
the fluid properties depend on temperature. Models can also include heat transfer in
solids as well as surface-to-surface radiation and radiation in participating media, with
the Heat Transfer Module. The physics interface supports low Mach numbers
(typically less than 0.3).
The Non-Isothermal Flow, Laminar Flow multiphysics interface solves for

conservation of energy, mass and momentum in fluids and for conservation of energy
in solids. It synchronizes the features from the Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow interface
when a turbulent flow regime is defined. It also complements the Screen and Interior
Fan feature from the flow interface to account for thermal effects. The physics interface
can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis.
When the Non-Isothermal Flow is used, there is no need to add Flow
Coupling or Temperature Coupling. Indeed, Non-Isothermal Flow combines
the effects of both of them. In addition it also accounts for the

multiphysics stabilization terms and for the heat transfer changes in the
turbulent regime (for example, thermal wall functions).
The multiphysics stabilization (streamline diffusion, crosswind diffusion,

and isotropic diffusion) are controlled by the Fluid Flow interface. For
example, the multiphysics streamline diffusion can be disabled in a Laminar Flow physics node, in the Stabilization section. The streamline diffusion contained in a Heat Transfer physics interface has no effect if the
multiphysics coupling is active.
SETTINGS

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is nitf1.
DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains the non-isothermal flow, or select All
domains as required.
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MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Select an option from the Specify density listFrom heat transfer interface (the default),
From fluid flow interface, or Custom. For Custom, enter a Density (SI unit: kg/m3), or
select a density in the list if available.
H E A T TU R B U L E N C E P RO P E R T Y
Select an option from the Heat transport turbulence model listKays-Crawford (the
default), Extended Kays-Crawford, or User-defined turbulent Prandtl number.
For Extended Kays-Crawford, enter a Reynolds number at infinity Reinf (dimensionless).
For User-defined turbulent Prandtl number, enter a Turbulent Prandtl number prT
(dimensionless).
FLOW HEATING
Select the Include work done by pressure changes check box to account for the heat
source due to pressure changes:
p
Q p = p ------ + u p
t
By default this option is not selected, however it should be selected for compressible
fluids as soon as significant pressure gradients occur.
Select the Include viscous dissipation check box to account for the heat source
corresponding to viscous heating. This option is not selected by default. Because it may
induce an extra computational cost it should be only selected in application where such
effect is expected. If no information on this is available, selecting the option ensure that
energy balance for the heat and the flow equation is respected.
NON-ISOTHERMAL FLOW
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Fluid flow
and Heat transfer lists include all applicable physics interfaces.
The default values depend on how this coupling node is created.
If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.
You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Non-Isothermal Flow node
from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for
example Heat Transfer in Fluids is deleted, then the Heat transfer list defaults to None as
there is nothing to couple to.
If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to re-establish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Fluid flow or Heat transfer lists. This is applicable
to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the
once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Approaches in the
Flow Coupling
The Flow Coupling multiphysics coupling (
) defines u and p variables in order to set
the model inputs in the Heat Transfer interface (or when applicable, a chemical species
transport interface). In addition it provides all the fluids quantities that may be needed
by the Heat Transfer interface (for example, viscosity, turbulence parameters, and so
on).
SETTINGS

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is fc1.
FLOW COUPLING
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. By default, the
applicable physics interface is selected in the Source list to apply the Destination to its
physics interface to establish the coupling.
You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Flow Coupling node from a
physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for
example Heat Transfer in Solids is deleted, then the Destination list defaults to None as
there is nothing to couple to.
262 |
If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, and in
order to re-establish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the lists. This is applicable to all multiphysics
coupling nodes that would normally default to the once present physics
interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Approaches in the COMSOL
Theory for the Non-Isothermal Flow

and Conjugate Heat Transfer
Interfaces
In this section:
The Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Equations
Turbulent Non-Isothermal Flow Theory
Theory for the Non-Isothermal Screen Boundary Condition
References for the Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces
The Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Equations

In industrial applications it is common that the density of a process fluid varies. These
variations can have a number of different sources but the most common one is the
presence of an inhomogeneous temperature field. This module includes the
Non-Isothermal Flow predefined multiphysics coupling to simulate systems in which
the density varies with temperature.
Other situations where the density might vary includes chemical reactions, for instance
where reactants associate or dissociate.
The Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer multiphysics interfaces
contain the fully compressible formulation of the continuity and momentum
equations:
------ + ( u ) = 0
t
2
u
------- + u u = p + ( u + ( u ) T ) --- ( u )I + F
3
t
where
p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
264 |
(9-1)
is the dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas)

F is the body force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
It also solves the heat equation, which for a fluid is given by
T
T p
C p ------- + ( u )T = ( q ) + :S ---- ------- ------ + ( u )p + Q
t
T p t
where in addition to the quantities above
q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2)
S is the strain-rate tensor (SI unit: 1/s)
1
S = --- ( u + ( u ) T )
2
Q contains heat sources other than viscous heating (SI unit: W/m3)
The work done by pressure changes term
p
1
p T ------ + u p with p = --- ------ t
.
p
and the viscous heating term

:S
are not included by default because they are usually negligible. These terms can,
however, be added by selection corresponding check-boxes in the Non-Isothermal
Flow feature. For a detailed discussion of the fundamentals of heat transfer in fluids,
see Ref. 3.
The physics interface also supports heat transfer in solids:
T
C p ------- = ( q ) + Q + Q ted
t
T H E O R Y F O R T H E N O N - I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
265
where Qted is the thermoelastic damping heat source (SI unit: W/(m3)). This term is
not included by default but must be added by selecting corresponding check-box.
The Heat Equation
References for the Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer
Interfaces

Turbulent energy transport is conceptually more complicated than energy transport in
laminar flows since the turbulence is also a form of energy.
Equations for compressible turbulence are derived using the Favre average. The Favre
average of a variable T is denoted T and is defined by
T
T = ------
where the bar denotes the usual Reynolds average. The full field is then decomposed as
T = T + T''
With this notation the equation for total internal energy, e, becomes

u i u i u i''u i''
----- u i u i u i''u i'' ---------------- + ------------------- + - u j h + ---------- + u j ------------------- =
e
+
2
t
2 x j
2
2
(9-2)
u j''u i''u i''
------- q j u j''h'' + ij u i'' -------------------------- + ------- ( u i ( ij u i''u j'' ) )
x j
x j
2
where h is the enthalpy. The vector
T
q j = ------x j
is the laminar conductive heat flux and
2 u k
ij = 2S ij --- --------- ij
3 x k
266 |
(9-3)
is the laminar, viscous stress tensor. Notice that the thermal conductivity is denoted .
The modeling assumptions are in large part analogous to those for incompressible
turbulence modeling. The stress tensor
u i''u'' j
is modeled using the Boussinesq approximation:
1 u k 2
u i''u'' j = T ij = 2 T S ij --- --------- ij --- k ij
3 x k 3
(9-4)
where k is the turbulent kinetic energy, which in turn is defined by

1
k = --- u i''u i''
2
(9-5)
The correlation between u j'' and h'' in Equation 9-2 is the turbulent transport of
heat. It is modeled analogously to the laminar conductive heat flux
T C p T
T
u j''h'' = q T j = T ------- = -------------- ------x j
Pr T x j
(9-6)
The molecular diffusion term,

ij u i''
and turbulent transport term,
u j''u i''u i'' 2
are modeled by a generalization of the molecular diffusion and turbulent transport
terms found in the incompressible k equation
u j''u i''u i''
T k
ij u i'' --------------------------- = + ------ ------
k x j
2
(9-7)
Inserting Equation 9-3, Equation 9-4, Equation 9-5, Equation 9-6 and Equation 9-7
into Equation 9-2 gives
267

u i u i
----- u i u i
e + ----------- + k + ------- u j h + ----------- + k =
2
x j
2
t
(9-8)
T k
------- q j q T j + + ------------ + ------- ( u ( + T ij ) )
x j
k x j x j i ij
The Favre average can also be applied to the momentum equation, which, using
Equation 9-4, can be written
-----
p
( u i ) + ------- ( u j u i ) = ------- + ------- ( ij + T ij )
x j
t
x j x j
(9-9)
Taking the inner product between u i and Equation 9-9 results in an equation for the
resolved kinetic energy, which can be subtracted from Equation 9-8 with the following
result:
u j
----
( ( e + k ) ) + ------- ( u j ( e + k ) ) = p -------- +
x j
x j
t
T k
-
----- q q T j + + ------ ------- + ------- ( u i ( ij + T ij ) )
x j j
k x j
x j
(9-10)
where the relation

h = e + p
has been used.
According to Wilcox (Ref. 1), it is usually a good approximation to neglect the
contributions of k for flows with Mach numbers up to the supersonic range. This gives
the following approximation of Equation 9-10 is
u j
-----
( e ) + ------- ( u j e ) = p -------- + ------- ( q j q T j ) + ------- ( u i ( ij + T ij ) )

x j x j
t
x j
x j
Larsson (Ref. 2) suggests to make the split
ij = ij + ij''
Since
268 |
(9-11)
ij ij''
for all applications of engineering interest, it follows that
ij ij
and consequently
Tot
----- ( e ) + ------- ( u j e ) = p --------j + ------- ( + T ) ------- + ------- ( u i ij
)
x j x j
x j
x j x j
t
(9-12)
where

2 u k
Tot
ij
= ( + T ) 2S ij --- --------- ij
3 x k
Equation 9-12 is completely analogous to the laminar energy equation and can be
expanded using the same theory (see for example Ref. 3):
T

p
T p
T
C p ------- + u j ------- = ------- ( + T ) ------- + ij S ij ---- ------- ------ + u j -------
xj
x
T
j
j
j
p
which is the temperature equation solved in the turbulent Non-Isothermal Flow and
Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces.
TU R B U L E N T C O N D U C T I V I T Y
Kays-Crawford
This is a relatively exact model for PrT, while still quite simple. In Ref. 4, it is compared
to other models for PrT and found to be a good approximation for most kinds of
turbulent wall bounded flows except for turbulent flow of liquid metals. The model is
given by
Cp T 2
1
0.3 C p T
Pr T = ----------------- + ------------------ -------------- 0.3 -------------- ( 1 e ( 0.3C p T

Pr T
2Pr T
1
(9-13)
Pr T ) )
where the Prandtl number at infinity is PrT = 0.85 and is the conductivity.
269
Extended Kays-Crawford
Weigand and others (Ref. 5) suggested an extension of Equation 9-13 to liquid metals
by introducing
100
Pr T = 0.85 + ------------------------------C p Re 0.888
where Re, the Reynolds number at infinity must be provided either as a constant or
as a function of the flow field. This is entered in the Model Inputs section of the Fluid
feature.
TE M P E R A T U RE WA L L F U N C T I O N S
Analogous to the single-phase flow wall functions (see Wall Functions described for the
Wall boundary condition), there is a theoretical gap between the solid wall and the
computational domain for the fluid and temperature fields. This gap is often ignored
when the computational geometry is drawn.
The heat flux between the fluid with temperature Tf and a wall with temperature Tw, is:
C p C 1 / 4 k 1 / 2 ( T w T f )
q wf = ---------------------------------------------------------T+
where is the fluid density, Cp is the fluid heat capacity, C is a turbulence modeling
constant, and k is the turbulent kinetic energy. T+ is the dimensionless temperature
and is given by (Ref. 6):
+ < +
for w
w1
+
Pr w
15Pr 2 / 3 500
----------
T+ =
+2
+ + < +
for w1
w
w2
Pr T
+ +
--------- ln w
+ +
for w2
w
where in turn
270 |
w C 1 / 2 k
+ = -----------------------------w
+ = 10 10 ------- w2
Pr T
10 + = ----------- w1
Pr 1 / 3
Cp
Pr = ---------
Pr T
= 15Pr 2 / 3 --------- 1 + ln 1000 ---------
2
Pr T
is the thermal conductivity, and is the von Karman constant equal to 0.41.
The computational results should be checked so that the distance between the
computational fluid domain and the wall, w, is everywhere small compared to any
geometrical quantity of interest. The distance w is available for evaluation on
boundaries.

When the Non-Isothermal Flow multiphysics coupling feature is active, the conditions
that apply across a screen in isothermal flow are complemented by:
[ H 0 ] -+ = 0
(9-14)
where H0 is the total enthalpy.

See Screen for the feature node details.
Also see Screen Boundary Condition described for the single-phase
flow interfaces.
Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition

When the Non-Isothermal Flow multiphysics coupling feature is active, the conditions
that apply across an interior fan are complemented by:
If direction is Along normal vector, the outlet temperature is T_avg where T_avg is
the weighted averaged temperature defined as:
271
( down ( u nCp T ) ) dS
T avg =
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
max , ( down ( u nC p T ) ) dS
If the direction is opposite to normal vector, the outlet temperature is T_avg where
T_avg is:
( up ( u nCp T ) ) dS
T avg = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
max , ( up ( u nC p T ) ) dS
References for the Non-Isothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer

Interfaces
1. D.C. Wilcox, Turbulence Modeling for CFD, 2nd ed., DCW Industries, 1998.
2. J. Larsson, Numerical Simulation of Turbulent Flows for Turbine Blade Heat
Transfer, Doctoral Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Chalmers
University of Technology, Sweden, 1998.
4. W.M. Kays, Turbulent Prandtl Number Where Are We?, ASME Journal of
Heat Transfer, vol. 116, pp. 284295, 1994.
5. B. Weigand, J.R. Ferguson, and M.E. Crawford, An Extended Kays and Crawford
Turbulent Prandtl Number Model, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 40, no. 17,
pp. 41914196, 1997.
6. D. Lacasse, . Turgeon, and D. Pelletier, On the Judicious Use of the k Model,
Wall Functions and Adaptivity, Int. J. Thermal Sciences, vol. 43, pp. 925938, 2004.
272 |
10
Fluid Flow Physics Interfaces

The Heat Transfer Module extends the CFD capability of COMSOL
Multiphysics by adding turbulence modeling and support for low Mach number
compressible flows. This enables modeling of forced or temperature
gradient-driven flows in both laminar and turbulent regimes. This chapter describes
the fluid flow physics interfaces found under the Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow
branch
.
In this chapter:
The Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
273
The Laminar Flow and Turbulent

Flow Interfaces
In this section:
The Laminar Flow Interface
The Turbulent Flow, k-e Interface
The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-e Interface
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

The Laminar Flow (spf) interface (
), found under the Single-Phase Flow branch (
)
when adding a physics interface, is used to compute the velocity and pressure fields for
the flow of a single-phase fluid in the laminar flow regime. A flow remains laminar as
long as the Reynolds number is below a certain critical value. At higher Reynolds
numbers, disturbances have a tendency to grow and cause transition to turbulence.
This critical Reynolds number depends on the model, but a classical example is pipe
flow where the critical Reynolds number is known to be approximately 2000.
The physics interface supports incompressible flows and compressible flows at low
Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3). It also supports non-Newtonian fluids.
The equations solved by the Laminar Flow interface are the Navier-Stokes equations
for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.
The Laminar Flow interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.
Note that for higher Reynolds numbers, a flow becomes inherently time dependent
and three-dimensional, and time-dependent studies have to be used.
When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model BuilderFluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary condition is No slip), and
Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Laminar Flow
to select physics features from the context menu.
274 |
CHAPTER 10: FLUID FLOW PHYSICS INTERFACES
SETTINGS

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is spf.
PHYSICAL MODEL
By default the physics interface uses the Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) formulation of the
Navier-Stokes equations. Select Incompressible flow to use the incompressible (constant
density) formulation.
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].
Turbulence Model Type

By default, None is selected as the Turbulence model type. The flow state in a fluid-flow
model, however, is not always known beforehand.
Changing the Turbulence model type to RANS (Reynolds-averaged NavierStokes) does
not change the name of the physics interface. Even though a Turbulence model such as
the k- model is applied in the computations, the name of the interface remains as
Laminar Flow (spf) until it is changed manually.
DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interfacethe
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and its components, and the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).
If required, edit the field, component, and dependent variable names. Editing the
name of a scalar dependent variable changes both its field name and the dependent
variable name. If a new field name coincides with the name of another field of the same
type, the fields share degrees of freedom and dependent variable names. A new field
name must not coincide with the name of a field of another type, or with a component
T H E L A M I N A R F L O W A N D TU R B U L E N T F L O W I N T E R F A C E S
275
name belonging to some other field. Component names must be unique within a
model except when two fields share a common field name.
to more information about the Discretization, Consistent Stabilization,
Inconsistent Stabilization, and Advanced Settings sections, all accessed by
) and choosing the applicable option.
clicking the Show button (
ADVANCED SETTINGS

Normally these settings do not need to be changed.
Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box to add
pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used.
When selected, also choose a CFL number expressionAutomatic (the default) or
Manual. Automatic sets the local CFL number (from the CourantFriedrichsLewy
condition) to the built-in variable CFLCMP which in turn triggers a PID regulator for
the CFL number. If Manual is selected, enter a Local CFL number CFLloc
(dimensionless).
Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models
Flow Past a Cylinder: model library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow
The Turbulent Flow, k- Interface

The Turbulent Flow, k- (spf) interface (
), found under the Single-Phase
) when adding a physics interface, is used for
simulating single-phase flows at high Reynolds numbers. The physics interface is
suitable for incompressible flows, and compressible flows at low Mach numbers
(typically less than 0.3).
Flow>Turbulent Flow branch (
The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, k- interface are the Navier-Stokes
equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for
276 |
conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled using the standard two-equation
k- model with realizability constraints. Flow close to walls is modeled using wall
functions.
The Turbulent Flow, k- interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent
analyses. The main feature is Fluid Properties, which adds the RANS equations and the
transport equations for k and , and provides an interface for defining the fluid material
and its properties. When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are
also added in the Model BuilderFluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary condition
is Wall functions), and Initial Values.
Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all the
other settings.
PHYSICAL MODEL
For this physics interface, the Turbulence model type defaults to RANS and the Turbulence
model defaults to k-. This enables the Turbulence Model Parameters section.
TU R B U L E N C E M O D E L P A R A M E T E R S
Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.
For this physics interface the parameters are Ce1, Ce2, C, k, e, v, and B.
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and its components
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
Turbulent dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3)
ADVANCED SETTINGS

The Turbulence variables scale parameters subsection is available when the Turbulence
model type is set to RANS.
277
In addition to the settings described for the Laminar Flow interface, enter a value for
Uscale (SI unit: m/s) (the default is 1 m/s) and Lfact (dimensionless) (the default is
0.035) under the Turbulence variables scale parameters subsection.
The Uscale and Lfact parameters are used to calculate absolute tolerances for the
turbulence variables. The scaling parameters must only contain numerical values, units
or parameters defined under Global Definitions. The scaling parameters cannot contain
variables. The parameters are used when a new default solver for a transient study step
is generated. If you change the parameters, the new values take effect the next time you
generate a new default solver
Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
Turbulent Flow Over a Backward Facing Step: model library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Models/turbulent_backstep
The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k- Interface

The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k- (spf) interface (
), found under the Single-Phase
Flow>Turbulent Flow branch, is used for simulating single-phase flows at high Reynolds
numbers. The physics interface is suitable for incompressible flows and compressible
flows at low Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3).
The equations solved by the Turbulent Flow, Low Re k- interface are the
Navier-Stokes equations for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation
for the conservation of mass. Turbulence effects are modeled using the AKN
two-equation k- model with realizability constraints. The AKN model is a so-called
low-Reynolds number model, which means that it resolves the flow all the way down
to the wall. The AKN model depends on the distance to the closest wall. The physics
interface therefore includes a wall distance equation.
278 |
The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k- interface can be used for stationary and
time-dependent analyses.
The Low Reynolds number k- interface requires a Wall Distance
Initialization study step in the study previous to the Stationary or Time
Dependent study step.
For study information, see Stationary with Initialization, Transient with
Initialization, and Wall Distance Initialization in the COMSOL
Except where included below, see The Laminar Flow Interface and The
Turbulent Flow, k-e Interface for all the other settings.
PHYSICAL MODEL
For this physics interface, the Turbulence model type defaults to RANS and the Turbulence
model defaults to Low Reynolds number k-. This enables the Turbulence Model
Parameters section.
TU R B U L E N C E M O D E L P A R A M E T E R S
Turbulence model parameters are optimized to fit as many flow types as possible, but
for some special cases, better performance can be obtained by tuning the model
parameters.
For this physics interface the parameters are Ce1, Ce2, C, k, e, and v.
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface:
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and its components
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)
Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2)
279
Turbulent dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3)

Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m)
Pseudo Time Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

The following nodes are for all physics interfaces found under the Fluid
Flow>Single-Phase Flow branch (
) when adding a physics interface. Other physics
interfaces also share many of these domain, boundary, pair, and point nodes.
These nodes, listed in alphabetical order, are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access
the context menu (all users).
280 |
Boundary Stress
Open Boundary
Fan
Outlet
Flow Continuity
Periodic Flow Condition
Fluid Properties
Point Mass Source1
Grille
Pressure Point Constraint
Initial Values
Screen
Inlet
Symmetry
Interior Fan
Vacuum Pump
Interior Wall
Line Mass Source
Volume Force
1
Wall
1 A feature that can require an additional license
For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and adds an Axial Symmetry
node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.
Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum equations solved by the physics
interface, except for volume forces which are added by the Volume Force feature. The
node also provides an interface for defining the material properties of the fluid.
For the Turbulent Flow interfaces, the Fluid Properties node also adds the
equations for the turbulence transport equations.
MODEL INPUTS
Edit input variables to the fluid-flow equations if required. For fluid flow, these are
typically introduced when a material requiring inputs has been selected.
281
Temperature
For any mechanism, and when required, the Temperature is User defined and defaults
to 293.15 K. If a Heat Transfer physics interface is included in the model, alternatively
select the temperature for that physics interface. These physics interfaces have their
own tags (the Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in
the model, the Temperature (ht) option is available.
Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure input controls the pressure used to evaluate material properties,
but it also relates to the value of the pressure field. There are generally two ways to
calculate the pressure when describing fluid flow: either solve for the absolute pressure
or for a pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure
through a reference pressure.
The choice depends on the system and the equations being solved. For example, in a
unidirectional incompressible flow problem, the pressure drop over the modeled
domain is probably many orders of magnitude smaller than the atmospheric pressure,
which, when included, reduces the stability and convergence properties of the solver.
In other cases, you can solve for the absolute pressure, such as when the pressure is part
of an expression for the gas volume or the diffusion coefficients.
The default Absolute pressure pA (SI unit: Pa) is p+pref where p defaults to the pressure
variable from the Navier-Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input
defined at the physics interface level. When pref is non zero, the physics interface solves
for a gauge pressure.
If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, set the pref to 0 Pa.
To edit the Absolute pressure field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable (
the desired absolute pressure in the field. The default value is 1[atm].
) and enter
This makes it possible to use a system-based (gauge) pressure as the

pressure variable while automatically including the reference pressure in
places where it is required, such as for gas flow governed by the gas law.
FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) uses the value From material. Select User defined
to enter a different value or expression.
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The default Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas) uses the value From material and
describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear stresses in a fluid.
Intuitively, water and air have low viscosities, and substances often described as thick
(such as oil) have higher viscosities. Select User defined to define a different value or
expression.
Using the built-in variable for the shear rate magnitude, spf.sr, makes it
possible to define arbitrary expressions of the dynamic viscosity as a
function of the shear rate.
MIXING LENGTH LIMIT
This section applies to the Turbulent Flow, k- interface, for which an

upper limit on the mixing length is required.
Select how the Mixing length limit lmix,lim (SI unit: m) is definedAutomatic (default)
or Manual:
If Automatic is selected, the mixing length limit is automatically evaluated as the
shortest side of the geometry bounding box. If the geometry is, for example, a
complicated system of slim entities, this measure can be too high. In such cases, it
is recommended that the mixing length limit is defined manually.
Select Manual to define a different value or expression. The default is 1 (that is, one
unit length of the model unit system).
DISTANCE EQUATION
This section applies to a Turbulent Flow, Low Reynolds number k-

interface since a Wall Distance interface is included.
Select how the Reference length scale lref (SI unit: m) is definedAutomatic (default)
or Manual:
If Automatic is selected, the wall distance is automatically evaluated to one tenth of
the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. This is usually a good choice but
it can sometimes give too great a value if the geometry consists of several slim
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entities. In such cases, it is recommended that the reference length scale is defined
manually.
Select Manual to define a different value or expression for the wall distance. The
default is 1 m.
lref controls the solution to the distance equation. Objects that are much smaller than
lref are effectively diminished while the distance to objects much larger than lref are
accurately represented.
Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the volume force F on the right-hand side of the
momentum equation. Use it, for example, to incorporate the effects of gravity in a
model.
u
T
2
+ ( u )u = pI + ( u + ( u ) ) --- ( u )I + F
t
3
If several volume force nodes are added to the same domain, then the sum of all
contributions are added to the momentum equations.
VO L U M E F O R C E
Enter the components of the Volume force F (SI unit: N/m3). The defaults for all
components are 0 N/m3.
The Boussinesq Approximation
Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field and the pressure that can
serve as initial conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear
solver.
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IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and
the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0 m/s and 0 Pa, respectively.
In the Turbulent Flow interfaces, initial values for the turbulence variables
are also specified. By default these are specified using the predefined
variables defined by the expressions in Initial Values.
Then depending on the turbulent flow physics interface being used, also define the
applicable initial values:
Turbulent kinetic energy k (SI unit: m2/s2). The default is spf.kinit.
Turbulent dissipation rate ep (SI unit: m2/s3). The default is spf.epinit.
Reciprocal wall distance G (SI unit: 1/m). The default is spf.G0.
Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing the fluid-flow
condition at a wall.
BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the wall.

No Slip1
Moving Wall
Slip
Leaking Wall
Sliding Wall
1
The default for laminar flow, and the turbulence model Low Reynolds number
k-
For settings applicable to the Turbulent Flow interfaces see Boundary

Condition Settings for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces.
No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for a stationary solid wall for laminar flow
(and Low Re k-turbulence model). The condition prescribes u = 0, that is, the fluid
at the wall is not moving.
285
Slip
The Slip option prescribes a no-penetration condition, un=0. It hence implicitly
assumes that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence, no boundary layer
develops. From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation if the
main effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the domain.
Sliding Wall
The Sliding wall boundary condition is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor
belt; that is, the surface is sliding in its tangential direction. The wall does not have to
actually move in the coordinate system.
For 3D components, enter values or expressions for the Velocity of sliding
wall uw (SI unit: m/s). If the velocity vector entered is not in the plane of
the wall, COMSOL Multiphysics projects it onto the tangential direction.
Its magnitude is adjusted to be the same as the magnitude of the vector
entered.
For 2D components, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by

the direction of the boundary, but the situation becomes more
complicated in 3D. For this reason, the sliding wall boundary condition
has slightly different definitions in the different space dimensions. Enter
the components of the Velocity of the tangentially moving wall Uw (SI unit:
m/s).
Moving Wall
If the wall moves, so must the adjacent fluid. Hence, this boundary condition
prescribes u = uw. Enter the components of the Velocity of moving wall uw (SI unit:
m/s).
Specifying this boundary condition does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to
be added to physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference
frame.
286 |
Leaking Wall
Use this boundary condition to simulate a wall where fluid is leaking into or leaving
through a perforated wall u = ul. Enter the components of the Fluid velocity ul
(SI unit: m/s).
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS

information.
Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition
Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
Inlet
The Inlet node includes a set of boundary conditions describing the fluid-flow
conditions at an inlet. The Velocity boundary condition is the default.
In many cases the Inlet boundary conditions are available, some of them
slightly modified, for the Outlet type as well. For certain conditions there
is nothing in the mathematical formulations to prevent the fluid from
leaving the domain through boundaries where the Inlet type is specified.
Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

Normal Stress Boundary Condition
BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the inletVelocity (the default), Laminar inflow, or
Pressure.
After selecting a Boundary Condition from the list, a section with the same
or similar name displays underneath. For example, if Velocity is selected, a
Velocity section displays where further settings are defined.
287

VE L O C I T Y
The Velocity boundary condition is available for the Inlet and Outlet boundary nodes,
and when Velocity is selected as the Boundary Condition.
Select Normal inflow velocity (the default) to specify a normal inflow velocity
magnitude u = nU0 where n is the boundary normal pointing out of the domain.
Enter the velocity magnitude U0 (SI unit: m/s). The default is 0 m/s.
If Velocity field is selected, it sets the velocity equal to a given velocity vector u0 when
u = u0. Enter the components of u0 (SI unit: m/s). The defaults are 0 m/s.
PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This section is available for the Inlet boundary node, and when Pressure is selected as
the Boundary Condition. It specifies the normal stress which in most cases is
approximately equal to the pressure. Enter the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) at the
boundary. The default is 0 Pa. Enter a relative pressure value in p0 (SI unit: Pa). Or if
the reference pressure pref defined at the physics interface level is equal to 0 Pa, enter
a an absolute pressure in p0.
The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the inlet
pressure locally in order to prevent fluid from exiting the domain through the
boundary. If suppress backflow is deselected, the inlet boundary can become an
outlet depending on the pressure field in the rest of the domain.
Flow direction controls in which direction the fluid enters the domain.
- Select Normal flow (the default) to prescribe zero tangential velocity component.
- Select User defined to define an Inflow velocity direction du (dimensionless). The
magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must point into the
domain.

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LAMINAR INFLOW
The Laminar inflow boundary condition is available for the Inlet node.
Select a flow quantity for the inletAverage velocity (the default), Flow rate, or
Entrance pressure.
When Average velocity is selected, enter an Average velocity Uav (SI unit: m/s). The
default is 0 m/s.
If Flow rate is selected, enter the Flow rate V0 (SI unit: m3/s). The default is 0 m3/s.
If Entrance pressure is selected, enter the Entrance pressure pentr (SI unit: Pa) at the
entrance of the fictitious channel outside of the model. The default is 0 Pa.
Then for any selection, specify the entrance length and constraints:
Enter the Entrance length Lentr (SI unit: m) to define the length of the inlet channel
outside the model domain.
The Entrance length value must be large enough so that the flow can reach
a laminar profile. For a laminar flow, Lentr should be significantly greater
than 0.06ReD, where Re is the Reynolds number and D is the inlet length
scale (this formula is exact if D is the diameter of a cylindrical pipe and
approximate for other geometries). For turbulent flow the equivalent
expression is 4.4Re1/6D. The default is 1 m.
Select the Constrain outer edges to zero check box to force the laminar profile to go
to zero at the bounding points or edges of the inlet channel. Otherwise the velocity
is defined by the boundary condition of the adjacent boundary in the model. For
example, if one end of a boundary with a laminar inflow condition connects to a slip
boundary condition, then the laminar profile has a maximum at that end.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS

information.
Outlet
The Outlet node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at an outlet. Pressure Conditions is the default. Other options are based on individual
licenses. Selecting appropriate outlet conditions for the Navier-Stokes equations is not
289
a trivial task. Generally, if there is something interesting happening at an outflow

boundary, extend the computational domain to include this phenomenon.
Some of the formulations for the Outlet type are also available, possibly
slightly modified, in other boundary types. For certain conditions there is
nothing in the mathematical formulations to prevent the fluid from
entering a domain through boundaries where the Outlet boundary type is
specified.
BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the outletPressure (the default), Laminar outflow, or
Velocity.
PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This section is available for the Outlet boundary node, and when Pressure is selected
as the Boundary Condition. The Pressure condition specifies the normal stress which in
most cases is approximately equal to the pressure. The tangential stress component is
set to 0 N/m2.
Enter the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa) at the boundary. The default is 0 Pa. Enter a
relative pressure value in p0 (SI unit: Pa). Or if the reference pressure pref defined
at the physics interface level is equal to 0 Pa, enter an absolute pressure in p0.
Select the Normal flow check box to change the no tangential stress condition to a
no tangential velocity condition. This forces the flow to exit (or enter) the domain
perpendicularly to the outlet boundary.
The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the outlet
pressure in order to prevent fluid from entering the domain through the boundary.
VE L O C I T Y
See the Inlet node Velocity section for the settings.
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LAMINAR OUTFLOW
This section displays when Laminar outflow is selected as the Boundary condition. Select
a flow quantity to specify for the inlet:
If Average velocity is selected, enter an Average velocity Uav (SI unit: m/s). The
default is 0 m/s.
If Flow rate is selected, enter the Flow rate V0 (SI unit: m3/s). The default is 0 m3/s.
If Exit pressure is selected, enter the Exit pressure pexit (SI unit: Pa) at the end of the
fictitious channel following the outlet. The default is 0 Pa.
Then for any selection, specify the entrance length and constraints:
Enter the Exit length Lexit (SI unit: m) to define the length of the fictitious channel
outside the model domain.
The Exit length value must be large enough so that the flow can reach a
laminar profile. For a laminar flow, Lexit should be significantly greater
than 0.06ReD, where Re is the Reynolds number and D is the outlet
length scale (this formula is exact if D is the diameter of a cylindrical pipe
and approximate for other geometries). For turbulent flow the equivalent
expression is 4.4Re1/6D. The default is 1 m.
Select the Constrain outer edges to zero check box to force the laminar profile to go
to zero at the bounding points or edges of the inlet channel. Otherwise the velocity
is defined by the boundary condition of the adjacent boundary in the model. For
example, if one end of a boundary with a Laminar outflow condition connects to a
Slip boundary condition, then the laminar profile has a maximum at that end.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS

information.
Symmetry
The Symmetry node adds a boundary condition that describes symmetry boundaries in
a fluid-flow simulation. The boundary condition for symmetry boundaries prescribes
no penetration and vanishing shear stresses. The boundary condition is a combination
of a Dirichlet condition and a Neumann condition:
291
pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) 2
--- ( u )I n = 0
u n = 0,
u n = 0,
( pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) )n = 0
for the compressible and incompressible formulations. The Dirichlet condition takes
precedence over the Neumann condition, and the above equations are equivalent to
the following equation for both the compressible and incompressible formulations:
u n = 0,
K ( K n )n = 0
K = ( u + ( u ) T )n
BOUNDARY SELECTION
For 2D axial symmetry, a boundary condition does not need to be

defined. For the symmetry axis at r = 0, the software automatically
provides a condition that prescribes ur = 0 and vanishing stresses in the
z direction and adds an Axial Symmetry node that implements this
condition on the axial symmetry boundaries only.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS

information.
Open Boundary
The Open Boundary node adds boundary conditions describing boundaries in contact
with large volumes of fluid. Fluid can both enter and leave the domain on boundaries
with this type of condition.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Select a Boundary condition for the open boundariesNormal stress (the default) or No
viscous stress.

292 |
Normal Stress
Enter the magnitude of Normal stress f0 (SI unit: N/m2). This implicitly imposes
p f 0 . The default is 0 N/m2.
No Viscous Stress
The No Viscous Stress condition specifies vanishing viscous stress on the outlet. This
condition does not provide sufficient information to fully specify the flow at the outlet
and must at least be combined with pressure constraints on adjacent points.
If No viscous stress is selected, it prescribes vanishing viscous stress:
( u + ( u ) T ) 2
--- ( u )I n = 0
3
( u + ( u ) T )n = 0
using the compressible and the incompressible formulations.
This condition can be useful in some situations because it does not impose
any constraint on the pressure. A typical example is a model with volume
forces that give rise to pressure gradients that are hard to prescribe in
advance. To make the model numerically stable, combine this boundary
condition with a point constraint on the pressure.
Boundary Stress
The Boundary Stress node adds a boundary condition that represents a very general
class of conditions also known as traction boundary conditions.
BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the boundary stressGeneral stress (the default),
Normal stress, or Normal stress, normal flow.

General Stress
When General stress is selected, enter the components for the Stress F
(SI unit: N/m2).The total stress on the boundary is set equal to a given stress F:
293
pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) 2
--- ( u )I n = F
3
( pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) )n = F
This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is
u n
p = 2 ---------- n F
n
(10-1)
If un/n is small, Equation 10-1 states that p nF.
Normal Stress
Normal Stress is described for the Open Boundary node.
Normal Stress, Normal Flow

If Normal stress, normal flow is selected, enter the magnitude of the Normal stress f0
(SI unit: N/m2). This condition prescribes that there must be no tangential velocities
on the boundary:
T
2
n pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) --- ( u )I n = f 0 ,
3
T
n ( pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) )n = f 0 ,
tu = 0
tu = 0

This boundary condition also implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D
flows is
u n
p = 2 ---------- + f 0
n
(10-2)
If un/n is small, Equation 10-2 states that p f0.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS

information.
294 |
If Normal Stress, Normal Flow is selected as the Boundary condition, then to Apply
reaction terms on all dependent variables, select All physics (symmetric). Or select
Individual dependent variables to restrict the reaction terms as required.
Screen
Use the Screen node to model interior wire-gauzes, grilles, or perforated plates as thin
permeable barriers. Common correlations are included for resistance and refraction
coefficients. The Screen boundary condition can only be applied on interior
boundaries.
S C R E E N TY P E
Select a Screen typeWire gauze (the default), Square mesh, Perforated plate, or User
defined. Observe the equations shown based on the selection (excluding User defined).
The selection also adjusts what is available in the Parameters section.

PARAMETERS
If Wire gauze, Square mesh, or Perforated plate is selected as the Screen type, enter values
or expressions for the Solidity s (dimensionless). The default is 0.5.
For Wire gauze also enter a value or expression for the Wire diameter d (SI unit: m).
The default is 0.001 m (1 mm).
For User defined, enter a Resistance coefficient K (dimensionless). The default is 1.56.
For all screen types, the Refraction defaults to Wire gauze. Or select User defined to
enter a Refraction coefficient (dimensionless). The default is 0.683.
Screen Boundary Condition
Vacuum Pump
The Vacuum Pump node models the effective outlet pressure created by a vacuum pump
device that is attached to the outlet.
PARAMETERS
Select a Static pressure curve to define a lumped curveLinear (the default), Static
pressure curve data, or User defined.
295
Linear
If Linear is selected, enter values or expressions for the Static pressure at no flow pnf
(SI unit: Pa) and the Free delivery flow rate V0,fd (SI unit: m3/s). The defaults are
100 Pa and 0.01 m3/s, respectively.
The static pressure curve is equal to the static pressure at no flow rate when V0 < 0 and
equal to 0 when the flow rate is larger than the free delivery flow rate.
Static Pressure Curve Data

Select Static pressure curve data to enter or load data under the Static Pressure Curve
Data section below. The interpolation between points given in the Static Pressure Curve
Data table is defined using the Interpolation function type list in the Static Pressure Curve
Interpolation section.
User Defined
Select User defined to enter a different value or expression. The flow rate across the
selection where this boundary condition is applied is defined by phys_id.V0 where
phys_id is the name (for example, phys_id is spf by default for this physics interface).
In order to avoid unexpected behavior, the function used for the fan curve is the
maximum of the user-defined function and 0.
STATIC PRESSURE CURVE DATA
This section displays when Static pressure curve data is selected as the Static pressure
curve. In the table, enter values or expressions for the Flow rate and Static pressure curve
(or click the Load from file button (
) under the table to import a text file). Select
the Flow rate (the default SI unit is m3/s) and Static pressure curve (the default SI unit
is Pa).
UNITS
This section is available when Static pressure curve data is selected as the Static pressure
curve. Select units for the Flow rate (default is m3/s) and Static pressure curve (default
is Pa).
STATIC PRESSURE CURVE INTERPOLATION
curve. Select the Interpolation function typeLinear (the default), Piecewise cubic, or
Cubic spline.
296 |

The Periodic Flow Condition splits its selection into a source group and a destination
group. Fluid that leaves the domain through one of the destination boundaries enters
the domain through the corresponding source boundary. This corresponds to a
situation where the geometry is a periodic part of a larger geometry. If the boundaries
are not parallel to each other, the velocity vector is automatically transformed.
If the boundaries are curved, it is recommended to only include two

boundaries.
No input is required when Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) is selected as the

Compressibility under the Physical Model section for the physics interface.
Typically when a periodic boundary condition is used with a compressible

flow the pressure is the same at both boundaries and the flow is driven by
a volume force.
PERIODIC FL OW CO N DIT IO N
This section is available when Incompressible flow is selected as the Compressibility

under the Physical Model section for the physics interface.
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure difference, psrc pdst (SI unit: Pa). This
pressure difference can, for example, drive the fully developed flow in a channel. The
default is 0 Pa.
To set up a periodic boundary condition select both boundaries in the
Periodic Flow Condition node. COMSOL Multiphysics automatically
assigns one boundary as the source and the other as the destination. To
manually set the destination selection, a Destination Selection subnode is
available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the
Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. All destination sides must be connected.
297
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
Fan
Use the Fan node to define the flow direction (inlet or outlet) and the fan parameters
on exterior boundaries. Use the Interior Fan node for interior boundaries.
FLOW DIRECTION
Select a Flow directionInlet (the default) or Outlet.

After a boundary is selected, an arrow displays in the Graphics window to
indicate the selected flow direction. To update the arrow if the selection
changes, click any node in the Model Builder and then click the Fan node
again to update the Graphics window.
For an Inlet Flow direction select a direction. This controls in which direction the fluid
enters the domain.
Select Normal flow (the default) to prescribe zero tangential velocity component.
Select User defined to define an Inflow velocity direction du (dimensionless). The
magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must point into the
domain.
PARAMETERS
When Inlet is selected as the Flow direction, enter the Input pressure pinput (SI unit: Pa)
to define the pressure at the fan input. The default is 0 Pa.
When Outlet is selected as the Flow direction, enter the Exit pressure pexit (SI unit: Pa)
to define the pressure at the fan outlet. The default is 0 Pa.
For either flow direction, select a Static pressure curve to specify a fan curveLinear
(the default), Static pressure curve data, or User defined.
298 |
Linear
For both Inlet and Outlet flow directions, if Linear is selected, enter values or
expressions for the Static pressure at no flow pnf (SI unit: Pa), the default is 100 Pa,
and the Free delivery flow rate V0,fd (SI unit: m3/s), the default is 0.01 m3/s.
The static pressure curve is equal to the static pressure at no flow rate
when V0 < 0 and equal to 0 when the flow rate is larger than the free
delivery flow rate.
User Defined
Select User defined to enter a different value or expression for the Static pressure curve.
The flow rate across the selection where this boundary condition is applied is defined
by phys_id.V0 where phys_id is the name (for example, phys_id is spf by default
for laminar single-phase flow). In order to avoid unexpected behavior, the function
used for the fan curve is the maximum between the user-defined function and 0.
Static Pressure Curve Data

Select Static pressure curve data to enter or load data under the Static Pressure Curve
Data section that displays. The interpolation between points given in the table is
defined using the Interpolation function type list in the Static Pressure Curve
Interpolation section.
UNITS
curve. Select units for the Flow rate (default is m3/s) and Static pressure (default is Pa).
STATIC PRESSURE CUR VE DATA
curve. In the table, enter values or expressions the Flow rate and Static pressure (or click
) under the table to import a text file). Select the unit for
the Load from file button (
the Flow rate (the default SI unit is m3/s) and for the Static pressure curve (the default
SI unit is Pa).
STATIC PRESSURE CUR VE INTERPOLATION
curve. Select the Interpolation function typeLinear (the default), Piecewise cubic, or
Cubic spline.
299
The extrapolation method is always a constant value. In order to avoid problems with
an undefined function, the function used for the boundary condition is the maximum
of the interpolated function and 0.
TURBULENCE CONDITIONS ON FAN OUTLET
When Inlet is selected as the Flow direction and the Turbulence model has transport
equations for the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and turbulent dissipation rate, , or
specific dissipation rate, , specify the values of the Turbulent kinetic energy and the
Turbulent dissipation rate or Specific dissipation rate on the downstream side of the fan.
Alternatively, use the Reference velocity scale to specify default values.
Fan and Grille Boundary Conditions
Interior Fan
The Interior Fan node represents interior boundaries where a fan condition is set using
the fan pressure curve to avoid an explicit representation of the fan. The Interior Fan
defines a boundary condition on the slit for laminar flow. That means that the pressure
and the velocity can be discontinuous across this boundary.
One side represents a flow inlet; the other side represents the fan outlet. The fan
boundary condition ensures that the mass flow rate is conserved between its inlet and
outlet:
u n +
inlet
u n = 0
outlet
This boundary condition acts like a Pressure Conditions boundary condition on each
side of the fan. The pressure at the fan outlet is fixed so that the mass flow rate is
conserved. On the fan inlet the pressure is set to the pressure at the fan outlet minus
the pressure drop due to the fan. The pressure drop due to the fan is defined by the
static pressure curve, which is usually a function of the flow rate. To define a fan
boundary condition on an exterior boundary, use the Fan node instead.
INTERIOR FAN
Define the Flow direction by selecting Along normal vector (the default) or Opposite to
normal vector. This defines which side of the boundary is considered the fans inlet and
outlet.
300 |
TURBULENCE CONDITIONS ON FAN OUTLET
When using a Turbulence model which has transport equations for the turbulent kinetic
energy, k, and turbulent dissipation rate, , or specific dissipation rate, , specify the
values of the Turbulent kinetic energy and the Turbulent dissipation rate or Specific
dissipation rate on the downstream side of the fan. Alternatively, use the Reference
velocity scale to specify default values.
After a boundary is selected, an arrow displays in the Graphics window to
indicate the selected flow direction. To update the arrow if the selection
changes, click any node in the Model Builder and then click the Interior fan
node again to update the Graphics window.
The rest of the settings for this section are the same as for the Fan node.
See Linear and Static Pressure Curve Data for details.
Fan Defined on an Interior Boundary
Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition includes a set of boundary conditions describing
the fluid-flow conditions at an interior wall. The Interior Wall condition can only be
applied on interior boundaries.
It is similar to the Wall boundary condition available on exterior boundaries except
that it applies on both sides of an internal boundary. It allows discontinuities (velocity,
pressure, or turbulence) across the boundary. Use the Interior Wall boundary condition
to avoid meshing thin structures by applying no-slip conditions on interior curves and
surfaces instead. You can also prescribe slip conditions and conditions for a moving
wall.
The Interior Wall boundary condition is only available for single-phase

flow. It is compatible with laminar and turbulent flows.
301
BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary conditionNo slip (available for laminar flow and is the default), Wall
functions (available for turbulent flow, and the default), Slip, or Moving wall.
No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for a stationary solid wall. The condition
prescribes u = 0 on both sides of the boundary; that is, the fluid at the wall is not
moving.
Wall Functions
The Wall functions boundary condition applies wall functions to solid walls in a
turbulent flow. Wall functions are used to model the thin region with high gradients
in flow variables near the wall.
Slip
The Slip condition prescribes a no-penetration condition, un=0. It hence implicitly
assumes that there are no viscous effects on either side of the slip wall and hence, no
boundary layer develops. From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable
approximation if the important effect is to prevent the exchange of fluid between the
regions separated by the interior wall.
Moving Wall
If the wall moves, so must the fluid on both sides of the wall. Hence, this boundary
condition prescribes u = uw. Enter the components of the Velocity of moving wall uw
(SI unit: m/s).
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface must be
added to physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.
Wall
Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS

information.
302 |
Grille
The Grille node models the pressure drop caused by having a grille that covers the inlet
or outlet.
See Fan for other settings for the Laminar Flow interface, except for
Quadratic loss, which is described here. Note that for the Turbulent Flow
interfaces, Quadratic loss is the only available option for Static pressure
curve.
PARAMETERS
If Quadratic loss is selected as the Static pressure curve, enter the Quadratic loss
coefficient to define qlc (SI unit: kg/m7). The default value is 0 kg/m7. qlc defines the
static pressure curve that is a piecewise quadratic function equal to 0 when flow rate is
< 0, equal to V02qlc when flow rate is > 0.
TURBULENCE CONDITIONS
When Inlet is selected as the Flow direction and the Turbulence model has transport
equations for the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and turbulent dissipation rate, , or
specific dissipation rate, , Specify turbulent length scale and intensity or Specify
turbulence variables on the downstream side of the grille. Alternatively, use the
Reference velocity scale to specify default values.

Flow Continuity
The Flow Continuity node is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the flow field is continuous across the pair.
A Wall subnode is added by default and it applies to the parts of the pair boundaries
where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination boundary and vice versa.
The Wall feature can be overridden by any other boundary condition that applies to
303
exterior boundaries. Right-click the Flow Continuity node to add additional Fallback
feature subnodes.
Pressure Point Constraint

The Pressure Point Constraint node adds a pressure constraint at a point. If it is not
possible to specify the pressure level using a boundary condition, the pressure level
must be set in some other way, for example, by specifying a fixed pressure at a point.
PRESSURE CONSTRAINT
Enter a point constraint for the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa). The default is 0 Pa. Enter a
relative pressure value in p0 (SI unit: Pa). Or if the reference pressure pref defined at
the physics interface level is equal to 0 Pa, enter an absolute pressure in p0.
CONSTRAINT SETTINGS

information.
Point Mass Source

The Point Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
domain centered around a point.
For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which
is available with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module, or Batteries & Fuel Cells Module, the Point Mass Source node is
available as two nodes, one for the fluid flow (Fluid Point Source) and one
for the species (Species Point Source).
304 |
This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Batteries &
Fuel Cells Module, CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module, Corrosion Module, Electrochemistry Module,
Electrodeposition Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe Flow Module, or
Subsurface Flow Module.
SOURCE STRENGTH
Enter the Mass flux, q p , for the source (SI unit: kg/s). A positive value results in mass
being ejected from the point into the computational domain. A negative value results
in mass being removed from the computational domain.
Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affects the adjacent computational
domains. This has the effect, for example, that the physical strength of a point source
located in a symmetry plane is twice the given strength.
Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual
Line Mass Source

The Line Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from a tube region with
infinitely small radius.
Module, or Batteries & Fuel Cells Module, the Line Mass Source node is
available as two nodes, one for the fluid flow (Fluid Line Source) and one
for the species (Species Line Source).
This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Batteries &
305
SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.
MODEL DIMENSION
APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY
2D
Points
2D Axisymmetry
Points not on the symmetry axis and the symmetry axis
3D
Edges
SOURCE STRENGTH
Enter the Mass flux, q l , for the source (SI unit: kg/(sm)). A positive value results in
mass being ejected from the line into the computational domain and a negative value
means that mass is removed from the computational domain.
Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This,
for example, has the effect that the physical strength of a line source located in a
symmetry plane is twice the given strength.
Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual
Boundary Condition Settings for the Turbulent Flow Interfaces

The following details are specifically for the Turbulent Flow physics interfaces. See
Wall, Inlet, Boundary Stress, and Open Boundary for the common settings applicable
to all physics interface types (such as details about the Boundary condition).
WA L L N O D E ( TU R B U L E N T F L OW S E T T I N G S )
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing the fluid-flow
condition at a wall.
Wall Functions
The Wall functions boundary condition applies wall functions to solid walls in a
turbulent flow. Wall functions are used to model the thin region with high gradients
in flow variables near the wall.
Sliding Wall (Wall Functions)

The Sliding wall (wall functions) boundary condition applies wall functions to a wall in
a turbulent flow where the velocity magnitude in the tangential direction of the wall is
306 |
prescribed. The tangential direction is determined in the same manner as in the Sliding
Wall feature. Enter the component values or expressions for the Velocity of sliding wall
uw (SI unit: m/s). The defaults are 0 m/s.
Moving Wall (Wall Functions)

associated wall to move.
The Moving wall (wall functions) boundary condition applies wall functions to a wall
with prescribed velocity uw in a turbulent flow. Enter the component values or
expressions for the Velocity of moving wall uw (SI unit: m/s). The defaults are 0 m/s.
I N L E T N O D E ( TU R B U L E N T F L OW S E T T I N G S )
The Inlet node includes a set of boundary conditions describing the fluid-flow
conditions at an inlet.
Click the Specify turbulence length scale and intensity button (the default) to enter
values or expressions for the following. Availability is based on the physics interface and
the boundary condition chosen:
See Table 10-1 for the default values.
Turbulent intensity IT (dimensionless).

Turbulence length scale LT (SI unit: m).
Reference velocity scale Uref (SI unit: m/s).
When Specify turbulence variables is selected, enter values or expressions for the
following. Availability is based on the physics interface and the boundary condition
chosen:
Turbulent kinetic energy k0 (SI unit: m2/s2).
Turbulent dissipation rate, 0 (SI unit: m2/s3).
307
TABLE 10-1: DEFAULT VALUES FOR THE TURBULENT INTERFACES

NAME AND UNIT
VARIABLE
INLET
OPEN
BOUNDARY
BOUNDARY
STRESS
Turbulent intensity
(dimensionless)
IT
0.05
0.005
0.01
Turbulence length scale (m)
LT
0.01
0.1
0.1
Reference velocity scale (m/s)
Uref
Turbulent kinetic energy

(m2/s2)
k0
0.005
2.5 x 10-3
1 x 10-2
Turbulent dissipation rate

(m2/s3)
0.005
1.1 x 10-4
1 x 10-3
For recommendations of physically sound values see Inlet Values for the
Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity.
About the Turbulent Intensity and Turbulence Length Scale Parameters

The Turbulent intensity IT and Turbulence length scale LT values are related to the
turbulence variables via the following equations, Equation 10-3 for the Inlet and
Equation 10-4 for the Open Boundary:
3
2
Inlet k = --- ( U I T ) ,
2
2
3
Open Boundary k = --- ( I T U ref ) ,
2
3 4 k3 / 2
= C
----------LT
34
(10-3)
3
2 ---
C 3 ( I T U ref ) 2
= ------------ ----------------------------
LT
2
(10-4)
For the Open Boundary and Boundary Stress options, and with any Turbulent Flow
physics interface, inlet conditions for the turbulence variables also need to be specified.
These conditions are used on the parts of the boundary where un < 0, that is, where
flow enters the computational domain.
308 |
O P E N B O U N D A R Y N O D E ( TU R B U L E N T F L OW S E T T I N G S )
The Open Boundary node adds boundary conditions describing boundaries in contact
with large volumes of fluid. Fluid can both enter and leave the domain on boundaries
with this type of condition.
Under Turbulence Conditions, the settings are the same for as defined
under Boundary Condition for the Inlet Node (Turbulent Flow Settings)
node. Also see About the Turbulent Intensity and Turbulence Length
Scale Parameters.
B O U N D A R Y S T RE S S N O D E ( TU R B U L E N T F L OW S E T T I N G S )
The Boundary Stress node adds a boundary condition that represents a very general
class of conditions also known as traction boundary conditions.
Select a Turbulent boundary type to apply to the turbulence variablesOpen boundary
(the default), Inlet, or Outlet.
If Open boundary is selected, then expect parts of the boundary to be an outlet and
parts of the boundary to be an inlet.
Select Inlet when the whole boundary is expected to be an inlet.
Under Turbulence Conditions for Inlet and Open boundary, the settings
are the same for as defined under Boundary Condition for the Inlet Node
(Turbulent Flow Settings) node. Also see About the Turbulent Intensity
and Turbulence Length Scale Parameters.
Select Outlet when the whole boundary is expected to be an outflow boundary.
Homogeneous Neumann conditions are applied for the turbulence variables, that
is, for k and
k n = 0
n = 0
309
Theory for the Single-Phase Flow

Interfaces
The theory for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow interface is described in this
section:
General Single-Phase Flow Theory
Compressible Flow
The Mach Number Limit
Incompressible Flow
The Reynolds Number
Non-Newtonian Flow: The Power Law and the Carreau Model
Laminar Inflow
Laminar Outflow
No Viscous Stress
Vacuum Pump Boundary Condition
Mass Sources for Fluid Flow
Numerical StabilityStabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow
Solvers for Laminar Flow
Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation
310 |
Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow

References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces
The theory about most boundary conditions is found in Ref. 2.
General Single-Phase Flow Theory

The Single-Phase Fluid Flow physics interfaces are based on the Navier-Stokes
equations, which in their most general form read
----+ ( u ) = 0
t
(10-5)
u
------- + ( u )u = [ pI + ] + F
t
(10-6)
T
T p
C p ------- + ( u )T = ( q ) + :S ---- ------- ------ + ( u )p + Q
t
T p t
(10-7)
where
p is pressure (SI unit: Pa)
F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
q is the heat flux vector (SI unit: W/m2)
Q contains the heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)
S is the strain-rate tensor:
1
S = --- ( u + ( u ) T )
2
The operation : denotes a contraction between tensors defined by
THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES
311
a:b =
anm bnm
(10-8)
n m
This is sometimes referred to as the double dot product.

Equation 10-5 is the continuity equation and represents conservation of mass.
Equation 10-6 is a vector equation which represents conservation of momentum.
Equation 10-7 describes the conservation of energy, formulated in terms of
temperature. This is an intuitive formulation that facilitates boundary condition
specifications.
To close the equation system, Equation 10-5 through Equation 10-7, constitutive
relations are needed. For a Newtonian fluid, which has a linear relationship between
stress and strain, Stokes (Ref. 1) deduced the following expression:
2
= 2S --- ( u )I
3
(10-9)
The dynamic viscosity, (SI unit: Pas), for a Newtonian fluid is allowed to depend on
the thermodynamic state but not on the velocity field. All gases and many liquids can
be considered Newtonian. Examples of non-Newtonian fluids are honey, mud, blood,
liquid metals, and most polymer solutions. The Heat Transfer Module treats all fluids
as Newtonian according to Equation 10-9.
Other commonly used constitutive relations are Fouriers law of heat conduction and
the ideal gas law.
In theory, the same equations describe both laminar and turbulent flows. In practice,
however, the mesh resolution required to simulate turbulence with the Laminar Flow
interface makes such an approach impractical.
There are several books where derivations of the Navier-Stokes equations
and detailed explanations of concepts such as Newtonian fluids can be
found. See, for example, the classical text by Batchelor (Ref. 3) and the
more recent work by Panton (Ref. 4).
Many applications describe isothermal flows for which Equation 10-7 is decoupled
from Equation 10-5 and Equation 10-6. The temperature equation is described in the
Theory for the Heat Transfer Interfaces.
312 |
2D AXISYMMETRIC FORMULATIONS
A 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 10-5 and Equation 10-6 requires

to be zero. That is, there must be no gradients in the azimuthal direction. A common
additional assumption is however that u=0. In such cases, the -equation can be
removed from Equation 10-6. The resulting system of equations is both easier to
converge and computationally less expensive compared to retaining the -equation.
The default 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 10-5 and Equation 10-6
therefore assumes that
= 0
u = 0
Compressible Flow
The Navier-Stokes equations solved by default in all Single-Phase Flow interfaces apply
the compressible formulation of the continuity equation:
------ + ( u ) = 0
t
(10-10)
u
2
------- + u u = p + ( u + ( u ) T ) --- ( u )I + F
t
3
(10-11)
and the momentum equation:
These equations are applicable for incompressible as well as compressible flow with
density variations.
The Mach Number Limit

An important dimensionless number in fluid dynamics is the Mach number, Ma,
defined by
u
Ma = ------a
where a is the speed of sound. A flow is formally incompressible when Ma = 0. This is
theoretically achieved by letting the speed of sound tend to infinity. The Navier-Stokes
equations then have the mathematical property that pressure disturbances are
instantaneously propagated throughout the entire domain. This results in a parabolic
equation system.
313
The momentum equation, Equation 10-11, is parabolic for unsteady flow and elliptic
for steady flow, whereas the continuity equation, Equation 10-10, is hyperbolic for
both steady and unsteady flow. The combined system of equations is thus hybrid
parabolic-hyperbolic for unsteady flow and hybrid elliptic-hyperbolic for steady flow.
An exception occurs when the viscous term in Equation 10-11 becomes vanishingly
small, such as at an outflow boundary, in which case the momentum equation becomes
locally hyperbolic. The number of boundary conditions to apply on the boundary then
depends on the number of characteristics propagating into the computational domain.
For the purely hyperbolic system, the number of characteristics propagating from the
boundary into the domain changes as the Mach number passes through unity. Hence,
the number of boundary conditions required to obtain a numerically well posed system
must also change. The compressible formulation of the laminar and turbulent
interfaces uses the same boundary conditions as the incompressible formulation, which
implies that the compressible interfaces are not suitable for flows with Mach number
larger than or equal to one.
The practical Mach number limit is lower than one, however. The main reason is that
numerical scheme (stabilization and boundary conditions) of the Laminar Flow
interface does not recognize the direction and speed of pressure waves. The fully
compressible Navier-Stokes equations do, for example, start to display very sharp
gradients already at moderate Mach numbers. But the stabilization in the single-phase
flow physics interface does not necessarily capture these gradients. It is impossible to
give an exact limit where the low Mach number regime ends and the moderate Mach
number regime begins, but a rule of thumb is that the Mach number effects start to
appear at Ma = 0.3. For this reason the compressible formulation is referred to as
compressible flow (Ma<0.3) in COMSOL Multiphysics.
Incompressible Flow
When the temperature variations in a flow are small, a single-phase fluid can often be
assumed incompressible; that is, is constant or nearly constant. This is the case for all
liquids under normal conditions and also for gases at low velocities. For constant ,
Equation 10-10 reduces to
u = 0
(10-12)
and Equation 10-11 becomes
314 |
u
T
+ ( u )u = [ pI + ( u + ( u ) ) ] + F
t
(10-13)
The Reynolds Number

A fundamental characteristic in analyses of fluid flow is the Reynolds number:
UL
Re = -----------
where U denotes a velocity scale, and L denotes a representative length. The Reynolds
number represents the ratio between inertial and viscous forces. At low Reynolds
numbers, viscous forces dominate and tend to damp out all disturbances, which leads
to laminar flow. At high Reynolds numbers, the damping in the system is very low
giving small disturbances the possibility to grow by nonlinear interactions. If the
Reynolds number is high enough, the flow field eventually ends up in a chaotic state
called turbulence.
Observe that the Reynolds number can have different meanings depending on the
length scale and velocity scale. To be able to compare two Reynolds numbers, they
must be based on equivalent length and velocity scales.
The Fluid Flow interfaces automatically calculate the local cell Reynolds number
Rec = |u|h/(2) using the element length h for L and the magnitude of the velocity
vector u for the velocity scale U. This Reynolds number is not related to the character
of the flow field, but to the stability of the numerical discretization. The risk for
numerical oscillations in the solution increases as Rec grows. The cell Reynolds
number is a predefined quantity available for visualization and evaluation (typically it
is available as: spf.cellRe).
Non-Newtonian Flow: The Power Law and the Carreau Model

The viscous stress tensor is directly dependent on the shear rate tensor and can be
written as:
2
= --- ( u )I
3
=
using the compressible and incompressible formulations. Here denotes the
strain-rate tensor defined by:
= ( u + ( u ) T )
Its magnitude, the shear rate, is:
315

= =
1
--- :
2
where the contraction operator : is defined by

a:b =
anm bnm
n m
For a non-Newtonian fluid, the dynamic viscosity is assumed to be a function of the

shear rate:
= ()
The Laminar Flow interfaces have the following predefined models to prescribe a
non-Newtonian viscositythe power law and the Carreau model.
POWER LAW
The power law model is an example of a generalized Newtonian model. It prescribes
= m n 1
(10-14)
where m and n are scalars that can be set to arbitrary values. For n > 1, the power law
describes a shear thickening (dilatant) fluid. For n < 1, it describes a shear thinning
(pseudoplastic) fluid. A value of n equal to one gives the expression for a Newtonian
fluid.
Equation 10-14 predicts an infinite viscosity at zero shear rate for n < 1. This is
however never the case physically. Instead, most fluids have a constant viscosity for
shear rates smaller than 10-2 s-1 (Ref. 18). Since infinite viscosity also makes models
using Equation 10-14 difficult to solve, COMSOL Multiphysics implements the
power law model as

= mmax ( , min ) n 1
(10-15)
where min is a lower limit for the evaluation of the shear rate magnitude. The default
value for min is 10-2 s-1, but can be given an arbitrary value or expression using the
corresponding text field.
CARREAU MODEL
The Carreau model defines the viscosity in terms of the following four-parameter
expression
316 |
(n 1)
---------------- = + ( 0 inf ) [ 1 + ( ) 2 ] 2
(10-16)
where is a parameter with the unit of time, 0 is the zero shear rate viscosity, inf is
the infinite shear-rate viscosity, and n is a dimensionless parameter. This expression is
able to describe the viscosity for most stationary polymer flows.

The Boussinesq approximation is a way to treat certain simple cases of buoyant flows
without having to use a compressible formulation of the Navier-Stokes equations.
The Boussinesq approximation assumes that variations in density have no effect on the
flow field except that they give rise to buoyancy forces. The density is assigned a
reference value, 0, everywhere except in the body force term, which is set to
F = ( 0 + )g
(10-17)
where g is the gravity vector. A further simplifications is often possible. Since g can be
written in terms of a potential, , it is possible to write Equation 10-17 as:
F = ( 0 ) + g
The first part can be canceled out by splitting the true pressure, p, into a hydrodynamic
component, P, and a hydrostatic component, 0. Equation 10-12 and
Equation 10-13 are expressed in terms of the hydrodynamic pressure P = p + 0:
u = 0
(10-18)
u
0 ------- + ( 0 u )u = P + ( ( u + ( u ) T ) ) + g
t
(10-19)
To obtain the Boussinesq approximation in this form, enter the expression for g for
the Volume Force feature.
In practice, the shift from p to P can be ignored except where the pressure appears in
boundary conditions. The pressure that is specified at boundaries is the hydrodynamic
pressure in this case. For example, on a vertical outflow or inflow boundary, the
hydrodynamic pressure is typically a constant, while the true pressure is a function of
the vertical coordinate.
The system that Equation 10-18 and Equation 10-19 form has its limitations. The
main assumption is that the density fluctuations must be small; that is, /0 << 1.
317
There are also some more subtle constraints that, for example, make the Boussinesq
approximation unsuitable for systems of very large dimensions. An excellent discussion
of the Boussinesq approximation and its limitations appears in Chapter 14 of Ref. 10.
See Wall for the node settings.
SLIP
The Slip condition assumes that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence,
no boundary layer develops. From a modeling point of view, this is a reasonable
approximation if the important effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the
domain. Mathematically, the constraint can be formulated as:
u n = 0,
( pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) )n = 0
The no penetration term takes precedence over the Neumann part of the condition
and the above expression is therefore equivalent to
u n = 0,
K ( K n )n = 0
K = ( u + ( u ) T )n
expressing that there is no flow across the boundary and no viscous stress in the
tangential direction.
For turbulent flow, any turbulence variable is subject to a homogeneous Neumann
condition. For example
k n = 0
for a k- model.
318 |
n = 0
SLI D I NG WA LL
The Sliding Wall boundary condition is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor
belt; that is, the surface is sliding in its tangential direction. The wall does not have to
actually move in the coordinate system.
In 2D, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the direction
of the boundary, but the situation becomes more complicated in 3D. For
this reason, this boundary condition has slightly different definitions in
the different space dimensions.
For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, the velocity is given as a scalar

Uw and the condition prescribes
u n = 0,
u t = Uw
where t = (ny, nx) for 2D and t = (nz, nr) for axial symmetry.
For 3D components, the velocity is set equal to a given vector uw

projected onto the boundary plane:
u w ( n u w )n
u = -------------------------------------------- u w
u w ( n u w )n
The normalization makes u have the same magnitude as uw even if uw is
not exactly parallel to the wall.

The Navier-Stokes equations can show large variations in mathematical behavior,
ranging from almost completely elliptic to almost completely hyperbolic. This has
implications when it comes to prescribing admissible boundary conditions. There is
also a discrepancy between mathematically valid boundary conditions and practically
useful boundary conditions.
Also see Inlet and Outlet for the node settings.
319
INLET CONDITIONS
An inlet requires specification of the velocity components. The most robust way to do
this is to prescribe a velocity field using a Velocity condition.
A common alternative to prescribing the complete velocity field is to prescribe a
pressure and all but one velocity component. The pressure cannot be specified
pointwise since this is a mathematically over-constraining. Instead the pressure can be
specified via a stress condition:
u n
p + 2 --------- = F n
n
(10-20)
where un/n is the normal derivative of the normal velocity component.

Equation 10-20 is prescribed by the Pressure condition in the Inlet and Outlet features
and the Normal stress condition in the Open Boundary and Boundary Stress features.
Equation 10-20 is mathematically more stringent compared to specifying the pressure
pointwise, can at the same time not guarantee that p obtains the desired value. In
practice, p is close to Fn, except for low Reynolds number flows where viscous effects
are the only effects that balance the pressure. In addition to Equation 10-20, all but
one velocity component must be specified. For low Reynolds numbers, this can be
specified by a vanishing tangential stress condition:
u t
-------- = 0
n
which is what the Normal stress condition does. Vanishing tangential stress becomes a
less well posed inlet condition as the Reynolds number increases. The Pressure
condition in the Inlet feature therefore requires a flow direction to be prescribed which
provides a well-posed condition independent of Reynolds number.
OUTLET CONDITIONS
The most common approach is to prescribe a pressure via a normal stress condition on
the outlet. This is often accompanied by a vanishing tangential stress condition:
u t
-------- = 0
n
where ut/n is the normal derivative of the tangential velocity field. It is also possible
to prescribe ut to be zero. The latter option should be used with care since it can have
a significant effect on the upstream solution.
320 |
The elliptic character of the Navier-Stokes equations mathematically permit specifying

a complete velocity field at an outlet. This can however be difficult to apply in practice.
The reason being that it is hard to prescribe the outlet velocity so that it at each point
is consistent with the interior solution. The adjustment to the specified velocity then
occurs across an outlet boundary layer. The thickness of this boundary layer depends
on the Reynolds number; the higher the Reynolds number, the thinner the boundary
layer.
ALTERNATIVE FORMULATIONS
COMSOL provides several specialized boundary conditions that either provide

detailed control over the flow at the boundary or that simulate specific devices. In
practice they often prescribe a velocity or a pressure, but calculate the prescribed values
using for example ODEs.
Laminar Inflow
In order to prescribe a fully developed inlet velocity profile, this boundary condition
adds a weak form contribution and constraints corresponding to unidirectional flow
perpendicular to the boundary. The applied condition corresponds to the situation
shown in Figure 10-1: a fictitious domain of length Lentr is assumed to be attached to
the inlet of the computational domain. The domain is an extrusion of the inlet
boundary, which means that laminar inflow requires the inlet to be flat. The boundary
condition uses the assumption that the flow in this fictitious domain is fully developed
laminar flow. The wall boundary conditions for the fictitious domain is inherited
from the real domain, , unless the option to constrain outer edges or endpoints to
zero is selected in which case the fictitious walls are no-slip walls.
pentr
Lentr
Figure 10-1: An example of the physical situation simulated when using the Laminar
inflow boundary condition. is the actual computational domain while the dashed
domain is a fictitious domain.
If an average inlet velocity or inlet volume flow is specified instead of the pressure,
COMSOL Multiphysics adds an ODE that calculates a pressure, pentr, such that the
desired inlet velocity or volume flow is obtained.
321
Laminar Outflow
In order to prescribe an outlet velocity profile, this boundary condition adds a weak
form contribution and constraints corresponding to unidirectional flow perpendicular
to the boundary. The applied condition corresponds to the situation shown in
Figure 10-2: assume that a fictitious domain of length Lexit is attached to the outlet of
the computational domain. The domain is an extrusion of the outlet boundary, which
means that laminar outflow requires the outlet to be flat. The boundary condition uses
the assumption that the flow in this fictitious domain is fully developed laminar flow.
The wall boundary conditions for the fictitious domain is inherited from the real
domain, , unless the option to constrain outer edges or endpoints to zero is selected
in which case the fictitious walls are no-slip walls.
pexit
Lexit
Figure 10-2: An example of the physical situation simulated when using the Laminar
outflow boundary condition. is the actual computational domain while the dashed
domain is a fictitious domain.
If the average outlet velocity or outlet volume flow is specified instead of the pressure,
the software adds an ODE that calculates pexit such that the desired outlet velocity or
volume flow is obtained.
No Viscous Stress
For this module, and in addition to the Pressure, No Viscous Stress boundary
condition, the viscous stress condition sets the viscous stress to zero:
( u + ( u ) T ) 2
--- ( u )I n = 0
3
( ( u + ( u ) T ) )n = 0
using the compressible and the incompressible formulation, respectively.
The condition is not a sufficient outlet condition since it lacks information about the
outlet pressure. It must hence be combined with pressure point constraints on one or
several points or lines surrounding the outlet.
322 |
This boundary condition is numerically the least stable outlet condition, but can still
be beneficial if the outlet pressure is nonconstant due to, for example, a nonlinear
volume force.

The total stress on the boundary is set equal to a stress vector of magnitude f0, oriented
in the negative normal direction:
pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) 2
--- ( u )I n = f 0 n
3
( pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) )n = f 0 n
This implies that the total stress in the tangential direction is zero. This boundary
condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure which for 2D flows is
u n
p = 2 ---------- + f 0
n
(10-21)
If un/n is small, Equation 10-21 states that p f0.

The Normal Stress condition is the mathematically correct version of the Pressure
Conditions condition (Ref. 4), but it is numerically less stable.
Pressure Boundary Condition

For single-phase flow, a mathematically correct natural boundary condition for outlets
is
pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) 2
--- ( u )I n = p 0 n
(10-22)
( pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) )n = p 0 n
(10-23)

This is a normal stress condition together with a no tangential stress condition. When
> 0 Equation 10-22 or Equation 10-23 can be supplemented with a tangential
velocity condition
323
ut = 0
(10-24)
If so, the no tangential stress condition is overridden. An issue with Equation 10-22
or Equation 10-23 is that it does not strongly enforce unidirectional flow on the
boundary. If the prescribed pressure on an outlet is too high, parts of the outlet can
actually have inflow. This is not as much of an issue for the Navier-Stokes equations as
it is an issue for scalar transport equations solved along with the Navier-Stokes
equations. Hence, when applying the Pressure boundary condition at an outlet or inlet
you can further constrain the flow. With the Suppress backflow option
pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) 2
--- ( u )I n = p 0 n
3
( pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) )n = p 0 n
p p
0
(10-25)
the normal stress is adjusted to keep

un0
(10-26)
Equation 10-25 effectively means that the prescribed pressure is p0 if un 0, but

smaller at locations where un < 0. This means that Equation 10-25 does not
completely prevent backflow, but the backflow is substantially reduced.
A pressure condition can also be applied at an inlet. In this case, either the normal stress
is prescribed
2
T
n pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) --- ( u )I n = p 0
3
T
n ( pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) )n = p 0
p p
0
(10-27)
together with the tangential condition in Equation 10-24, or, a general flow direction
is prescribed.
324 |
T pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) 2
--- ( u )I n = p 0 ( r n )
ru
u
3
(r n)
T ( pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) )n = p
ru
0 u
p p
0
(10-28)
du
u ( u r u )r u = 0, r u = ------------du
The > option is used with suppress backflow to have u n 0 or u r u 0 .
Inlet, Outlet, Open Boundary, and No Viscous Stress for the individual
node settings. Note that some modules have additional theory sections
describing options available with that module.
Vacuum Pump Boundary Condition

Vacuum pumps (devices) can be represented using lumped curves implemented as
boundary conditions. These simplifications also imply some assumptions. In particular,
it is assumed that a given boundary can only be either an inlet or an outlet. Such a
boundary should not be a mix of inlets/outlets nor switch between them during a
simulation.
Manufacturers usually provide curves that describe the static pressure as a function of
flow rate for a vacuum pump.
Also see Vacuum Pump for the node settings.
DEFINING A DEVICE AT AN OUTLET
In this case (see Figure 10-3), the devices inlet is the interior face situated between the
blue (cube) and green (circle) domains while its outlet is an external boundary, here
the circular boundary of the green domain. The lumped curve gives the flow rate as a
function of the pressure difference between the interior face and the external
boundary. This boundary condition implementation follows the Pressure Boundary
Condition for outlets with the Suppress backflow option:
325
pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) 2
--- ( u )I n = p 0 n
(10-29)
p 0 p vacuum pump ( V 0 ) p ref

Here, V0 is the flow rate across the boundary and pvacuum pump(V0) is the static
pressure function of flow rate for the vacuum pump. pref is the reference pressure that
ensure that the absolute pressure is set to pvacuum pump. Equation 10-29 corresponds
to the compressible formulation. For incompressible flows, the term (2/3)( u)
vanishes.
In 2D the thickness in the third direction, Dz, is used to define the flow
rate. Vacuum pumps are modeled as rectangles in this case.
Figure 10-3: A vacuum pump at the outlet. The arrow represents the flow direction, the
green circle represents the vacuum pump (that should not be part of the model), and the
blue cube represents the modeled domain with an outlet boundary condition described by
a lumped curve for the attached vacuum pump.

In this case, the inlet and outlet of the device are both interior boundaries (see
Figure 10-4). The boundaries are called dev_in and dev_out. The boundary
conditions are described as follows:
The inlet of the device is an outlet boundary condition for the modeled domain. For
this outlet side, on dev_in, a pressure condition is set. The value of the pressure is
326 |
set to the sum of the mean value of the pressure on dev_out and the pressure drop
across the device. The pressure drop is calculated from a lumped curve using the
flow rate evaluated on dev_in.
For the inlet side, on dev_out, a pressure boundary condition is defined. The
pressure value is set so that the flow rate is equal on dev_in and dev_out. An ODE
is added to compute the pressure value.
When a turbulence model with transport equations for the turbulence quantities is
applied, the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and dissipation rate, , or specific dissipation
rate, , must be specified on the downstream side of the fan. The turbulence
conditions are specific to the design and operating conditions of the fan. A reference
velocity scale Uref is available in order to set default values.
2 ,
k 0init = 0.015U ref
3/2
C 3/4 k 0init
0init = -------------------------l ref
(10-30)
In both cases, the boundary condition implementation follows the

Pressure Boundary Condition for outlet or inlet with the Suppress
backflow option.
See Interior Fan for node settings.
327
Figure 10-4: A device between two boundaries. The red arrows represent the flow direction,
the cylindrical part represents the device (that should be not be part of the model), and the
two cubes are the domain that are modeled with a particular inlet boundary condition to
account for the device.

Fans, pumps, or grilles (devices) can be represented using lumped curves implemented
as boundary conditions. These simplifications also imply some assumptions. In
particular, it is assumed that a given boundary can only be either an inlet or an outlet.
Such a boundary should not be a mix of inlets/outlets, nor switch between them
during a simulation.
Manufacturers usually provide curves that describe the static pressure as a function of
flow rate for a fan.
See Fan and Grille for node settings.
DEFINING A DEVICE AT AN INLET
In this case, the devices inlet is an external boundary, represented by the external
circular boundary of the green domain on Figure 10-5. The devices outlet is an
interior face situated between the green and blue domains in Figure 10-5. The lumped
curve gives the flow rate as a function of the pressure difference between the external
boundary and the interior face. This boundary condition implementation follows the
328 |
Pressure Boundary Condition for inlets with the Suppress backflow option:
2
T
n pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) --- ( u )I n = p 0
(10-31)
p 0 p input + p fan ( V 0 )
The Grille boundary condition sets the following conditions:
2
T
n pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) --- ( u )I n = p 0
(10-32)
p 0 p input + p grille ( V 0 )
Here, V0 is the flow rate across the boundary, pinput is the pressure at the devices inlet,
and pfan(V0) and pgrille(V0) are the static pressure functions of flow rate for the fan
and the grille. Equation 10-31 and Equation 10-32 correspond to the compressible
formulation. For incompressible flows, the term (2/3)( u) vanishes. When a
turbulence model with a transport equation for the turbulent kinetic energy is applied,
the term (2/3)k appears on the left-hand sides of Equation 10-31 and
Equation 10-32. In such cases the turbulent kinetic energy, k, and dissipation rate, ,
or specific dissipation rate, , must be specified on the downstream side. The
turbulence conditions are specific to the design and operating conditions of the fan or
grille. For the Fan condition, a reference velocity scale Uref is available in order to set
default values according to Equation 10-30. For the Grille boundary condition the
turbulence quantities on the downstream side are specified by defining a loss
coefficient K = 2p grille ( u n ) 2 , from which a refraction coefficient is derived
using Equation 10-44. Equation 10-38 through Equation 10-40 are then used to
relate upstream and downstream turbulence quantities.
The flow direction is enforced to be normal to the boundary by default. However it is
possible to define an arbitrary inflow velocity direction. In such case Equation 10-31
and Equation 10-32 are modified similarly to Equation 10-28.
rate. Fans are modeled as rectangles in this case.
329
Figure 10-5: A device at the inlet. The arrow represents the flow direction, the green circle
represents the device (that should not be part of the model), and the blue cube represents the
modeled domain with an inlet boundary condition described by a lumped curve for the
attached device.
DEFINING A DEVICE AT AN OUTLET
In this case (see Figure 10-6), the fans inlet is the interior face situated between the
blue (cube) and green (circle) domain while its outlet is an external boundary, here the
circular boundary of the green domain. The lumped curve gives the flow rate as a
function of the pressure difference between the interior face and the external
boundary. This boundary condition implementation follows the Pressure Boundary
Condition for outlets with the Suppress backflow option:
pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) 2
--- ( u )I n = p 0 n
(10-33)
p 0 p exit p fan ( V 0 )
The Grille boundary condition sets the following conditions:
pI + ( u + ( u ) T ) 2
--- ( u )I n = p 0 n
(10-34)
p 0 p exit p grille ( V 0 )
Here, V0 is the flow rate across the boundary, pexit is the pressure at the device outlet,
and pfan(V0) and pgrille(V0) are the static pressure function of flow rate for the fan
and the grille. Equation 10-33 and Equation 10-34 correspond to the compressible
formulation. For incompressible flows, the term (2/3)( u)n vanishes. When a
330 |
turbulence model with a transport equation for the turbulence kinetic energy is
applied, the term (2/3)kn appears on the left-hand sides of Equation 10-33 and
Equation 10-34.
rate. Fans are modeled as rectangles in this case.
Figure 10-6: A fan at the outlet. The arrow represents the flow direction, the green circle
represents the fan (that should not be part of the model), and the blue cube represents the
modeled domain with an outlet boundary condition described by a lumped curve for the
attached fan.

The word screen refers to a barrier with distributed perforations such as a wire
gauze, grille, or perforated plate. The screen is assumed to have a width, which is small
compared to the resolved length-scales of the flow field and can thus be modeled as an
edge (in 2D) or surface (in 3D). This idea permits an economic implementation of the
screen, where the details of the barrier need not be resolved. The general influence of
a screen on the flow field is a loss in the normal momentum component, a change in
direction (related to a suppression of the tangential velocity component), attenuation
of the turbulence kinetic energy and preservation of the turbulence length scale (Ref.
15). The conditions across the screen are expressed as,
[ u n ] -+ = 0
(10-35)
331
2
2
( u n ) 2 + p n T ( + T ) u + ( u ) T --- ( u )I --- kI n
3
3
+
-
(10-36)
K
= ---- - ( u - n ) 2
2
n u+ = ( n u- )
(10-37)
k+ = 2 k-
(10-38)
and, depending on the turbulence model in use, either,

+ = 3 -
(10-39)
+ = -
(10-40)
or,
and + refer to the upstream and downstream side of the screen, whereas K and are
the screen resistance and refraction coefficients. The attenuation of the turbulence
kinetic energy (Equation 10-38) is based on the suppression of the tangential velocity
(Equation 10-37) and the changes in and are determined by the assumption of
preservation of the turbulence length-scale across the screen.
The Screen feature provides three commonly used correlations for K (Ref. 16). The
following correlation is valid for wire gauzes
K = ( 0.52 + 0.66/Re d4 / 3 ) ( ( 1 s ) 2 1 ), Re d = u d
(10-41)
Here s is the solidity (ratio of blocked area to total area of the screen) and d is the
diameter of the wires. For a square mesh, the following correlation is applied,
K = 0.98 ( ( 1 s ) 2 1 ) 1.09
(10-42)
and for a perforated plate,

K = 0.94 ( ( 1 s ) 2 1 ) 1.28
(10-43)
The following correlation for wire gauzes (Ref. 17) gives reasonable values for for a
wide range of applications and has been included in the implementation,
332 |
K2
K
------- + 1 ---16
4
(10-44)
See Screen for the node settings. Also see Theory for the Non-Isothermal
Screen Boundary Condition for the non-isothermal version of these
physics interfaces.
Mass Sources for Fluid Flow

There are two types of mass sources in a Single-Phase Flow physics interface: point
sources and line sources.
These features require at least one of the following licenses: Batteries and
PO IN T S OURCE
A point source is theoretically formed by taking a mass injection/ejection, Q (SI unit:

kg/(m3s)), in a small volume V and then letting the size of the volume tend to zero
while keeping the total mass flux constant. Given a point source strength, q p (SI unit:
kg/s), this can be expressed as
lim
V 0
= q p
(10-45)
An alternatively way to form a point source is to assume that mass is injected/extracted

through the surface of a small object. Letting the object surface area tend to zero while
keeping the mass flux constant, results in the same point source. For this alternative
approach, effects resulting from the physical object volume, such as drag and fluid
displacement, need to be neglected.
The weak contribution
q p test ( p )
333

is added to a point in the geometry. As can be seen from Equation 10-45, Q must tend
to plus or minus infinity as V tends to zero. This means that in theory the pressure
also tends to plus or minus infinity.
Observe that point refers to the physical representation of the source. A point source
can therefore only be added to points in 3D components and to points on the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry components. Other geometrical points in 2D
components represent physical lines.
The finite element representation of Equation 10-45 corresponds to a finite pressure
in a point with the effect of the point source spread out over a region around the point.
The size of the region depends on the mesh and on the strength of the source. A finer
mesh gives a smaller affected region, but also a more extreme pressure value. It is
important not to mesh too finely around a point source since the resulting pressure can
result in unphysical values for the density, for example. It can also have a negative effect
on the condition number for the equation system.
LINE SOURCE
A line source can theoretically be formed by assuming a source of strength Q (SI unit:
kg/(m3s)), located within a tube with cross-section area S and then letting S tend
to zero while keeping the total mass flux per unit length constant. Given a line source
strength, q l (SI unit: kg/(ms)), this can be expressed as
lim
S 0
Q =
q l
(10-46)
As in the point source case, an alternative approach is to assume that mass is

injected/extracted through the surface of a small object. This results in the same mass
source, but requires that effects on the fluid resulting from the physical object volume
are neglected.
The weak contribution
q l test ( p )
is added to lines in 3D or to points in 2D (which represent cut-through views of lines).
Line sources can also be added to the axisymmetry line in 2D axisymmetry
components. It cannot, however, be added to geometrical lines in 2D because they
represent physical planes.
334 |
As with a point source, it is important not to mesh too finely around the line source.
For feature node information, see Line Mass Source and Point Mass
Source in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
Module, or Batteries & Fuel Cells Module, these shared physics nodes are
renamed as follows:
The Line Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Line Source) and one for the species (Species Line Source).
The Point Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Point Source) and one for the species (Species Point Source).
Numerical StabilityStabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

The momentum equation (Equation 10-11 or Equation 10-13) is a (nonlinear)
convection-diffusion equation. Such equations can easily become unstable if
discretized using the Galerkin finite element method. Stabilized finite element
methods are usually necessary in order to obtain physical solutions. The stabilization
settings are found in the main Fluid Flow interface features. To display this section,
) and select Stabilization.
click the Show button (
There are three types of stabilization methods available for Navier-Stokesstreamline
diffusion, crosswind diffusion, and isotropic diffusion. Streamline diffusion and
crosswind diffusion are consistent stabilization methods, whereas isotropic diffusion is
an inconsistent stabilization method.
For optimal functionality, the exact weak formulations of and constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods depend on the order of the
shape functions (basis functions) for the elements. The values of constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods follow Ref. 5 and Ref. 6.
Numerical Stabilization and Iterative in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual
335
STREAMLINE DIFFUSION
For strongly coupled systems of equations, the streamline diffusion method must be
applied to the system as a whole rather than to each equation separately. These ideas
were first explored by Hughes and Mallet (Ref. 7) and were later extended to Galerkin
least-squares (GLS) applied to the Navier-Stokes equations (Ref. 8). This is the
streamline diffusion formulation that COMSOL Multiphysics supports. The time-scale
tensor is the diagonal tensor presented in Ref. 9.
Streamline diffusion is active by default because it is necessary when convection is
dominating the flow.
The governing equations for incompressible flow are subject to the Babuska-Brezzi
condition, which states that the shape functions (basis functions) for pressure must be
of lower order than the shape functions for velocity. If the incompressible
Navier-Stokes equations are stabilized by streamline diffusion, it is possible to use
equal-order interpolation. Hence, streamline diffusion is necessary when using
first-order elements for both velocity and pressure. This applies also if the model is
solved using geometric multigrid (either as a solver or as a preconditioner) and at least
one multigrid hierarchy level uses linear Lagrange elements.
CROSSWIND DIFFUSION
Crosswind diffusion can also be formulated for systems of equations, and when applied
to the Navier-Stokes equations it becomes a shock-capturing operator. COMSOL
Multiphysics supports the formulation in Ref. 8 with a shock capturing viscosity of the
Hughes-Mallet type Ref. 7.
Incompressible flows do not contain shock waves, but crosswind diffusion is still useful
for introducing extra diffusion in sharp boundary layers and shear layers that otherwise
would require a very fine mesh to resolve.
Crosswind diffusion is active by default as it makes it easier to obtain a solution even if
the problem is fully resolved by the mesh.
Crosswind diffusion also enables the iterative solvers to use inexpensive
presmoothers. If crosswind diffusion is deactivated, more expensive
preconditioners must be used instead.
336 |
ISOTROPIC DIFFUSION
Isotropic diffusion adds diffusion to the Navier-Stokes equations. Isotropic diffusion

significantly reduces the accuracy of the solution but does a very good job at reducing
oscillations. The stability of the continuity equation is not improved.
Solvers for Laminar Flow

The Navier-Stokes equations constitute a nonlinear equation system. A nonlinear
solver must hence be applied to solve the problem. The nonlinear solver iterates to
reach the final solution. In each iteration, a linearized version of the nonlinear system
is solved using a linear solver. In the time-dependent case, a time marching method
must also be applied. The default suggestions for each of these solver elements are
discussed below.
NONLINEAR SOLVER
The nonlinear solver method depends on if the model solves a stationary or a

time-dependent problem.
Stationary Solver
In the stationary case, a fully coupled, damped Newton method is applied. The initial
damping factor is low since a full Newton step can be harmful unless the initial values
are close to the final solution. The nonlinear solver algorithm automatically regulates
the damping factor in order to reach a converged solution.
For advanced models, the automatically damped Newton method might not be robust
enough. A pseudo time-stepping algorithm can then be invoked. See Pseudo Time
Stepping for Laminar Flow Models.
Time-Dependent Solver
In the time-dependent case, the initial guess for each time step is (loosely speaking) the
previous time step, which is a very good initial value for the nonlinear solver. The
automatic damping algorithm is then not necessary. The damping factor in the
Newton method is instead set to a constant value slightly smaller than one. Also, for
the same reason, it suffices to update the Jacobian once per time-step.
337
It is seldom worth the extra computational cost to update the Jacobian more than once
per time step. For most models it is more efficient to restrict the maximum time step
or possibly lower the damping factor in the Newton method.
Stationary Solver in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
LINEAR SOLVER
The linearized Navier-Stokes equation system has saddle point character, unless the
density depends on the pressure. This means that the Jacobian matrix has zeros on the
diagonal. Even when the density depends on the pressure the equation system
effectively shares many numerical properties with a saddle point system.
For small 2D and 3D models, the default solver suggestion is a direct solver. Direct
solvers can handle most nonsingular systems and are very robust and also very fast for
small models. Unfortunately, they become slow for large models and their memory
requirement scales as somewhere between N1.5and N2, where N is the number of
degrees of freedom in the model. The default suggestion for large 2D and 3D models
is therefore the iterative GMRES solver. The memory requirement for an iterative
solver optimally scales as N.
Geometric Multigrid (GMG) is used to accelerate GMRES. GMG needs smoothers
but the saddle point character of the linear system restricts the number of applicable
smoothers. The choices are further restricted by the anisotropic meshes frequently
encountered in fluid-flow problems. Pointwise smoothers, such as SOR, are not very
efficient on anisotropic meshes.
The efficiency of the smoothers is highly dependent on the numerical stabilization.
Iterative solvers perform at their best when both Streamline Diffusion and Crosswind
Diffusion are active.
The default smoother for P1+P1 elements is SCGS. This is an efficient and robust
smoother specially designed to solve saddle point systems on meshes that contain
anisotropic elements. The SCGS smoother works well even without crosswind
diffusion. SCGS can sometimes work for higher-order elements, especially if Method in
the SCGS settings is set to Mesh element lines. But there is no guarantee for this, so the
default smoother for P2+P1 elements and P3+P2 elements is an SOR Line smoother.
SOR Line handles mesh anisotropy but does not formally address the saddle point
character. It does, however, function in practice provided that streamline diffusion and
crosswind diffusion are both active.
338 |
A different kind of saddle point character can arise if the equation system contains
ODE variables. Some advanced boundary conditions can add equations with such
variables. These variables must be treated with the Vanka algorithm. SCGS includes an
option to invoke Vanka. Models with higher-order elements must apply SCGS or use
the Vanka smoother. The latter is the default suggestion for higher-order elements, but
it does not work optimally for anisotropic meshes.
Multigrid, Direct, Iterative, SCGS, SOR Line, and Vanka in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
TIME-DEPENDENT SOLVERS
The default time-dependent solver for Navier-Stokes is the BDF method with
maximum order set to two. Higher BDF orders are not stable for transport problems
in general nor for Navier-Stokes in particular.
BDF methods have been used for a long time and are known for their stability.
However, they can have severe damping effects, especially the lower-order methods.
Hence, if robustness is not an issue, a model can benefit from using the generalized-
method instead. Generalized- is a solver which has properties similar to those of the
second-order BDF solver but it is much less diffusive.
Both BDF and generalized- are per default set to automatically adjust the time step.
While this works well for many models, extra efficiency and accuracy can often be
gained by specifying a maximum time step. It is also often beneficial to specify an initial
time step to make the solver progress smoothly in the beginning of the time series.
Time-Dependent Solver in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

A stationary formulation has per definition no time derivatives and Equation 10-13
reduces to:
T
( u )u = [ pI + ( u + ( u ) ) ] + F
(10-47)
Solving Equation 10-47 requires a starting guess that is close enough to the final
solution. If no such guess is at hand, the fully transient problem can be solved instead.
339
This is, however, a rather costly approach in terms of computational time. An

intermediate approach is to add a fictitious time derivative to Equation 10-47:
T
u nojac ( u )
--------------------------------- + ( u )u = [ pI + ( u + ( u ) ) ] + F
where t is a pseudo time step. Since unojac(u) is always zero, this term does not
affect the final solution. It does, however, affect the discrete equation system and
effectively transforms a nonlinear iteration into a step of size t of a time-dependent
solver.
Pseudo time stepping is not active per default. The pseudo time step t can be chosen
individually for each element based on the local CFL number:
h
t = CFL loc ------u
where h is the mesh cell size. A small CFL number means a small time step. It is
practical to start with a small CFL number and gradually increase it as the solution
approaches steady state.
If the automatic expression for CFLloc is set to the built-in variable CFLCMP. The
automatic setting then suggests a PID regulator for the pseudo time step in the default
solver. The PID regulator starts with a small CFL number and increases CFLloc as the
solution comes closer to convergence.
For details about the CFL regulator, see Pseudo Time Stepping in the
The default manual expression is
1.3 min ( niterCMP, 9 ) +
if ( niterCMP > 20, 9 1.3 min ( niterCMP 20, 9 ), 0 ) +
(10-48)
if ( niterCMP > 40, 90 1.3 min ( niterCMP 40, 9 ), 0 )

The variable niterCMP is the nonlinear iteration number. It is equal to one for the first
nonlinear iteration. CFLloc starts at 1.3 and increases by 30% each iteration until it
reaches 1.3 9 10.6 . It remains there until iteration number 20 at which it starts to
increase until it reaches approximately 106. A final increase after iteration number 40
then takes it to 1060. Equation 10-48 can for some advanced flows increase CFLloc
too slowly or too quickly. CFLloc can then be tuned for the specific application.
340 |
Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation

Some boundary conditions are implemented using a discontinuous Galerkin
formulation. These boundary conditions include
Wall Slip
Flow Continuity
The formulation used in the Fluid Flow physics interfaces in COMSOL Multiphysics
is the Symmetric Interior Penalty Galerkin method (SIPG). The SIPG method can be
regarded to satisfy the boundary conditions in an integral sense rather than pointwise.
More information on SIPG can be found in Ref. 13.
In particular, the SIPG formulation includes a penalty parameter that must be large
enough for the formulation to be coercive. The higher the value, the better the
boundary condition is fulfilled, but a too high value results in an ill-conditioned
equation system. The penalty parameter in COMSOL is implemented according to
Ref. 14.
Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow
The Particle Tracing Module is available to assist with these types of

modeling problems.
The model Flow Past a Cylinder (model library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow) demonstrates how to
add and set up particle tracing in a plot group using the Particle Tracing
with Mass node. It uses the predefined Khan-Richardson model for the
drag force and neglects gravity and buoyancy forces.

It is possible to model particle tracing with COMSOL Multiphysics provided that the
impact of the particles on the flow field is negligible. First compute the flow field, and
then, as an analysis step, calculate the motion of the particles. The motion of a particle
is defined by Newtons second law
2
dx
d x
= F t, x,
dt
dt2
341
where x is the position of the particle, m the particle mass, and F is the sum of all forces
acting on the particle. Examples of forces acting on a particle in a fluid are the drag
force, the buoyancy force, and the gravity force. The drag force represents the force
that a fluid exerts on a particle due to a difference in velocity between the fluid and the
particle. It includes the viscous drag, the added mass, and the Basset history term.
Several empirical expression have been suggested for the drag force. One of those is
the one proposed by Khan and Richardson (Ref. 11). That expression is valid for
spherical particles for a wide range of particle Reynolds numbers. The particle
Reynolds number is defined as
u u p 2r
Re p = -----------------------------
where u is the velocity of the fluid, up the particle velocity, r the particle radius, the
fluid density, and the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The empirical expression for the
drag force according to Khan and Richardson is
2
-0.31
F = r u u p ( u u p ) [ 1.84Re p
+ 0.293Re p0.06 ]
3.45
References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

1. G.G. Stokes, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., 8, 287-305, 1845
2. P.M. Gresho and R.L. Sani, Incompressible Flow and the Finite Element Method,
Volume 2: Isothermal Laminar Flow, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.
3. G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction To Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press,
1967.
5. I. Harari and T.J.R. Hughes, What are C and h? Inequalities for the Analysis and
Design of Finite Element Methods, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 97,
pp. 157192, 1992.
6. Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Calo, T.E. Tezduyar, and T.J.R. Hughes, YZ Discontinuity
Capturing for Advection-dominated Processes with Application to Arterial Drug
Delivery, Int.J.Num. Meth. Fluids, vol. 54, pp. 593608, 2007.
7. T.J.R. Hughes and M. Mallet, A New Finite Element Formulation for
Computational Fluid Dynamics: III. The Generalized Streamline Operator for
342 |
Multidimensional Advective-Diffusive System, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg,

vol. 58, pp. 305328, 1986.
8. G. Hauke and T.J.R. Hughes, A Unified Approach to Compressible and
Incompressible Flows, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 113, pp. 389395,
1994.
9. G. Hauke, Simple Stabilizing Matrices for the Computation of Compressible Flows
in Primitive Variables, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 190, pp. 68816893,
2001.
10. D.J. Tritton, Physical Fluid Dynamics, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 1988.
11. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Particle Technology and Separation
Processes, Chemical Engineering, Volume 2, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002.
12. J.L. Guermond, P. Minev, and J. Shen, An overview of projection methods for
incompressible flows, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 195, pp. 60116045,
2006.
13. B. Rivire, Discontinuous Galerkin Methods for Solving Elliptic and Parabolic
Equations, SIAM, 2008.
14. Y. Epshteyn and B. Rivire, Estimation of penalty parameters for symmetric
interior penalty Galerkin methods, J. Computational and Applied Mathematics,
vol. 206, pp. 843872, 2007.
15. G.B. Schubauer, W.G. Spangenberg, and P.S. Klebanoff, Aerodynamic
Characteristics of Damping Screens, NACA Technical note 2001, Jan. 1950.
16. P.E. Roach, The Generation of Nearly Isotropic Turbulence by Means of Grids,
Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow, vol. 8, pp. 8292, 1986.
17. J.C. Gibbings, The Pyramid Gauze Diffuser, Ing. Arch., vol. 42, pp. 225233,
1973.
18. R.P. Chhabra and J.F. Richardson, Non-Newtonian Flow and Applied Rheology,
2nd ed., Elsivier, 2008.
343
Theory for the Turbulent Flow

Interfaces
The theory for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow physics interfaces is described
in this section:
Turbulence Modeling
The k-e Turbulence Model
The Low Reynolds Number k-e Turbulence Model
Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity
Theory for the Pressure, No Viscous Stress Boundary Condition
Solvers for Turbulent Flow
Pseudo Time Stepping for Turbulent Flow Models
References for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow Interfaces
Turbulence Modeling
Turbulence is a property of the flow field and it is characterized by a wide range of flow
scales: the largest occurring scales, which depend on the geometry, the smallest,
quickly fluctuating scales, and all the scales in between. The propensity for an
isothermal flow to become turbulent is measured by the Reynolds number
UL
Re = -----------
(10-49)
where is the dynamic viscosity, the density, and U and L are velocity and length
scales of the flow, respectively. Flows with high Reynolds numbers tend to become
turbulent. Most engineering applications belong to this category of flows.
The Navier-Stokes equations can be used for turbulent flow simulations, although this
would require a large number of elements in order to capture the wide range of scales
in the flow. An alternative approach is to divide the flow into large, resolved scales and
344 |
small, unresolved scales. The small scales are then modeled using a turbulence model
with the goal that this model is numerically less expensive than resolving all present
scales. Different turbulence models invoke different assumptions on the unresolved
scales resulting in different degrees of accuracy for different flow cases.
This module includes Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models which is the
model type most commonly used in industrial flow applications.
REYNOLDS-AVERAGED NAVIER-STOKES (RANS) EQUATIONS
The following assumes that the flowing fluid is incompressible and Newtonian in
which case the Navier-Stokes equations take the form:
u
T
+ ( u )u = [ pI + ( u + ( u ) ) ] + F
t
(10-50)
u = 0
Once the flow has become turbulent, all quantities fluctuate in time and space. It is
seldom worth the extreme computational cost to obtain detailed information about
the fluctuations. An averaged representation often provides sufficient information
about the flow.
The Reynolds-averaged representation of turbulent flows divides the flow quantities
into an averaged value and a fluctuating part,
= +
where can represent any scalar quantity of the flow. In general, the mean value can
vary in space and time. This is exemplified in Figure 10-7, which shows time averaging
of one component of the velocity vector for nonstationary turbulence. The unfiltered
flow has a time scale t1. After a time filter with width t2 >> t1 has been applied,
there is a fluctuating part, ui, and an average part, Ui. Because the flow field also varies
T H E O R Y F O R T H E TU R B U L E N T F L O W I N T E R F A C E S
345
on a time scale longer than t2, Ui is still time-dependent but is much smoother than
the unfiltered velocity ui.
Figure 10-7: The unfiltered velocity component ui, with a time scale t1, and the averaged
velocity component, Ui, with time scale t2.
Decomposition of the flow field into an averaged part and a fluctuating part, followed
by insertion into the Navier-Stokes equation, and averaging, gives the
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations:
U
T
+ U U + ( u' u' ) = P + ( U + ( U ) ) + F
t
U = 0
(10-51)
where U is the averaged velocity field and is the outer vector product. A comparison
with Equation 10-50 indicates that the only difference is the appearance of the last
term on the left-hand side of Equation 10-51. This term represents the interaction
between the fluctuating parts of the velocity field and is called the Reynolds stress
tensor. This means that to obtain the mean flow characteristics, information about the
small-scale structure of the flow is needed. In this case, that information is the
correlation between fluctuations in all three directions.
EDDY VISCOSITY
The most common way to model turbulence is to assume that the turbulence is of a
purely diffusive nature. The deviating part of the Reynolds stress is then expressed as
T
( u' u' ) --- trace ( u' u' )I = T ( U + ( U ) )
3
346 |
where T is the eddy viscosity, also known as the turbulent viscosity. The spherical part
can be written
--- trace ( u' u' )I = 2

--- k
3
3
where k is the turbulent kinetic energy. In simulations of incompressible flows, this
term is included in the pressure, but when the absolute pressure level is of importance
(in compressible flows, for example) this term must be explicitly included.
TU R B U L E N T C O M P R E S S I B L E F L OW
If the Reynolds average is applied to the compressible form of the Navier-Stokes

equations, terms of the form
u
appear and need to be modeled. To avoid this, a density-based average, known as the
Favre average, is introduced:
t+T
1
1
ui = --- lim --- T T
(x,)u i (x,) d
(10-52)
It follows from Equation 10-52 that

u i = u i
(10-53)
and a variable, ui, is decomposed into a mass-averaged component, u i , and a

fluctuating component, ui, according to
u i = u i + u i
(10-54)
Using Equation 10-53 and Equation 10-54 along with some modeling assumptions
for compressible flows (Ref. 7), Equation 10-11 and Equation 10-12 can be written
on the form
-----
------ + - ( u i ) = 0
t x i
u i
u i
p
u i u j 2 u k
-------- + u j -------- = ------- + ------- -------- + -------- --- --------- ij u j u i + F i
t
x j
x i x j x j x i 3 x k
(10-55)
347
The Favre-averaged Reynolds stress tensor is modeled using the same argument as for
incompressible flows:
u i u j 2 u k
u j u i = T -------- + -------- --- T --------- + k ij

x j x i 3 x k
where k is the turbulent kinetic energy. Comparing Equation 10-55 to its

incompressible counterpart (Equation 10-51), it can be seen that except for the term
( 2 3 )k ij
the compressible and incompressible formulations are exactly the same, except that the
free variables are u i instead of
Ui = ui
More information about modeling turbulent compressible flows can be found in Ref.
1 and Ref. 7.
The turbulent transport equations are used in their fully compressible formulations
(Ref. 8).
The k- Turbulence Model

The k- model is one of the most used turbulence models for industrial applications.
This module includes the standard k- model (Ref. 1). The model introduces two
additional transport equations and two dependent variables: the turbulent kinetic
energy, k, and the turbulent dissipation rate, . The turbulent viscosity is modeled as
k2
T = C -----
(10-56)
where C is a model constant.

The transport equation for k reads:
T
k
------ + u k = + ------ k + P k
t
k
where the production term is
348 |
(10-57)
2
2
P k = T u: ( u + ( u ) T ) --- ( u ) 2 --- k u
3
3
(10-58)
The transport equation for reads:

T
2
----- + u = + ------ + C 1 --- P C 2 ----
k
k k
t

(10-59)
The model constants in Equation 10-56, Equation 10-57, and Equation 10-59 are
determined from experimental data (Ref. 1) and the values are listed in Table 10-2.
TABLE 10-2: MODEL CONSTANTS
CONSTANT
VALUE
0.09
C1
1.44
C2
1.92
1.0
1.3
MIXING LENGTH LIMIT
Equation 10-57 and Equation 10-59 cannot be implemented directly as written.

There is, for example, nothing that prevents division by zero. The equations are instead
implemented as suggested in Ref. 9. The implementation includes an upper limit on
lim :
the mixing length, l mix
3/2
k
lim
l mix = max C -----------, l mix
(10-60)
lim should not be

The mixing length is used to calculated the turbulent viscosity. l mix
active in a converged solution but is merely a tool to obtain convergence.
REALIZABILITY CONSTRAINTS
The eddy-viscosity model of the Reynolds stress tensor can be written

2
u i u j = 2 T S ij + --- k ij
3
where ij is the Kronecker delta and Sij is the strain-rate tensor. The diagonal elements
of the Reynolds stress tensor must be nonnegative, but calculating T from
Equation 10-56 does not guarantee this. To assert that
349
u i u i 0 i
the turbulent viscosity is subjected to a realizability constraint. The constraint for 2D
and 2D axisymmetry without swirl is:
k 2
T ----------------------3 S ij S ij
(10-61)
and for 3D and 2D axisymmetry with swirl flow it reads:

k
T --------------------------6 S ij S ij
(10-62)
Swirl flow is not available with the Heat Transfer Module.
Combining equation Equation 10-61 with Equation 10-56 and the definition of the
mixing length gives a limit on the mixing length scale:
k
l mix 2
--- ------------------3 S ij S ij
(10-63)
Equivalently, combining Equation 10-62 with Equation 10-56 and Equation 10-60
gives:
1
k
l mix ------- ------------------6 S ij S ij
(10-64)
This means there are two limitations on lmix: the realizability constraint and the
imposed limit via Equation 10-60.
The effect of not applying a realizability constraint is typically excessive turbulence
production. The effect is most clearly visible at stagnation points. To avoid such
artifacts, the realizability constraint is always applied for the RANS models. More
details can be found in Ref. 4, Ref. 5, and Ref. 6.
MODEL LIMITATIONS
The k- turbulence model relies on several assumptions, the most important of which
is that the Reynolds number is high enough. It is also important that the turbulence is
in equilibrium in boundary layers, which means that production equals dissipation.
350 |
These assumptions limit the accuracy of the model because they are not always true. It
does not, for example, respond correctly to flows with adverse pressure gradients and
can result in under-prediction of the spatial extent of recirculation zones (Ref. 1).
Furthermore, in simulations of rotating flows, the model often shows poor agreement
with experimental data (Ref. 2). In most cases, the limited accuracy is a fair trade-off
for the amount of computational resources saved compared to using more complicated
turbulence models.
WAL L F UN C T IO NS
The flow close to a solid wall is for a turbulent flow very different from the free stream.
This means that the assumptions used to derive the k- model are not valid close to
walls. While it is possible to modify the k- model so that it describes the flow in wall
regions (see The Low Reynolds Number k-e Turbulence Model), this is not always
desirable because of the very high resolution requirements that follow. Instead,
analytical expressions are used to describe the flow near the walls. These expressions
are known as wall functions.
The wall functions in COMSOL Multiphysics are such that the computational domain
is assumed to be located a distance w from the wall (see Figure 10-8).
Mesh cells
Solid wall
Figure 10-8: The computational domain is located a distance w from the wall for wall
functions.
The distance w is automatically computed so that
+ = u
w
w
where u=C1/4k is the friction velocity, is 11.06. This corresponds to the distance
from the wall where the logarithmic layer meets the viscous sublayer (or to some extent
would meet it if there were no buffer layer in between). w is limited from below so
351
that it never becomes smaller than half the height of the boundary mesh cell. This
+ can become larger than 11.06 if the mesh is relatively coarse.
means that w
Always investigate the solution to check that w is small compared to the
+ is 11.06 on most of the
dimensions of the geometry. Also check that w
walls.
+ is much larger than 11.06 over a significant part of the walls, the
If w
accuracy might become compromised. Both the wall lift-off, w, and the
+ , are available as results and analysis
wall lift-off in viscous units, w
variables.
The boundary conditions for the velocity is a no-penetration condition u n = 0 and

a shear stress condition
u
n ( n n )n = u ------- max ( C 1 / 4 k, u )
u
where
= ( u + ( u ) T )
is the viscous stress tensor and
u
u = ----------------------------1
+ +B
----- ln w
v
where in turn, v, is the von Krman constant (default value 0.41) and B is a constant
that by default is set to 5.2.
The turbulent kinetic energy is subject to a homogeneous Neumann condition
n k = 0 and the boundary condition for reads:
C 3 / 4 k 3 / 2
= ----------------------v w
See Ref. 9 and Ref. 10 for further details.
INITIAL VALUES
The default initial values for a stationary simulation are (Ref. 9),
352 |
u=0
p=0
10 2
k = ------------------------------ ( 0.1 l lim )

mix
3/2
C k init
= ---------------------lim
0.1 l mix
lim is the mixing length limit. For time-dependent simulations, the initial value
where l mix
for k is instead
2
k = ------------------------------ ( 0.1 l lim )
mix
SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS
The k- equations are derived under the assumption that the flow has a high enough
Reynolds number. If this assumption is not fulfilled, both k and have very small
magnitudes and behave chaotically in the manner that the relative values of k and can
change by large amounts due to small changes in the flow field.
A time-dependent simulation of a turbulent flow can include a period when the flow
is not fully turbulent. A typical example is the startup phase when for example an inlet
velocity or a pressure difference is gradually increased. To sort out numerical
fluctuations in k and during such periods, the default time-dependent solver for the
k- model employs unscaled absolute tolerances for k and . The tolerances are set to
k scale = ( 0.01U scale ) 2
3/2 (L
scale = 0.09k sclae
fact l bb, min )
(10-65)
where Uscale and Lfact are input parameters available in the Advanced Settings section
of the physics interface node. Their default values are 1 m/s and 0.035 respectively.
lbb,min is the shortest side of the geometry bounding box. Equation 10-65 is closely
related to the expressions for k and on inlet boundaries (see Equation 10-70).
The practical implication of Equation 10-65 is that variations in k and smaller than
kscale and scale respectively, are regarded as numerical noise.
353
The Low Reynolds Number k- Turbulence Model

When the accuracy provided by wall functions in the k- model is not enough, a so
called low Reynolds number model can be used. Low Reynolds number refers to the
region close to the wall where viscous effects dominate.
Most low Reynolds number k- models adapt the turbulence transport equations by
introducing damping functions. This module includes the AKN model (after the
inventors Abe, Kondoh, and Nagano; Ref. 11). The AKN k- model for compressible
flows reads (Ref. 8 and Ref. 11):
T
k
------ + u k = + ------ k + P k
k
t
T
----- + u = + ------ + C 1 --- P f C 2 ----

t
k k
k

(10-66)
where
2
2
P k = T u: ( u + ( u ) T ) --- ( u ) 2 --- k u
3
3
k2
T = f C -----
5 ( R t 200 ) 2
*
2
-e
f = ( 1 e l 14 ) 1 + ----------
R t3 / 4
f = ( 1 e l
3.1 ) 2
(10-67)
( 1 0.3e ( R t 6.5 ) )
l * = ( u l w ) R t = k 2 ( ) u = ( ) 1 / 4
and
C 1 = 1.5 C 2 = 1.9 C = 0.09 k = 1.4 = 1.4
(10-68)
lw is the distance to the closest wall.

Realizability Constraints are applied to the low Reynolds number k- model.
WA LL DIS TANCE
The wall distance variable, lw, is provided by a mathematical Wall Distance interface
that is included when using the low Reynolds number k-e model. The solution to the
wall distance equation is controlled using the parameter lref. The distance to objects
354 |
larger than lref is represented accurately, while objects smaller than lref are effectively
diminished by appearing to be farther away than they actually are. This is a desirable
feature in turbulence modeling since small objects would get too large an impact on
the solution if the wall distance were measured exactly.
The most convenient way to handle the wall distance variable is to solve for it in a
separate study step. A Wall Distance Initialization study type is provided for this
purpose and should be added before the actual Stationary or Transient study step.
The Wall Distance Interface
Stationary with Initialization, Transient with Initialization, and Wall
Distance Initialization
WAL L B O UN D A R Y C ON D I TIO N S
The damping terms in the equations for k and allow for a no slip condition to be
applied to the velocity, that is u=0.
Since all velocities must disappear on the wall, so must k. Hence, k=0 on the wall.
The correct wall boundary condition for is
2 ( ) ( k n ) 2
where n is the wall normal direction. This condition is however numerically very
unstable. Therefore, is not solved for in the cells adjacent to a solid wall and instead
the analytical relation
k
= 2 --- ----2
lw
(10-69)
is prescribed in those cells (using the variable w, which only exists in those cells).
Equation 10-69 can be derived as the first term in a series expansion of
2 ( ) ( k n ) 2
For the expansion to be valid, it is required that
l c* < 0.5
355
l c* is the distance, measured in viscous units, from the wall to the center of the wall
adjacent cell. The boundary variable Dimensionless distance to cell center is available to
ensure that the mesh is fine enough. Observe that it is unlikely that a solution is
obtained at all if
l c* 0.5
I N L E T VA L U E S F O R T H E TU R B U L E N C E L E N G T H S C A L E A N D I N T E N S I T Y
The guidelines given in Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent
Intensity for selecting the turbulence length scale, LT, and the turbulence intensity, IT,
apply also to the low-Reynolds number k- model.
INITIAL VALUES
The low-Reynolds number k- model has the same default initial guess as the standard
lim replaced by l .
k- model (see Initial Values) but with l mix
ref
The default initial value for the wall distance equation (which solves for the reciprocal
wall distance) is 2/lref.
In some cases, especially for stationary solutions, a fast way to convergence is to first
solve the model using the ordinary k- model and then to use that solution as an initial
guess for the low-Reynolds number k- model. The procedure is then as follows:
1 Solve the model using the k- model.
2 Switch to the low-Reynolds number k- model.
3 Add a new Stationary with Initialization study.
4 In the Wall Distance Initialization study step, set Values of variables not solved for to
Solution from the first study. This is to propagate the solution from the first study
down to the second step in the new study.

5 Solve the new study.
SCALING FOR TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS
The low-Reynolds number k- model applies absolute scales of the same type as the
k- model (see Scaling for Time-Dependent Simulations).
Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity
If inlet data for the turbulence variables are not available, crude approximations for k
and can be obtained from the following formulas:
356 |
2
3
k = --- ( U I T )
2
(10-70)
3 4 k3 / 2
= C
----------LT
where IT is the turbulent intensity and LT is the turbulence length scale.

A value of 0.1% is a low turbulent intensity IT. Good wind tunnels can produce values
of as low as 0.05%. Fully turbulent flows usually have intensities between five and ten
percent.
The turbulence length scale LT is a measure of the size of the eddies that are not
resolved. For free-stream flows these are typically very small (on the order of
centimeters). The length scale cannot be zero, however, because that would imply
infinite dissipation. Use Table 10-3 as a guideline when specifying LT (Ref. 3) where
lw is the wall distance, and
+
lw = lw l*
TABLE 10-3: TURBULENCE LENGTH SCALES FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS
FLOW CASE
LT
Mixing layer
0.07L
Layer width
Plane jet
0.09L
Jet half width
Wake
0.08L
Wake width
Axisymmetric jet
0.075L
Jet half width
Boundary layer (p / x = 0)
Viscous sublayer and log-layer
l w ( 1 exp ( l w 26 ) )
Outer layer
0.09L
Pipes and channels
0.07L
(fully developed flows)
Boundary layer
thickness
Pipe diameter or
hydraulic diameter
or channel width
Theory for the Pressure, No Viscous Stress Boundary Condition

For this module, the turbulent intensity IT, turbulence length scale LT, and reference
velocity scale Uref values are related to the turbulence variables via
357
3
2
k = --- ( I T U ref ) ,
2
34
3
2 ---
C 3 ( I T U ref ) 2
= ------------ ---------------------------- ,
LT
2
I T U ref
3
--- -------------------------2 ( 0* ) 1 / 4 L T
For recommendations of physically sound values see Inlet Values for the
Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent Intensity.
Also see Inlet and Outlet for the node settings.
Solvers for Turbulent Flow

The nonlinear system that the Navier-Stokes (RANS) and turbulence transport
equations constitute can become ill-conditioned if solved using a fully coupled solver.
Turbulent flows are therefore solved using a segregated approach (Ref. 11):
Navier-Stokes in one group and the turbulence transport equations in another.
For each iteration in the Navier-Stokes group, two or three iterations are performed
for the turbulence transport equations. This is necessary to make sure that the very
nonlinear source terms in the turbulence transport equations are in balance before
performing another iteration for the Navier-Stokes group.
The default iterative solver for the turbulence transport equations is GMRES
accelerated by Geometric Multigrid. The default smoother is SOR Line.
Multigrid, Stationary Solver, Iterative, and SOR Line in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual

The default stationary solver applies pseudo time stepping for both 2D and 3D models.
This improves the robustness of the nonlinear iterations as well as the condition
number for the linear equation system. The latter is especially important for large 3D
models where iterative solvers must be applied. The turbulence equations use the same
t as the momentum equations.
The default manual expression for CFLloc is, for 2D models:
358 |
1.3 min ( niterCMP-1, 9 ) +

and for 3D models:
1.3 min ( niterCMP-1, 9 ) +
References for the Single-Phase Flow, Turbulent Flow Interfaces

1. D.C. Wilcox, Turbulence Modeling for CFD, 2nd ed., DCW Industries, 1998.
2. D.M. Driver and H.L. Seegmiller, Features of a Reattaching Turbulent Shear Layer
in Diverging Channel Flow, AIAA Journal, vol. 23, pp. 163171, 1985.
3. H.K. Versteeg and W. Malalasekera, An Introduction to Computational Fluid
Dynamics, Prentice Hall, 1995.
4. A. Durbin, On the k- Stagnation Point Anomality, Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow,
vol. 17, pp. 8990, 1986.
5. A, Svenningsson, Turbulence Transport Modeling in Gas Turbine Related
Applications, doctoral dissertation, Department of Applied Mechanics, Chalmers
University of Technology, 2006.
6. C.H. Park and S.O. Park, On the Limiters of Two-equation Turbulence Models,
Int. J. Computational Fluid Dynamics, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 7986, 2005.
7. J. Larsson, Numerical Simulation of Turbulent Flows for Turbine Blade Heat
Transfer, doctoral dissertation, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden, 1998.
8. L. Ignat, D. Pelletier, and F. Ilinca, A Universal Formulation of Two-equation
Models for Adaptive Computation of Turbulent Flows, Computer Methods in
Applied Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 189, pp. 11191139, 2000.
9. D. Kuzmin, O. Mierka, and S. Turek, On the Implementation of the k-
Turbulence Model in Incompressible Flow Solvers Based on a Finite Element
Discretization, Int.J. Computing Science and Mathematics, vol. 1, no. 24,
pp. 193206, 2007.
359
10. H. Grotjans and F.R. Menter, Wall Functions for General Application CFD
Codes, ECCOMAS 98, Proceedings of the Fourth European Computational Fluid
Dynamics Conference, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 11121117, 1998.
11. K. Abe, T. Kondoh, and Y. Nagano, A New Turbulence Model for Predicting
Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer in Separating and Reattaching FlowsI. Flow Field
Calculations, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 139151, 1994.M.
Vzquez, M. Ravachol, F. Chalot, and M. Mallet, The Robustness Issue on Multigrid
Schemes Applied to the Navier-Stokes Equations for Laminar and Turbulent,
Incompressible and Compressible Flows, Int. J.for Numerical Methods in Fluids,
vol. 45, pp. 555579, 2004.
360 |
11
Glossary
This Glossary of Terms contains application-specific terms used in the Heat
Transfer Module software and documentation. For information about terms
relating to finite element modeling, mathematics, geometry, and CAD, see the
glossary in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual. For references to more
information about a term, see the Index in this or other manuals.
361
Glossary of Terms
advection Heat advection takes place through the net displacement of a fluid, which
translates the heat content in a fluid through the fluids own velocity.
anisotropy The condition of exhibiting properties with different values when
measured in different directions.

bioheat equation An alternative form of the heat equation that incorporates the effects
of blood perfusion, metabolism, and external heating. The equation describes heat
transfer in tissue.
blackbody A blackbody is a surface that absorbs all incoming radiation; that is, it does
not reflect radiation. The blackbody also emits the maximum possible radiation.
conduction Heat conduction takes place through different mechanisms in different
media. Theoretically, conduction takes place through collisions of molecules in a gas,
through oscillations of each molecule in a cage formed by its nearest neighbors in a
fluid, and by the electrons carrying heat in metals or by molecular motion in other
solids. Typical for heat conduction is that the heat flux is proportional to the
temperature gradient.
convection The term convection is used for the heat dissipation from a solid surface
to a fluid, where the heat transfer coefficient and the temperature difference across a
fictitious film describes the flux.
diffuse mirror A diffuse mirror is a diffuse surface with an emissivity equal to 1.
diffuse surface A diffuse surface is a surface that has an emissivity, absorptivity and
reflectivity that do not depend on direction.

discrete ordinates method This method defines the discretization of the radiative
intensity direction in participating media.

emissivity A dimensionless factor between 0 and 1 that specifies the ability of a surface
to emit radiative energy. The value 1 corresponds to an ideal surface, which emits the
maximum possible radiative energy.
heat capacity See specific heat.
362 |
CHAPTER 11: GLOSSARY
incident radiation In participating media, the incident radiation is the total intensity
reaching a domain point from all sides.

irradiation The total radiation that arrives at a surface.
latent heat Latent heat is the energy absorbed or released by a material during a
constant-temperature process like phase change.

Navier-Stokes equations The equations for the momentum balances coupled to the
equation of continuity for a Newtonian incompressible fluid are often referred to as

the Navier-Stokes equations. The most general versions of Navier-Stokes equations do
however describe fully compressible flows.
opaque material An opaque body does not transmit any radiative heat flux, that is, the
surface of an opaque body has a transmissivity equal to 0.
P1 approximation P1 approximation is the simplest approximation provided by the
method of spherical harmonics method (PN-method) to discretize the radiation in
participating media equations.
participating media A media that can absorb, emit, and scatter thermal radiation.
radiation Heat transfer by radiation takes place through the transport of photons,
which can be absorbed or reflected on solid surfaces. The Heat Transfer Module
includes surface-to-surface radiation, which accounts for effects of shading and
reflections between radiating surfaces. It also includes the ambient radiation
contribution. The Heat Transfer Module provides radiation in participating media to
model radiation in semi-transparent media.
radiosity The total radiation that leaves a surface, that is, both the emitted and the
reflected radiation.
Rosseland Approximation Rosseland approximation accounts for the radiative heat
transfer in a participating media by adding a diffusive contribution to the temperature

equation. It is suited only for optically thick media.
specific heat Refers to the quantity that represents the amount of heat required to
change one unit of mass of a substance by one degree. It has units of energy per mass
per degree. This quantity is also called specific heat or specific heat capacity.
G L O S S A R Y O F TE R M S
363
specific heat capacity See specific heat.

thermal conductivity The definition of thermal conductivity is given by Fouriers law,
which relates the heat flux to the temperature gradient. In this equation, the thermal
conductivity is the proportional constant.
thin shell Thin means that the shell thickness is small compared to the geometry
dimension and that is represented by a surface in a model. The Heat Transfer Module
provides features to model heat transfer within thin shell for homogeneous structures
assuming no temperature difference through the shell thickness (thin conductive
shells) and thin layered structures with temperature change through the shell thickness
(thin layered shells).
transparent media A transparent body transmits radiative heat flux, that is, the surface
of a transparent body has a transmissivity greater than 0.
364 |
CHAPTER 11: GLOSSARY
I n d e x
1D and 2D models
heat equation, and 51
out-of-plane heat transfer 181
heat transfer coefficients, and 67
2D axisymmetric models
inlet and outlet, theory 319
laminar flow and 313
radiation groups 225
2D models
boundary heat source (node) 101
thin conductive shells 168
boundary heat source variable 50
3D models
boundary nodes

A
bioheat interface 158
absolute pressure 87, 282
heat transfer 81
acceleration of gravity 69
heat transfer in porous media 145
advanced section, frames 20
heat transfer in thin shells 171
advanced settings 19
radiation in participating media 229

spf 280
pseudo time stepping 19
surface-to-surface radiation 195
AKN model 354

anisotropic 20
boundary selection 20
apparent heat capacity 129
boundary stress (node) 293

turbulent flow 309
arterial blood temperature 161
boundary thermoelectric effect (node)
auxiliary dependent variable (node) 22
251
axisymmetric geometries 194, 221, 225
Boussinesq approximation 267, 317
axisymmetric models in 2D
Brinell hardness 139
bulk velocity 69
azimuthal sectors 221

B
Babuska-Brezzi condition 336

Basset history term 342
bioheat (node) 161
bioheat transfer interface 158
theory 163
biological tissue 159
black walls 232
blackbody intensity 235
blackbody radiation 203
blackbody radiation intensity, definition
234
Carreau model 316

CFL number
settings 276
theory 340
change cross-section (node) 94
change effective thickness (node)
change thickness (node) 94
characteristic length 69
Charrons relation 141
blood, bioheat properties 159
coefficient of thermal expansion 6970
boundary conditions
common settings 18
compensating heat rate contributions 37
INDEX|
365
compressible flow 314
diffuse-gray surface 216
conduction, defined 120
diffuse-gray surfaces 213
conductive heat flux variable 45
diffuse-spectral 218
conductive heat flux vector 51
diffuse-spectral surface 218
conjugate heat transfer multiphysics in-
dimensionless distance to cell center var-
terface
iable 356
theory 264
Dirac pulse 130
conservation of energy 121
direct area integration, axisymmetric ge-
consistent stabilization settings 21
ometry and 221
constraint settings 20
direct area integration, radiation settings
constraints, Galerkin 97
169, 193
continuity (node) 22
discontinuous Galerkin
heat transfer 103
fluid flow 341
continuity on interior boundary (node)
discontinuous Galerkin constraints 97

discrete ordinates method (DOM) 237
233
convection, defined 120
discretization 19
convection, natural and forced 68
discretization (node) 22
convective heat flux variable, cflux 45
discretization settings 20
Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY) corre-
dispersivities, porous media 150
lation 138
documentation 25
coordinate system settings 20
domain heat source variable 49
crosswind diffusion
domain nodes
definition 57
heat transfer 81
fluid flow 335
crosswind diffusion, consistent stabiliza-
tion method 57
spf interfaces 280
curves, fan 328

D

domain selection 20
Daltons law 124
double dot product 312
del operators 136

density, blood 162
eddy viscosity 346

edge heat flux (node) 106
dev_in and dev_out variables 326
edge nodes
diagonal 20
heat transfer 81
diffuse gray radiation model 169, 193
diffuse mirror (node) 201
diffuse spectral radiation model 169, 193
diffuse surface (node) 102, 196

366 | I N D E X
destination selection (node) 22

edge selection 20
edge surface-to-ambient radiation
frames settings 20
(node) 108
frames, conversions between 64
edge temperature (node) 107

edges
frames, moving 61
G
heat flux 106
Galerkin formulation, fluid flow 341
temperature 107
Galerkin least-squares (GLS), stabiliza-
effective thermal conductivity 152
tion 336
effective volumetric heat capacity 84, 153
gap conductance 140
elevation 221
general stress (boundary stress condi-
emailing COMSOL 27
tion) 293
emission, radiation and 234
geometric entity selection 20
energy rates 39
global constraint (node) 22
equation section 20
global equations (node) 22
equation view 19
Grashof number 69
equation view (node) 22
gravity 69
evaluating view factors 220
gray walls 232
excluded edges (node) 22
graybody radiation 203, 218
excluded points (node) 22
gray-diffuse parallel plate model 140
excluded surfaces (node) 22
grille (node) 303
exit length 291
grouping boundaries 225
expanding sections 19
guidelines, solving surface-to-surface ra-
external radiation source (node) 206

F
fan (node) 298

fan curves
inlet boundary condition 298
theory 328
Favre average 266, 347
first law of thermodynamics 121
flow continuity (node) 303
flow coupling (node) 262
fluid flow
Mach number 313
particle tracing 341
single-phase theory 310
turbulent flow theory 344
fluid properties (node) 281
Fouriers law 122
fracture (node) 150
Galerkin constraints, heat transfer 97
diation problems 224

H
harmonic perturbation (node) 22

heat equation, highly conductive layers
and 136
heat flux (node) 98
heat transfer in thin shells 172, 174
heat flux, theory 34
heat rate 100
heat source (node)
heat transfer 92
heat transfer in thin shells, point condition 177
heat transfer in thin shells, point or
edge condition 176
heat sources
defining as overall heat transfer rate 92
INDEX|
367
highly conductive layers 106
inlet (node) 287
line and point 113
turbulent flow 307
thin rod 109
inlet boundary condition, theory 319
heat transfer coefficients
insulation/continuity (node) 178
interior fan (node) 300
theory 68
interior wall (node)
heat transfer in fluids (node) 85
spf interfaces 301
heat transfer in participating media inter-
internal boundary heat flux variables 48
face 187
Internet resources 25
heat transfer in porous media (node) 145
inward heat flux 51
heat transfer in porous media interface
isothermal domain (node) 91

isothermal domain interface (node) 90
144
theory 152
isotropic 20
heat transfer in solids (node) 83
isotropic diffusion
heat transfer in thin shells interface 168
fluid flow 335
theory 181
heat transfer interfaces 32, 78
inconsistent stabilization methods 58

K
theory 120
Karman constant 271

Kays-Crawford models 269
heat transfer with phase change (node)
k-epsilon turbulence model 276, 348
95
Khan-Richardson model 341
heat transfer with surface-to-surface ra-
knowledge base, COMSOL 28
diation interface 186

Heaviside function 130
hemicubes, axisymmetric geometry and
221
hemicubes, radiation settings 169, 193

hide (button) 19
highly conductive layers, defined 135
label 20
laminar flow
Reynolds number, and 315
laminar flow interface 274
theory 310
laminar inflow (inlet boundary condition)
289
incident intensity (node) 232

incompressible flow theory 314
inconsistent stabilization settings 21
inflow heat flux (node) 117
initial values (node)
general information 22
heat transfer 90
spf interfaces 284
inlet (boundary stress condition) 309
368 | I N D E X
laminar outflow (outlet boundary condition) 291

latitude 208, 221
layer heat source (node) 106
leaking wall, wall boundary condition 287
line heat source (node) 109, 113
line heat source on axis (node)
heat transfer 115
line heat source variable 50
line mass source (node)
fluid flow 305
thermal contact 141
line source
translational motion 85
fluid flow 334
turbulent flow, k-epsilon (spf) 278
local
moist air 89, 147
CFL number 276, 340
moisture content 89, 148
local CFL number 358
moving frames 61
longitude 208, 221
moving mesh, heat transfer, and 131
low re k-epsilon turbulence model 278
moving wall (wall functions), boundary
low Reynolds number
condition 307
k-epsilon turbulence theory 354
moving wall, interior wall boundary con-
lumped curves 325

M
dition 302
moving wall, wall boundary condition 286
Mach number
MPH-files 26
definition, single-phase flow 313
multiphysics coupling
mass sources
thermoelectric effect 246
fluid flow 333
mutual irradiation 222
material frames
heat transfer, and 65
nabla operators 136
material type settings 21
name 20
mean effective thermal conductivity 84
natural and forced convection 68
mean effective thermal diffusivity 84
Navier-Stokes equations 311
mechanisms of heat transfer 120
Neumann condition 352
metabolic heat source 162
Newtonian model 316
Mikic elastic correlation 140
niterCMP variable 340
model inputs settings 21
no slip, interior wall boundary condition
Model Libraries window 26

model library examples
302
no slip, wall boundary condition 285
bioheat transfer interface 158
no viscous stress (open boundary) 293
consistent stabilization 57
nodes, common settings 18
convective heat flux 101
non-isothermal flow interface
heat transfer in fluids 86
theory 264
heat transfer in solids 84
non-Newtonian fluids 312
normal conductive heat flux variable 47
heat transfer with surface-to-surface
normal convective heat flux variable 47
radiation 187
highly conductive layers 137
normal stress, normal flow (boundary

stress condition) 294
laminar flow 276
normal total energy flux variable 48
out-of-plane convective heat flux 119
normal translational heat flux variable 48
Nusselt number 69
INDEX|
369
open boundary (boundary stress condition) 309

open boundary (node)
physics interfaces, common settings 18

point heat flux (node) 110
single-phase flow 292
point heat source (node)

heat transfer 114
outflow (node) 98
point heat source variable 50
outlet (boundary stress condition) 309
point mass source (node)
outlet (node) 289

outlet boundary condition 325
fluid flow 304

point nodes
outlet boundary condition, theory 319
heat transfer 81
out-of-plane heat flux (node) 118
out-of-plane heat transfer
general theory 59
thin shells theory 181
spf interfaces 280
out-of-plane inward heat flux variable 47
out-of-plane radiation (node) 118
point selection 20
Out-of-plane thickness 168
point source
overall heat transfer rate 92

override and contribution 19, 21
fluid flow 333

points
pair boundary heat source (node) 101
heat flux 110
pair nodes
surface-to-ambient radiation (node)
heat transfer 81
110
temperature 109
pointwise constraint (node) 22
power law, single-phase flow theory 316
spf interfaces 280
Prandtl number 69, 269
prescribed radiosity (node) 202
pair selection 21
pair thermal contact (node) 111
participating media, radiative heat transfer 234
particle tracing in fluid flow 341
Peltier effect 253
Pennes approximation 163
perfusion rate, blood 162
370 | I N D E X
phase transitions 95
heat transfer 117

turbulent flow 309
periodic heat condition (node) 101
pressure (outlet boundary condition)

290
pressure point constraint (node) 304

pressure work (node)
heat transfer 116
pressure, no viscous stress (inlet and
outlet boundary conditions) 288
pseudo time stepping
periodic condition (node) 22
laminar flow theory 339
periodic flow condition (node) 297
settings 276
theory 340
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes. See
pseudoplastic fluids 316
RANS.
pumps, lumped curves and 328

R
radiation
axisymmetric geometries, and 194,
221, 225
participating media 234
Rodriguez formula 236

S
scalar density variables, frames and 64

scattering, radiation and 234
screen (node) 295
sectors, azimuthal 221
radiation group (node) 205
Seebeck effect 253
radiation groups 225
selecting
radiation in participating media (node)
heat transfer interfaces 32, 78
heat transfer 189
settings 20
rpm interface 229
settings windows 19
radiation in participating media interface

227
shear rate magnitude variable 283

shear thickening fluids 316
radiation intensity, for blackbody 234
shell thickness 168
radiation, out-of-plane 118
shells, conductive 181
radiative conductance 140
show (button) 19
radiative heat flux variable 48
single-phase flow
radiative heat, theory 54

radiative out-of-plane heat flux variable
46
radiative transfer equation 235

single-phase flow interface
laminar flow 274
theory 310
radiosity 217
SIPG method 341
radiosity expressions 203
sliding wall (wall functions), boundary
radiosity method 216

RANS
theory, single-phase flow 345
condition 306
sliding wall, wall boundary condition 286
theory 319
ratio of specific heats 86
slip, interior wall boundary condition 302
Rayleigh number 69
slip, wall boundary condition 286
refractive index 217, 235
theory 318
relative humidity 89, 148
solar position 221
Reynolds number 69
solving surface-to-surface radiation
extended Kays-Crawford 270
problems 224
low, turbulence theory 354
source terms, bioheat 161
spatial frames
Reynolds number definition 315
Reynolds particle number 342
specific heat capacity, definition 122
Reynolds stress tensor 346, 349
specific heat, blood 161
INDEX|
371
spf.cellRe variable 315
spf.sr variable 283
stabilization settings 21
inlet and outlet boundary conditions
stabilization techniques
crosswind diffusion 57
non-isothermal flow 264
static pressure curves 295, 298
streamline diffusion
fluid flow 335
thermoelectric effect interface 253
sun position 209
turbulent flow k-epsilon model 344
surface emissivity 217
turbulent flow low re k-epsilon model
surface-to-ambient radiation (node) 110

edges and points 108
surface-to-surface radiation interface
192
theory 222
344
thermal conductivity components, thin

shells 183
thermal conductivity, frames and 65
thermal conductivity, mean effective 84
thermal contact (node) 111
theory 138
swirl flow 350
thermal diffusivity 84
symmetric 20
thermal dispersion (node) 149
symmetric interior penalty Galerkin
thermal friction 141
method (SIPG) 341

symmetry (node) 22, 291
heat transfer 98
tags 20
technical support, COMSOL 27
temperature (node) 97, 109
tensors
Reynolds stress 349
viscous stress theory 315
theory
bioheat transfer 163
conjugate heat transfer multiphysics
interface 264
heat equation definition 121
heat transfer 120
heat transfer coefficients 68
372 | I N D E X
laminar flow 310
standard settings 18
surface reflectivity 217
319
thermal insulation 51
thermal insulation (node) 97
thermoelastic damping (node)
heat transfer 116
thermoelectric effect (node) 249
thermoelectric effect interface 246
theory 253
thin conductive layer (node)
thin conductive layers, definition 135
thin film (node) 119
thin layer (node) 103
thin layered shell (node) 179
Thomson effect 253
time zone 208, 221
total accumulated energy rate 39
total accumulated heat rate 37
variables
total energy flux variable 46
dimensionless distance to cell center
total fluid losses 37
356
total heat flux variable 45
niterCMP 340
total heat source 37
spf.cellRe 315
total net energy rate 39
velocity (inlet and outlet boundary con-
total net heat rate 37
ditions) 288
total normal heat flux variable 47
Vickers correlation coefficient 139
total work source 39
Vickers size index 139
traction boundary conditions 293
view factors 220
translational heat flux variable 46
viscous dissipation (node)
translational motion (node) 85
heat transfer 116
turbulence models
viscous stress tensors, theory 315
k-epsilon 276, 348
viscous stress, theory 322
low re k-epsilon 278
volume force (node) 284
turbulent compressible flow 347

turbulent conjugate heat transfer
volumetric heat capacity 84

W wall (node)
theory 266
heat transfer 231
turbulent flow k-epsilon (spf) interface
276
turbulent flow 306
turbulent flow k-epsilon interface
wall distance initialization study step 355
theory 344
wall functions, turbulent flow 351
turbulent flow low re k-epsilon (spf) in-
wall functions, wall boundary condition
terface 278
306
turbulent flow low re k-epsilon interface
weak constraint (node) 22
theory 344
weak constraint settings 20
turbulent heat flux variable 45
weak contribution (node) 23
turbulent kinetic energy theory
weak contribution on mesh boundaries
k-epsilon model 348
(node) 23
RANS 348
web sites, COMSOL 28
turbulent length scale 357

turbulent non-isothermal flow interfaces
theory 266
zenith 221
zero shear rate viscosity 317
turbulent Prandtl number 269

U
user defined anisotropic materials 20
vacuum pump (node) 295

vacuum pump theory 325
vapor mass fraction 89, 147
INDEX|
373
374 | I N D E X

Heat Transfer Module Users Guide

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Heat Transfer Module

Heat Transfer Module Users Guide

Why Heat Transfer is Important to Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Heat Flux and Balance

Total Energy Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Boundary Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Temperature and Heat Flux Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 51

Deriving the Radiative Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Frame Physics Feature Nodes and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Defining the Heat Transfer Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

References for Heat Transfer Modeling

Boundary Heat Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Layer Heat Source (Thin Layer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Temperature (Thin Layer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Layer) . . . . . . . . . . . .

Line Heat Source (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Temperature (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . .

Line Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Point Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Line Heat Source on Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Point Heat Source on Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Inflow Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Out-of-Plane Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Theory for the Heat Transfer Interfaces

What is Heat Transfer? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Heat Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Moist Air Fluid Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Heat Transfer with Phase Change Feature. . . . . . . . . . .

The Isothermal Domain Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Thin Layer Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Thermal Contact Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Thin Rod Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

References for the Heat Transfer Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . .

Transfer in Porous Media Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Heat Transfer in Porous Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Theory for the Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface

Theory for Fracture Feature Node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Reference for the Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface . . . . . .

Theory for the Bioheat Transfer Interface

References for the Bioheat Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Change Effective Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Heat Flux (Edge or Point Condition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Heat Source (Point or Edge Condition) . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Heat Source (3D Point Condition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Thin Conductive Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Thin Layered Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Theory for the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface

About Heat Transfer in Thin Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Heat Transfer Equation in Thin Conductive Shell . . . . . . . . . .

Heat Transfer Equation in Thin Layered Shells . . . . . . . . . . .

Thermal Conductivity Tensor Components . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 7: Radiation Physics Interfaces

The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface . . .

Radiation in Participating Media (Heat Transfer Interface) . . . . . .

The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the

Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface . . . . . . . . . . . .

External Radiation Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Theory for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

Wavelength Dependence of Surface Emissivity and Absorptivity . . . .