Jan Benedict T.

Bullecer
BSEE V / EE 104 C3

Fuses
History
The oldest and simplest of all protective devices, it is a level detector
and is both the sensor and interrupting device. It is installed in series with
the equipment that is to be protected and operates by melting a fusible
element in response to the overcurrent flow.
Earlier reference to the history of fuse development came to light,
Edward Nairne in an era of electrostatic electricity during 1774 was trying to
safely discharge Leyden bottles whose operation is similar to capacitors
using wires whose length is related to the stored energy, acting like a resistor
but when the discharge currents were too high, the wire acted like a fuse
which resulted to the wire disintegrating into small balls that are unduloid in
shape.[1]
Another early reference to fuses can be found on the paper presented
by A. C. Cockburn to the Society of Telegraph Engineers in 1887 when W. H.
Preece stated that platinum wires had been used as fuses to protect
submarine cables since 1864 and Sir David Salomons referred to the use of
fuses in 1874. Several number of development in fuses can be seen in the
succeeding years, during these times fuses were usually mounted in wooden
boxes, the individual elements were not otherwise enclosed. It is in May 1880
that T. A. Edison patented a fuse in which the wire element was enclosed in a
glass envelope in order to protect the surroundings from the effects of the
disruption during operation (i.e. melting, etc...). S. P. Thompson in 1879
produced what he described as an improved form of fuse or cut-out which
utilizes a ball of an alloy of lead and tin or some other conducting material of
low melting point, C. V. Boys and H. H. Cunyngham in 1883 designed a
variation on Thompsons design which utilizes two leaf springs which were
soldered at their inner tips where the strips will flex on opposite directions at
a particular current. A variation of Edisons devices was introduced by W. M.
Mordey in 1890 wherein the glass envelope was wholly or partially filled with
finely divided, semiconducting or badly conducting material which should
preferably be incombustible or non-flammable for the purpose of arc
extinction and heat transfer. In the 1900s the Zed fuse by the Siemens
Brothers was popular. The fuses were fitted into distribution boards and often
with pleasing aesthetic appearance with indicators.[1]
Characteristics and Operation
The melting time is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the
current flowing in the fuse. It can only be used once since the fusible link is
destroyed in the process of interrupting the current flow. Fuses operates with
a maximum short-circuit current rating, and may only be able to interrupt
currents up to that point or have the ability to limit the magnitude of the
short-circuit current by interrupting the flow before reaching the said
maximum rating.[2]
Fuse characteristics vary considerably depending on the manufacture
and the specifics must be obtained from the manufacturers appropriate
literature i.e. dimension, special features, packaging and fusible material,
markings/indicators, operating temperature, rated voltage, breaking
capacity, current rating, and speed.
Typically, the time-current characteristic curves of fuses are presented
in the form of minimum melt and total clearing times. Minimum melt is the
time between initiation of a large current that is enough to cause the fusible
element in the fuse to melt and the instant that arcing occurs. Total clearing
time is the total time from the beginning of an overcurrent to the final circuit

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BSEE V / EE 104 C3

interruption. Hence fuses from various different manufacturers have different

melting curves, in addition to this fuses also has different load-carrying
capabilities depending on the manufacturer. Typically manufacturers provide
three load-current values depending on application: continuous, hot-load
pickup, and cold-load pickup. Continuous load is the maximum current that is
expected for three hours or more in which the fuse will not be damaged. Hot
load is the amount that can be carried continuously, interrupted and
immediately re-energized without blowing. Cold load follows a thirty minute
outage and is the high current that is the result of a loss of diversity when
the service is restored.[2]

[8]
Coordination
The voltage rating of a fuse must be at least equal the circuit voltage.
It can be higher but never lower. Every fuse has a specific ampere rating. In
selecting the ampere rating of a fuse, consideration must be given to the
type of load and code requirements. The ampere rating of a fuse should
normally not exceed current carrying capacity of the circuit. However, there
are some specific circumstances where the ampere rating is permitted to be
greater than the current carrying capacity of the circuit. A typical example is
the motor circuit; a dual- element fuse is generally permitted to be sized up
to 175% and non-time delay fuses up to 300% of the motor full- load
amperes. Generally, the ampere rating of a fuse and switch combination
should be selected at 125% of the load current (this usually corresponds to
the circuit capacity which is also selected at 125% of the load current). There
are exceptions such as when the fuse-switch combination is approved for
continuous operation at 100% of its rating.[11]
Downstream fuse referred as the protecting fuse should operate
before the upstream fuse referred as the protected fuse. Total clearing time
of the protecting fuse should be less than the damage time of the protected
fuse which is 75% of the minimum melt time. Use of Fuse-Fuse coordination

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BSEE V / EE 104 C3

table provides maximum fault currents that the protecting and protected
fuse are coordinated.[5]
Advantages

Oldest and simplest protective device.

Many different types with special characteristics are available that will
accommodate varying needs whether speed, reliability, or magnitude.
Relatively the cheapest option.
Inherently operates automatically without any external or extra
arrangements for automatic operation.

Disadvantages

Solely an overcurrent protective device

Single-use feature requires a blown fuse to be replaced before service
can be restored resulting to delay and need for correct spare fuses and
qualified maintenance personnel to do the replacement in the field.
It is possible that in a three-phase circuit, a single-phase-to-ground
fault causes one fuse to blow, de-energizing only one phase, permitting
the connected equipment such as motors to stay connected to the
remaining phases.
In large and heavy short circuits, discrimination between fuses that are
in series is difficult unless there is considerable difference in relative
sizes of such fuses in series.
Limited voltage range since at extremely high voltage, extinguishing
the arcing will become more difficult, complex, and costly.

Classifications

AC and DC refers to the type of input supply voltage use in the

system to which the fuse is or will be used. AC fuses are relatively
smaller in size compared to DC fuses mainly due to the degree of
difficulty in extinguishing the arc produced in a DC system.
Low Voltage Fuses Voltage rating of 600V or less. Many types of
low voltage fuses are classified and identified for use in 125, 250, 300,
480, or 600V circuits.
Medium Voltage Fuses - Current limiting power fuses having voltage
ratings from 0.6kV to 34.38kV. Continuous current ratings range from
0.5 to 1,200 amps. E-rated medium voltage fuses are general purpose
fuses that are primarily used to protect transformers and provide both
current overload and short circuit protection. R-Rated fuses are back-up
fuses primarily used to protect motors and motor controllers. They only
provide short circuit protection. Other medium voltage fuses are
designed to protect potential transformers, capacitors and distribution
transformers. Medium Voltage fuses are designed in accordance with
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).[12]
High Voltage Fuses Voltage rating up to 115kV AC. High-voltage
fuses protect instrument transformers used for electricity metering or
for small power transformers where the expense of a circuit breaker is
not warranted.[13]
Non-Current Limiting and Current Limiting - If a protective device
cuts off a short- circuit current in less than one-half cycle, before it
reaches its total available (and highly destructive) value, the device is
a "current limiting" device. The most modern fuse is current limiting
(Right). A non-current limiting protective device by permitting a short-

Jan Benedict T. Bullecer

BSEE V / EE 104 C3

circuit current to build up to its full value, can let an immense amount
of destructive short-circuit heat energy thru before opening the circuit
(Left).[11]

Thermal Fuse - A thermal fuse is often found in consumer equipment

such as coffee makers, hair dryers or transformers powering small
consumer electronics devices. They contain a fusible, temperaturesensitive alloy which holds a spring contact mechanism normally
closed. When the surrounding temperature gets too high, the alloy
melts and allows the spring contact mechanism to break the circuit.
The device can be used to prevent a fire in a hair dryer, for instance,
by cutting off the power supply to the heater elements when the air
flow is interrupted (e.g., the blower motor stops or the air intake
becomes accidentally blocked). Thermal fuses are a one shot, nonresettable device that must be replaced once they have been activated
(blown).[13]
Expulsion Fuse - A vented fuse in which the expulsion effect of the
gases produced by internal arcing, either alone or aided by other
mechanisms results in current interruption. Expulsion fuses will limit
the duration of an overcurrent event, but they will not limit the
magnitude of fault current.[14]
Non-Time Delay Fuses Regular fuses are single-use only, another
type of non-time delay fuses are renewable fuses. Renewable fuses are
the same as regular fuses but its fusible element, typically a zinc link,
may be replaced after the fuse has opened, and then reused.
Time-Delay Fuses (Dual Element) Also known as slow blow fuse, it
is a special type of fuse designed for specific applications wherein it
allows a surge in electricity for a short time before the fusible element
melts. A Dual Element Fuse is a fuse with internal construction
consisting of a separate time-delay overload element(s) that interrupts
overcurrents up to approximately 500%-600% of its nominal rating,
plus separate fuse links that quickly open higher value currents. All
dual-element fuses have time delay, but, since there are other
methods of achieving time delay, not all time-delay fuses have dualelement construction.[9]

Jan Benedict T. Bullecer

BSEE V / EE 104 C3

[9]
Packaging Fuses are available in several packages: cartridge,
blade/spade/plug-in, surface mount, axial, radial, thru-hole types.

[15]
Switch-Fuse Combination - Switch-fuse combinations are three-pole
switches comprising a functional unit of load switch and currentlimiting fuse. The scope of application of these combinations is
predominantly in transformer protection systems where it covers the
range of small and medium ratings. The standard specification of the
switch-fuse combinations governs complete protection, i.e. all fault
currents above a permissible overload range (usually 1.5 times the
rated capacity of the transformer) up to the rated short circuit breaking
current are reliably controlled.[16]

[16]

Jan Benedict T. Bullecer

BSEE V / EE 104 C3

Circuit Breakers
The circuit breaker is both a switching device and a overcurrent
protective device designed to open a circuit automatically on a
predetermined overcurrent and close a circuit of non-automatic means or
automatic means.[5]
The first installed circuit breaker was in 1898 at the L Street Plant of
Boston Electric Light Company (later known as Boston Edison). It was
designed by L. L. Elden and is an open tank circuit breaker with upwardmotion operation and is mounted on a panel. The oil was used to dampen
the heat generated from the arc forming between the two open contacts.
Granville Woods improved upon the design of a circuit breaker at that time
and invented the automatic circuit breaker in 1900.[3]
Cutter Manufacturing Company was the first manufacturer of circuit
breakers in 1904. The product became an industry success and was
promoted as the Inverse Time Element breaker (I-T-E breaker). But it was not
until 1921 that Merlin Gerin manufactured the first high voltage oil circuit
breakers and in 1925 that the NEC required circuit breakers to be enclosed
and externally operable. Westinghouse began marketing their modern
molded case air circuit breajer ub 1832, and in 1935 Square D with Schneider
Electric as parent company manufactured the first circuit breakers for home
use. Plug-in circuit breakers were introduced later in 1951 by that same
company.[3]
Specification standards for circuit breakers did not appear until 1922
leaving a period of 40 years for creative improvisation from electricians and
inventors alike. The standards placed boundaries on maximum heat
experienced by the breaker and prohibited devices that resulted in flamethrowing to reduce fire hazards.
An early form of circuit breaker was described by Thomas Edison in an
1879 patent application, although his commercial power distribution system
used fuses.Its purpose was to protect lighting circuit wiring from accidental
short circuits and overloads. A modern miniature circuit breaker similar to the
ones now in use was patented by Brown, Boveri & Cie in 1924. Hugo Stotz,
an engineer who had sold his company to BBC, was credited as the inventor
on DRP (Deutsches Reichspatent) 458392 Stotz's invention was the
forerunner of the modern thermal-magnetic breaker commonly used in
household load centers to this day. Interconnection of multiple generator
sources into an electrical grid required development of circuit breakers with
increasing voltage ratings and increased ability to safely interrupt the
increasing short circuit currents produced by networks. Simple air-break
manual switches produced hazardous arcs when interrupting high currents;
these gave way to oil-enclosed contacts, and various forms using directed
flow of pressurized air, or of pressurized oil, to cool and interrupt the arc. By
1935, the specially constructed circuit breakers used at the Boulder Dam
project use eight series breaks and pressurized oil flow to interrupt faults of
up to 2,500 MVA, in three cycles of the AC power frequency.[17]
Characteristics and Operation
The circuit breaker isolates the fault by interrupting the current at or
near a current zero. At the present, an extra high voltage (EHV) circuit
breaker can interrupt fault currents of the order of 10 5 A at system voltages
up to 800kV. It can do this as quickly as the first current zero after the
initiation of a fault although it is more common to interrupt at the second or
third current zero. As the circuit breaker contacts move, there is a race
between the establishment of the dielectric strength of the interrupting
medium and the rate at which the recovery voltage reappears across the

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BSEE V / EE 104 C3

breaker. If the recovery voltage wins the race, the arc re-ignites and the
breaker must wait for the next current zero when the contacts are farther
apart.[2]
A circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and moving
contacts, in normal operating conditions the two contacts are physically
connected to each other due to applied mechanical pressure on the moving
contacts. Potential energy is stored in a circuit breaker via its operating
means (i.e. deforming metal spring, compressed air, hydraulic pressure,
etc...) which is released if the switching signal is given to the breaker. A
tripping coil and close coil is also present in circuit breakers wherein if
energized by switching pulse which if energized displaces the moving
contacts.[4] Both the breaker contacts and operating mechanism are
immersed in arc quenching medium. One of the first designs and is still in
common use incorporates a tank of oil with oil as the medium. The oil has a
dual purpose which is that it serves as the insulation between the tank which
is at ground potential and the main contacts which are at line potential, also
it serves as cooling medium to quench the arc when the contacts open to
interrupt the load or fault current.[2]

[18]
There are a variety of circuit breaker characteristics from its operating
voltage level of EHV, HV, MV, and LV; interrupting medium of oil, gas, air, or
vacuum; insulating medium of oil, air, gas, or solid dielectric; the operating
mechanism using impulse coil solenoid, spring, motor, pneumatic, or
hydraulic results in a high degree of flexibility at different voltage levels,
faster operation, better insulating material and arc quenching systems. Each
user has unique requirements for the choice of circuit breaker and no one
design can be identified as the best or preferred design.[2] Proper selection
and application is required for coordination of circuit breakers. Continuous
current and pick-up current settings should not be higher than necessary and
must be within the requirements of the PEC. Time delay should override
transient over currents and to coordinate with downstream protective
devices. Instantaneous trip should be set to avoid nuisance tripping.[5]
Coordination
The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low voltage circuit
breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers
for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with protective relay
pilot devices to sense a fault condition and to operate the trip opening
mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually energized by
a separate battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are selfcontained with current transformers, protective relays and an internal control
power source. Once a fault is detected, the circuit breaker contacts must
open to interrupt the circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using
something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the breaker is
used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be
obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually

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BSEE V / EE 104 C3

operated, larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric
motors to restore energy to the springs. The circuit breaker contacts must
carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand
the heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the circuit.
Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys and other highly
conductive materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion of
contact material due to arcing while interrupting the current. Miniature and
molded-case circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts have
worn, but power circuit breakers and high-voltage circuit breakers have
replaceable contacts. When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated. This
arc must be contained, cooled and extinguished in a controlled way, so that
the gap between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit.
Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas or oil as the
medium the arc forms in.[20]
Advantages

Resettable/Multiple-use.
Both a switching device and an overcurrent protective device.
Able to simultaneously disconnect all phase conductors.
Internal parts are enclosed and not exposed.
Relatively more reliable.
Relatively smaller in size than fuses.
Some types have electronic trips that allows adjustment on trip curve
to suite needs.
Provides easier ground fault protection.

Disadvantages
Generally:

More expensive than fuses or fuse switches.

Each phase is not separated, so when interrupted power on all phase is
lost.
Harder to coordinate compared to fuses.

Depending on the type of interrupting medium and insulating medium it may

be:

Inflammable.
Possibility of forming explosive mixture with air.
Periodical reconditioning or replacement is required.

Classifications

Low Voltage CB voltage rating less than 1000 V (AC). Common in

domestic, commercial, and industrial application.[19]
Miniature CB - rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics
normally not adjustable. Three types: Type B, Type C, Type D which
varies depending on the full load current ratting that it will trip that is;
between 3 and 5 times full load current, between 5 and 10 times full
load current, and between 10 to 20 times full load current.[19]

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BSEE V / EE 104 C3

[19]
The DIN rail-mounted thermal-magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the
most common style in modern domestic consumer units and
commercial electrical distribution boards throughout Europe. The
design includes the following components:
1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit
breaker. Also indicates the status of the circuit breaker (On or
Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed so they can still trip
even if the lever is held or locked in the "on" position. This is
sometimes referred to as "free trip" or "positive trip" operation.
2. Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart.
3. Contacts - allow current when touching and break the current
when moved apart.
4. Terminals
5. Bimetallic strip - separates contacts in response to smaller,
longer-term overcurrents.
6. Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust
the trip current of the device after assembly.
7. Solenoid - separates contacts rapidly in response to high
overcurrents.
8. Arc divider/extinguisher.[19]
Molded CB - rated current up to 2,500 A. Thermal or thermalmagnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings.
[19]
Magnetic CB - uses a solenoid (electromagnet) wherein the pulling
force
increases
with
the
current.
Certain
designs
utilize
electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit
breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. As the current in the
solenoid increases beyond the rating of the circuit breaker, the
solenoid's pull releases the latch, which lets the contacts open by
spring action. Some magnetic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time
delay feature using a viscous fluid. A spring restrains the core until the
current exceeds the breaker rating. During an overload, the speed of
the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The delay permits brief
current surges beyond normal running current for motor starting,
energizing equipment, etc. Short circuit currents provide sufficient
solenoid force to release the latch regardless of core position thus
bypassing the delay feature. Ambient temperature affects the time
delay but does not affect the current rating of a magnetic breaker.[19]
Thermal CB - found in most distribution boards, incorporate both
techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large
surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to
less extreme but longer-term over-current conditions. The thermal
portion of the circuit breaker provides an "inverse time" response

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feature, which trips the circuit breaker sooner for larger overcurrents
but allows smaller overloads to persist for a longer time. On very large
over-currents during a short-circuit, the magnetic element trips the
circuit breaker with no intentional additional delay.[19]
Medium Voltage CB - rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled
into metal-enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be
individual components installed outdoors in a substation.[19]
High Voltage CB - usually thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according
to a recent definition by the International Electro-technical Commission
(IEC). High-voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid-operated, with
current sensing protective relays operated through current
transformers. In substations the protective relay scheme can be
complex, protecting equipment and buses from various types of
overload or ground/earth fault.[19]
Vacuum CB - With rated current up to 6,300 A, and higher for
generator circuit breakers. These breakers interrupt the current by
creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container - aka "bottle".
Long life bellows are designed to travel the 6-10 mm the contacts must
part. These are generally applied for voltages up to about 40,500 V,
which corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage range of power
systems. Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies
between overhaul than do air circuit breakers.[19]
The operation of opening and closing of current carrying contacts
and associated arc interruption take place in a vacuum chamber in the
breaker which is called vacuum interrupter. The vacuum interrupter
consists of a steel arc chamber in the centre symmetrically arranged
ceramic insulators. The vacuum pressure inside a vacuum interrupter
is normally maintained at 10-6 bar.[20]
The material used for current carrying contacts plays an
important role in the performance of the vacuum circuit breaker. CuCr
is the most ideal material to make VCB contacts. Vacuum interrupter
technology was first introduced in the year of 1960. But still it is a
developing technology. As time goes on, the size of the vacuum
interrupter is being reducing from its early 1960s size due to different
technical developments in this field of engineering. The contact
geometry is also improving with time, from butt contact of early days it
gradually changes to spiral shape, cup shape and axial magnetic field
contact. The vacuum circuit breaker is today recognized as most
reliable current interruption technology for medium voltage switchgear.
It requires minimum maintenance compared to other circuit breaker
technologies.[20]

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BSEE V / EE 104 C3

[21]
Air CB - Rated current up to 6,300 A and higher for generator circuit
breakers. Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable including
configurable trip thresholds and delays. Usually electronically
controlled, though some models are microprocessor controlled via an
integral electronic trip unit. Often used for main power distribution in
large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in draw-out
enclosures for ease of maintenance.[19]
The working principle of this breaker is rather different from
those in any other types of circuit breakers. The main aim of all kind of
circuit breaker is to prevent the reestablishment of arcing after current
zero by creating a situation where in the contact gap will withstand the
system recovery voltage. The air circuit breaker does the same but in
different manner. For interrupting arc it creates an arc voltage in
excess of the supply voltage. Arc voltage is defined as the minimum
voltage required maintaining the arc. This circuit breaker increases the
arc voltage by mainly three different ways; It may increase the arc
voltage by cooling the arc plasma. As the temperature of arc plasma is
decreased, the mobility of the particle in arc plasma is reduced, hence
more voltage gradient is required to maintain the arc. It may increase
the arc voltage by lengthening the arc path. As the length of arc path is
increased, the resistance of the path is increased, and hence to
maintain the same arc current more voltage is required to be applied
across the arc path. That means arc voltage is increased. Splitting up
the arc into a number of series arcs also increases the arc voltage.[20]
1. Plain Air CB - The air circuit breaker, operated within the voltage
level 1 KV, does not require any arc control device. The main pair
of contacts carries the current at normal load and these contacts
are made of copper. The additional pair is the arcing contact and
is made of carbon. When circuit breaker is being opened, the
main contacts open first and during opening of main contacts the
arcing contacts are still in touch with each other. As the current
gets, a parallel low resistive path through the arcing contact
during opening of main contacts, there will not be any arcing in
the main contact. The arcing is only initiated when finally the
arcing contacts are separated. The each of the arc contacts is
fitted with an arc runner which helps, the arc discharge to move

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upward due to both thermal and electromagnetic effects as

shown in the figure. As the arc is driven upward it enters in the
arc chute, consisting of splitters. The arc in chute will become
colder, lengthen and split hence arc voltage becomes much
larger than system voltage at the time of operation of air circuit
breaker, and therefore the arc is quenched finally during the
current zero.[20]
2. Air Blast CB - were used for the system voltage of 245 KV, 420
KV and even more, especially where faster breaker operation was
required. Several advantages over Oil CBs are: there is no
chance of fire hazard caused by oil, the breaking speed of circuit
breaker is much higher during operation of air blast circuit
breaker, arc quenching is much faster during operation of air
blast circuit breaker, the duration of arc is same for all values of
small as well as high currents interruptions, as the duration of arc
is smaller, so lesser amount of heat realized from arc to current
carrying contacts hence the service life of the contacts becomes
longer, the stability of the system can be well maintained as it
depends on the speed of operation of circuit breaker, requires
much less maintenance compared to oil circuit breaker.
Disadvantages of Air Blast CBs are: in order to have frequent
operations, it is necessary to have sufficiently high capacity air
compressor, frequent maintenance of compressor, associated air
pipes and automatic control equipment is also required, due to
high speed current interruption there is always a chance of high
rate of rise of re-striking voltage and current chopping, there also
a chance of air pressure leakage from air pipes junctions.[20]
Types of Air Blast CB:
Axial - In axial blast ACB the moving contact is in contact
with fixed contact with the help of a spring pressure. There
is a nozzle orifice in the fixed contact which is blocked by
tip of the moving contact at normal closed condition of the
breaker. When fault occurs, the high pressure air is
introduced into the arcing chamber. The air pressure will
counter the spring pressure and deforms the spring hence
the moving contact is withdrawn from the fixed contact
and nozzle hole becomes open. At the same time the high
pressure air starts flowing along the arc through the fixed
contact nozzle orifice. This axial flow of air along the arc
through the nozzle orifice will make the arc lengthen and
colder hence arc voltage become much higher than system
voltage that means system voltage is insufficient to sustain
the arc consequently the arc is quenched.[20]
Axial with Side Moving Contacts - In this type of axial blast
air circuit breaker the moving contact is fitted over a piston
supported over a spring. In order to open the circuit
breaker the air is admitted into the arcing chamber when
pressure reaches to a predetermined value, it presses
down the moving contact; an arc is drawn between the
fixed and moving contacts. The air blast immediately
transfers the arc to the arcing electrode and is
consequently quenched by the axial flow of air.[20]
Cross Blast - The working principle of cross blast air circuit
breaker is quite simple. In this system of air blast circuit
breaker the blast pipe is fixed in perpendicular to the
movement of moving contact in the arcing chamber and on
the opposite side of the arcing chamber one exhaust

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chamber is also fitted at the same alignment of blast pipe,

so that the air comes from blast pipe can straightly enter
into exhaust chamber through the contact gap of the
breaker. The exhaust chamber is spit with arc splitters.
When moving contact is withdrawn from fixed contact, an
arc is established in between the contact, and at the same
time high pressure air coming from blast pipe will pass
through the contact gap and will forcefully take the arc into
exhaust chamber where the arc is split with the help of arc
splitters and ultimately arc is quenched.[20]
SF6 CB - extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride
gas. A circuit breaker in which the current carrying contacts operate in
sulphur hexafluoride or SF6 gas. Hence, for heavier and less mobile
charged particles in SF6 gas, it acquires very high dielectric strength.
Not only the gas has a good dielectric strength but also it has the
unique property of fast recombination after the source energizing the
spark is removed. The gas has also very good heat transfer property.
Due to its low gaseous viscosity (because of less molecular mobility)
SF6 gas can efficiently transfer heat by convection. So due to its high
dielectric strength and high cooling effect SF6 gas is approximately
100 times more effective arc quenching media than air. Due to these
unique properties of this gas SF6 circuit breaker is used in complete
range of medium voltage and high voltage electrical power system.
These circuit breakers are available for the voltage ranges from 33KV
to 800KV and even more.[19][20]

[20]
Oil CB - mineral oil has better insulating property than air. In oil circuit
breaker the fixed contact and moving contact are immerged inside the
insulating oil. Whenever there is a separation of current carrying
contacts in the oil, the arc in circuit breaker is initialized at the moment
of separation of contacts, and due to this arc the oil is vaporized and
decomposed in mostly hydrogen gas and ultimately creates a
hydrogen bubble around the arc. This highly compressed gas bubble
around the arc prevents re-striking of the arc after current reaches zero
crossing of the cycle. The oil circuit breaker is the one of the oldest
type of circuit breakers.[20]
The operation of oil circuit breaker is quite simple lets have a
discussion. When the current carrying contacts in the oil are separated
an arc is established in between the separated contacts. Actually,
when separation of contacts has just started, distance between the
current contacts is small as a result the voltage gradient between
contacts becomes high. This high voltage gradient between the
contacts ionized the oil and consequently initiates arcing between the
contacts. This arc will produce a large amount of heat in surrounding
oil and vaporizes the oil and decomposes the oil in mostly hydrogen
and a small amount of methane, ethylene and acetylene. The
hydrogen gas cannot remain in molecular form and it is broken into its
atomic form releasing lot of heat. The arc temperature may reach up to
5000 K. Due to this high temperature the gas is liberated surround the

Jan Benedict T. Bullecer

BSEE V / EE 104 C3

arc very rapidly and forms an excessively fast growing gas bubble
around the arc. It is found that the mixture of gases occupies a
volume about one thousand times that of the oil decomposed. From
this figure we can assume how fast the gas bubble around the arc will
grow in size. If this growing gas bubble around the arc is compressed
by any means then rate of de ionization process of ionized gaseous
media in between the contacts will accelerate which rapidly increase
the dielectric strength between the contacts and consequently the arc
will be quenched at zero crossing of the current cycle. This is the basic
operation of oil circuit breaker. In addition to that cooling effect of
hydrogen gas surround the arc path also helps, the quick arc
quenching in oil circuit breaker.[20]
Types:
1. Bulk Oil CB - where oil is used as arc quenching media as well as
insulating media between current carrying contacts and earthed
parts of the breaker. The oil used here is same as transformer
insulating oil.

[20]
When the current carrying contacts in the oil are separated
an arc is established in between the separated contacts. This arc
will produce rapidly growing gas bubble around the arc. As the
moving contact move away from fixed contact the length of arc
is increased as a result the resistance of the arc increases. The
increased resistance causes lowering the temperature and hence
reducing the formation of gasses surround the arc. The arc
quenching in bulk oil circuit breaker takes place when current
passes through zero crossing. If we go through the arc quenching
phenomenon more thoroughly we will find many other factors
effects the arc quenching in bulk oil circuit breaker. As the gas
bubble is enclosed by the oil inside the totally air tight vessel,
the oil surround it will apply high pressure on the bubble, which
results highly compressed gas around the arc. As the pressure is
increased the de ionization of gas increases which helps the arc
quenching. The cooling effect of hydrogen gas also helps in arc
quenching in oil circuit breaker.
Types:
Single Break - In single break bulk oil circuit breaker there
is one pair of current carrying contacts for each phase of
power circuit. The each pair of current carrying contacts in
this bulk oil circuit breaker consists of one fixed contact and
one moving contact. Fixed contact is stationary contact and
moving contact moves away from fixed contact during
opening of the circuit breaker. As the moving contact is
being moved away from fixed contact the arc is produced

Jan Benedict T. Bullecer

BSEE V / EE 104 C3

in between the contacts and it is extinguished during zero

crossing of the fault current, due to the reasons as explain
in previous chapter. As the days go on further research
works have been done to improve better arc control in
single break bulk oil circuit breaker.
Double Break - Various improvements in the design of bulk
oil circuit breaker have been suggested to satisfactory and
safe arc interruption especially at currents below the rated
maximum. One solution to this problem is to use an
intermediate contact between tow current carrying
contacts. The arc is here split into two parts in series. The
aim here is to extinguish the second arc quickly by using
the gas pressure and oil momentum due to the first arc. In
double break bulk oil circuit breaker, there are two fixed
contact and are bridged by one moving contact. The
moving contact is fitted with driving mechanism of the oil
circuit breaker by means of an insulated rod. As the moving
contact bridge moves downwards the contact gaps are
created with fixed contacts at both end of the intermediate
moving contact bridge. Hence arcs are produced at both
contacts gap.
2. Minimum Oil CB - places the interrupting unit in insulating
chamber at live potential. The insulating oil is available only in
interrupting chamber. The feature of designing MOCB is to
reduce requirement of oil. In this type of circuit breaker the arc
interrupting device is enclosed in a tank of insulating material
which as a whole is at live potential of system. This chamber is
called arcing chamber or interrupting pot. The gas pressure
developed in the arcing chamber depends upon the current to be
interrupted. Higher the current to be interrupted causes larger
the gas pressure developed inside the chamber, hence better the
arc quenching. But this put a limit on the design of the arc
chamber for mechanical stresses. With use of better insulating
materials for the arcing chambers such as glass fiber, reinforced
synthetic resin etc.., the minimum oil circuit breaker are able to
meet easily the increased fault levels of the system.

[20]

Outdoor/Indoor CB
Spring/Pneumatic/Hydraulic CB

Protective Relays

Jan Benedict T. Bullecer

BSEE V / EE 104 C3

A relay is an electric device that is designed to interpret input

conditions in a prescribed manner and after specified conditions are met, it is
to respond to cause a contact operation or similar abrupt change in its
associated electric control circuit.[6] A protective relay in particular is one
whose function is to detect defective lines or apparatus or other power
system conditions of an abnormal or dangerous nature and to initiate
appropriate control circuit action.
The plunger type overcurrent relay was first introduced in 1907, in
1953 transformer protection relay based on percentage current differential
method is introduced, phase comparison relays were introduced later in 1956
as well as static bus bar protection relays. By 1967 750kV transmission lines
were developed by AEP and in 1969 the worlds first static phase comparison
relay was introduced. The development of the transistor bought about two
key results in the field of protective relaying and protective relays - the
ability to integrate multiple and more complex protection functions for both
economic and system protection reasons, and the unfortunate reality of how
a new technology must be survivable in the power system. Early adopters of
static-based protective relays in the 1970s and 1980s learned this lesson the
hard way despite the precautions they used to implement it. As a result, the
adoption of new technologies in protective relaying was set back a decade.
No sense in making something that nobody wanted to buy, and this gave
electromechanical relays an extended life well into the 1990s.[7] Technology
and persistent engineering would eventually solve these early teething
problems, and that, coupled with new economic pressures during the 1990s,
opened the door
For the present generation of protective relays based on
microprocessors. These new relays would quickly be established as the wave
of the future. But in reality it was just the tip of the iceberg so to speak.
Present day microprocessor-based protective relays barely resemble their
early 1990s distant cousins. Most early microprocessor relays became
obsolete so fast (thanks to Moores law) that again there was concern in the
industry of a repeat of the static relay scenario and a continued resurrection
of electromechanical relays was a possibility, but the advantages in
economics and programmability of the microprocessor kept enough positive
momentum alive to sustain it.[7]
Characteristics, Operation, and Coordination

[24]
Electromechanical protective relays operate by either magnetic
attraction, or magnetic induction. Unlike switching type electromechanical
relays with fixed and usually ill-defined operating voltage thresholds and
operating times, protective relays have well-established, selectable and

Jan Benedict T. Bullecer

BSEE V / EE 104 C3

adjustable time/current (or other operating parameter) operating

characteristics. Protection relays may use arrays of induction disks, shadedpole, magnets, operating and restraint coils, solenoid-type operators,
telephone-relay contacts, and phase-shifting networks. Protective relays can
also be classified by the type of measurement they make. A protective relay
may respond to the magnitude of a quantity such as voltage or current.
Induction types of relay can respond to the product of two quantities in two
field coils, which could for example represent the power in a circuit. "It is not
practical to make a relay that develops a torque equal to the quotient of two
a.c. quantities. This, however is not important; the only significant condition
for a relay is its setting and the setting can be made to correspond to a ratio
regardless of the component values over a wide range. Several operating
coils can be used to provide "bias" to the relay, allowing the sensitivity of
response in one circuit to be controlled by another. Various combinations of
"operate torque" and "restraint torque" can be produced in the relay. By use
of a permanent magnet in the magnetic circuit, a relay can be made to
respond to current in one direction differently from in another. Such polarized
relays are used on direct-current circuits to detect, for example, reverse
current into a generator. These relays can be made bistable, maintaining a
contact closed with no coil current and requiring reverse current to reset. For
AC circuits, the principle is extended with a polarizing winding connected to a
reference voltage source.[22]

[25]
These all or some specific contacts the relay change their state when
actuating parameters are applied to the relay. That means open contacts
become closed and closed contacts become open. In electromagnetic relay
these closing and opening of relay contacts are done by electromagnetic
action of a solenoid. In mechanical relay these closing and opening of relay
contacts are done by mechanical displacement of different gear level
system. In static relay it is mainly done by semiconductor switches like
thyristor. In digital relay on and off state can be referred as 1 and 0 state.[23]
The need to act quickly to protect circuits and equipment as well as the
general public often requires protective relays to respond and trip a breaker
within a few thousandths of a second. In some instances these clearance
times are prescribed in legislation or operating rules.[6] A maintenance or
testing program is used to determine the performance and availability of
protection systems.[22]
In a large installation of electromechanical relays, it would be difficult
to determine which device originated the signal that tripped the circuit. This
information is useful to operating personnel to determine the likely cause of
the fault and to prevent its re-occurrence. Relays may be fitted with a
"target" or "flag" unit, which is released when the relay operates, to display a
distinctive colored signal when the relay has tripped.[22]
Advantages

Fast in terms of activation and reset.

Simple construction.

Jan Benedict T. Bullecer

BSEE V / EE 104 C3

Relatively more reliable.

Easily configure settings without any special programming device.
Easy to learn.
Can isolate faulted section from the overall system.
Disadvantages
Wear and tear causes flux linkages to weaken in time.
Aging causes changes to settings which causes misoperation and false
tripping.
Requires high capacity of its PT and CT transformers.
Requires periodical calibration and testing.
No directional features.
Speed of operation is limited by mechanical aspects and
characteristics.
Can perform only for a single function.
Classifications
From Construction:
Attracted Armature/Armature Type - have a pivoted lever
supported on a hinge or knife-edge pivot, which carries a moving
contact. These relays may work on either alternating or direct current,
but for alternating current, a shading coil on the pole is used to
maintain contact force throughout the alternating current cycle.
Because the air gap between the fixed coil and the moving armature
becomes much smaller when the relay has operated, the current
required to maintain the relay closed is much smaller than the current
to first operate it. The "returning ratio" or "differential" is the measure
of how much the current must be reduced to reset the relay.[22]
Moving Coil - use a loop of wire turns in a stationary magnet, similar
to a galvanometer but with a contact lever instead of a pointer. These
can be made with very high sensitivity. Another type of moving coil
suspends the coil from two conductive ligaments, allowing very long
travel of the coil.[22]
Induction Disc - inducing currents in a disk that is free to rotate; the
rotary motion of the disk operates a contact. Induction relays require
alternating current; if two or more coils are used, they must be at the
same frequency otherwise no net operating force is produced.[11]
These electromagnetic relays use the induction principle discovered by
Galileo Ferraris in the late 19th century. The magnetic system in
induction disc overcurrent relays is designed to detect overcurrents in
a power system and operate with a pre-determined time delay when
certain overcurrent limits have been reached. In order to operate, the
magnetic system in the relays produces torque that acts on a metal
disc to make contact.[22]
Static - Application of electronic amplifiers to protective relays was
described as early as 1928, using vacuum tube amplifiers and
continued up to 1956.[17] Devices using electron tubes were studied
but never applied as commercial products, because of the limitations
of vacuum tube amplifiers. A relatively large standby current is
required to maintain the tube filament temperature; inconvenient high
voltages are required for the circuits, and vacuum tube amplifiers had
difficulty with incorrect operation due to noise disturbances.
Static relays with no or few moving parts became practical with
the introduction of the transistor. Measuring elements of static relays
have been successfully and economically built up from diodes, zener
diodes, avalanche diodes, unijunction transistors, p-n-p and n-p-n bijunction transistors, field effect transistors or their combinations. Static
relays offer the advantage of higher sensitivity than purely
electromechanical relays, because power to operate output contacts is

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BSEE V / EE 104 C3

derived from a separate supply, not from the signal circuits. Static
relays eliminated or reduced contact bounce, and could provide fast
operation, long life and low maintenance.[22]
Digital - Digital protective relays were in their infancy during the late
1960s. An experimental digital protection system was tested in the lab
and in the field in the early 1970s. Unlike the relays mentioned above,
digital protective relays have two main parts: hardware and software.
The worlds first commercially available digital protective relay was
introduced to the power industry in 1984. In spite of the developments
of complex algorithms for implementing protection functions the
microprocessor based-relays marketed in the 1980s did not incorporate
them.[22]
Numerical - The distinction between digital and numerical protection
relay rests on points of fine technical detail, and is rarely found in areas
other than Protection. Numerical relays are the product of the
advances in technology from digital relays. Generally, there are several
different types of numerical protection relays. Each type, however,
shares a similar architecture, thus enabling designers to build an entire
system solution that is based on a relatively small number of flexible
components. They use high speed processors executing appropriate
algorithms. Most numerical relays are also multifunctional and have
multiple setting groups each often with tens or hundreds of settings.
[22]
From Function:
Overcurrent - a type of protective relay which operates when the
load current exceeds a pickup value. The ANSI device number is 50 for
an instantaneous over current (IOC) or a Definite Time Overcurrent
(DTOC) In a typical application the over current relay is connected to a
current transformer and calibrated to operate at or above a specific
current level.[22]
Distance - differ in principle from other forms of protection in that
their performance is not governed by the magnitude of the current or
voltage in the protected circuit but rather on the ratio of these two
quantities.Distance relays are actually double actuating quantity
relays with one coil energized by voltage and other coil by current.The
current element produces a positive or pick up torque while the
voltage element produces a negative or reset torque.The relay
operates only when the V/I ratio falls below a predetermined value(or
set value).During a fault on the transmission line the fault current
increases and the voltage at the fault point decreases.The V/I ratio is
measured at the location of CTs and PTs.The voltage at the PT location
depends on the distance between the PT and the fault.If the measured
voltage is lesser, that means the fault is nearer and vice-versa.Hence
the protection called Distance relay.[22]
Directional - uses an additional polarizing source of voltage or current
to determine the direction of a fault. Directional elements respond to
the phase shift between a polarizing quantity and an operate quantity.
The fault can be located upstream or downstream of the relay's
location, allowing appropriate protective devices to be operated inside
or outside of the zone of protection.[22]
Synchronism Check - provides a contact closure when the frequency
and phase of two sources are similar to within some tolerance margin.
A "synch check" relay is often applied where two power systems are
interconnected, such as at a switchyard connecting two power grids,
or at a generator circuit breaker to ensure the generator is
synchronized to the system before connecting it.[22]
Instrument Transformers

Jan Benedict T. Bullecer

BSEE V / EE 104 C3

Instrument transformers are high accuracy class electrical devices

used to isolate or transform voltage or current levels. The most common
usage of instrument transformers is to operate instruments or metering from
high voltage or high current circuits, safely isolating secondary control
circuitry from the high voltages or currents. The primary winding of the
transformer is connected to the high voltage or high current circuit, and the
meter or relay is connected to the secondary circuit. Instrument transformers
may also be used as an isolation transformer so that secondary quantities
may be used in phase shifting without affecting other primary connected
devices.[26]
Characteristics, Operation, and Coordination
Basic function of Instrument transformers is to step down the A.C.
System voltage & current. The voltage & current level of power system is
very high. It is very difficult & costly to design the measuring instruments for
measurement of such high level voltage & current. Generally measuring
instruments are designed for 5A & 110V. The measurement of such very
large electrical quantities can be made possible by using the Instrument
transformers with these small rating measuring instruments. Therefore these
instrument transformers are very popular in modern power system.[28]
Advantages

Single range ammeters and voltmeters can measure wide range of

currents and voltages when used with CTs and PTs
The measuring instruments like ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter are
incorporated in the secondary circuit and hence they are totally
segregated from the high voltage, thereby ensuring safety for the
operator and observer
The meter need not be insulated for high voltages which would be the
case if they are directly included in a high voltage circuit.
Using current transformer with suitable split and hinged core, it easy to
measure heavy currents in the busbar without having to break the
conductor carrying current. The core of the Current Transformer (CT) is
opened at the hinge, the current carrying conductor is introduced in
the center of the core through an opening made and the core is tightly
closed again. The conductor itself acts as a single turn primary winding
of the CT.
Disadvantages
Can only be used for AC systems.
The instrument transformers cannot be used for dc measurements. The
current transformer in operation slightly differs from that power
transformer. In case of current transformer as the load impedance or
burden on the secondary is very small, so the current transformer
operates on short circuit conditions.
Classifications
Current Transformers
Current transformers (CT) are a series connected type of instrument
transformer. They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being
measured and have an accurate current ratio and phase relationship to
enable accurate secondary connected metering. Current transformers are
often constructed by passing a single primary turn (either an insulated cable
or an uninsulated bus bar) through a well-insulated toroidal core wrapped
with many turns of wire. This affords easy implementation on high voltage
bushings of grid transformers and other devices by installing the secondary
turn core inside high-voltage bushing insulators and using the pass-through
conductor as a single turn primary.[26]
Current transformer is used to step down the current of power system
to a lower level to make it feasible to be measured by small rating Ammeter

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BSEE V / EE 104 C3

(i.e. 5A ammeter). A typical connection diagram of a current transformer is

shown in figure below.

Primary of C.T. is having very few turns. Sometimes bar primary is also
used. Primary is connected in series with the power circuit. Therefore,
sometimes it also called series transformer. The secondary is having large
no. of turns. Secondary is connected directly to an ammeter. As the ammeter
is having very small resistance. Hence, the secondary of current transformer
operates almost in short circuited condition. One terminal of secondary is
earthed to avoid the large voltage on secondary with respect to earth. Which
in turns reduce the chances of insulation breakdown and also protect the
operator against high voltage. More ever before disconnecting the ammeter,
secondary is short circuited through a switch S as shown in figure above to
avoid the high voltage build up across the secondary.[28]
Potential Transformers
Voltage transformers (VT), also called potential transformers (PT), are a
parallel connected type of instrument transformer. They are designed to
present negligible load to the supply being measured and have an accurate
voltage ratio and phase relationship to enable accurate secondary connected
metering.[27]
Potential transformer is used to step down the voltage of power system
to a lower level to make is feasible to be measured by small rating voltmeter
i.e. 110 120 V voltmeter. A typical connection diagram of a potential
transformer is showing figure below.

Primary of P.T. is having large no. of turns. Primary is connected across

the line (generally between on line & earth). Hence, sometimes it is also
called the parallel transformer. Secondary of P.T. is having few turns &
connected directly to a voltmeter. As the voltmeter is having large
resistance. Hence the secondary of a P.T. operates almost in open circuited
condition. One terminal of secondary of P.T. is earthed to maintain the
secondary voltage with respect to earth. Which assures the safety of
operators.[28]
Reclosers and Sectionalizers
Reclosers are predominantly located on the distribution feeder, though
as the continuous and interrupting current ratings increase, they are seen in

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BSEE V / EE 104 C3

substations, where traditionally a circuit breaker would be located. Reclosers

have two basic functions on the distribution system: reliability and
overcurrent protection. Reclosers are frequently applied to increase
reliability, mainly due to three of their benefits: reclosing capability, single
phase reclosing, and automated loop capabilities.[30]

[32]
Sectionalizers are an economical solution to sectionalizing large
outdoor networks, and often used in locations where coordination with other
devices is difficult. Sectionalizers are suitable for use on outdoor medium
voltage overhead distribution networks, in conjunction with automatic circuit
recloser protection.[29] The sectionalizer is a self-contained, circuit-opening
device used in conjunction with source-side protective devices, such as
reclosers or circuit breakers, to automatically isolate faulted sections of
electrical distribution systems. Power to operate the control circuitry and the
mechanism is obtained from the line through the sensing-current
transformers. No auxiliary power supply, external connections, or external
equipment is required.[31]

Characteristic, Operation, and Coordination

The control system for a recloser allows a selected number of attempts
to restore service after adjustable time delays. For example a recloser may
have 2 or 3 "fast" reclose operations with a few seconds delay, then a longer

Jan Benedict T. Bullecer

BSEE V / EE 104 C3

delay and one reclose; if the last attempt is not successful, the recloser will
lock out and require human intervention to reset. If the fault is a permanent
fault (downed wires, tree limbs lying on the wires, etc.) the autorecloser will
exhaust its pre-programmed attempts to re-energize the line and remain
tripped off until manually commanded to try again. About 80-90% of faults
on overhead power lines are transient and can be cured by autoreclosing.
The result is increased availability of supply.[30]
Reclosers may cooperate with down-stream protective devices called
sectionalizers, usually a disconnector or cutouts equipped with a tripping
mechanism triggered by a counter or a timer. A sectionalizer is generally not
rated to interrupt fault current and is therefore cheaper than a recloser. Each
sectionalizer detects and counts fault current interruptions by the recloser
(or circuit breaker). After a pre-determined number of interruptions, the
sectionalizer will open, thereby isolating the faulty section of the circuit,
allowing the recloser to restore supply to the other non-fault sections.[30]
Advantages
Reclosers:

The Reclosing Loop Automation scheme does not require

communications, but is enhanced with it.
Power is restored quickly and automatically when loop automation is
used.
Most advance protection features.
Multiple pre-set settings to ensure effortless reconfiguration.
Availability of diagnostic tools for feeder analysis.
System components upstream are not affected by the fault.
Manual system can be upgraded to loop automation.
Prevents transient short circuits from triggering prolonged power
outages.
Sectionalizers:
Relatively less initial cost of switchgear.
Automatically restores power upstream portion of the system
Improved fault detection capabilities are possible
Prevents counting overcurrents interrupted by downstream devices.
Prevents false counting due to inrush currents that may occur during
re-energization.
Disadvantages
Reclosers:
Incremental cost difference with reclosing systems.
Very expensive, more expensive than sectionalizers.
Sectionalizers:
Does not have reclosing capabilities.
REFERENCES
[1]Wright, A. W. & Newbery, P. G. (2004). Electric Fuses 3 rd Edition. The
Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, UK.
[2]Horowitz, S. H. & Phadke, A. G., (2008). Power System Relaying 3 rd
Edition. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West
Sussex, England.
[3]Nelson, J. H. (2008). History of Circuit Breaker Standards. IEEE/PES Circuit
Breaker Tutorial.
[4]http://www.electrical4u.com/electrical-circuit-breaker-operation-andtypes-of-circuit-breaker/

Jan Benedict T. Bullecer

BSEE V / EE 104 C3

[5]Bersano, R. F., Jr. (2016). EE 104 Lecture 2 Protective Devices and

Transformers
[6]IEEE 100-1984
[7]Vandiver, B., lll. (2006). Protective Relays Past, Present, and Future a
Path of Great Resistance
[8]http://www.cooperindustries.com/content/dam/public/bussmann/Electrical/
Resources/solutioncenter/technical_library/BUS_Ele_Tech_Lib_Fuses_Non_Time_Delay.pdf
[9]http://www.industrial-electronics.com/motor_control/5e_DualElementFuses.html
[10]http://www.industrial-electronics.com/motor_control/5e_DualElementFuses.html
[11]http://www.galco.com/comp/prod/fuses.htm
[12]http://www.fusesunlimited.com/Glossary.aspx
[13]http://www.romacsupply.com/article_37_Common-Types-of-Fuses.cfm
[14]http://www.cooperindustries.com/content/dam/public/bussmann/Electrica
l/Resources/Catalogs/bus-ele-cat-1007-sec05-medium-voltage-fuses.pdf
[15]http://www.littelfuse.com/products/fuses.aspx
[16]http://www.dribo.cz/pdf/EN_Pojistkove_kombinace.pdf
[17]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_breake
[18]http://learnelectricity.ausgrid.com.au/~/media/Microsites/HighSchoolEdu
cation/Images/circuitbreaker_02.gif?w=480&h=207&as=1
[19]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_breaker
[20]http://www.electrical4u.com/electrical-circuit-breaker-operation-andtypes-of-circuit-breaker/
[21]http://bralpowerassociate.blogspot.com/2012/09/vacuum-circuitbreakers.html
[22]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protective_relay
[23]http://www.electrical4u.com/types-of-electrical-protection-relays-orprotective-relays/
[24]http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/io/io_5.html
[25]http://www.studyelectrical.com/2015/08/how-protective-electrical-relayswork.html
[26]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_transformer
[27]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_transformer
[28]http://www.electrical4u.com/instrument-transformers/
[29]http://www.abb.com/?returnurl=/product/us/9aac720078.aspx
[30]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recloser
[31]http://www.cooperindustries.com/content/public/en/power_systems/prod
ucts/overhead_distributionequipment/sectionalizers.html
[32]http://www.gwelec.com/images/products/Reclosers/6VS_S_3D.jpg

Jan Benedict T. Bullecer

BSEE V / EE 104 C3

[33]https://kr.gobizkorea.com/formula/ViewImg.jsp?
filename=MjAxMjExMDkxMTU5MTgzMzE1NzI3MC5qcGc=&realname=MjAxMj
ExMDkxMTU5MTgzMzE1NzI3MC5qcGc=&type=ZWVjZHkwMDg=&gbn=produ
ct