Madrid, D.

(2000): Learning Strategies, en Teaching English as a Foreign Language,

Barcelona: The Australian Institute.

LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES

Daniel Madrid
(University of Granada)
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the many consequences of the communicative language approach in language teaching
and learning has been the enhancement of the role of the learner in the language learning process.
The old belief that the teacher teaches and learners learn what they are taught is not maintained
nowadays, not only based on direct observation but also on research, which has repeatedly proved
that learners regularly dont learn what teachers teach. This phenomenon have contributed to focus
our attention from the teacher to the learner, from the past focus on the improvement of teaching to
an increased concern for how learners go about their learning tasks and how the process of learning
takes place.
On the other hand, the traditional curriculum distinctions between content and methodology is
not so pronounced and the emphasis on curricular contents (what the students learn) has moved on
to the processof learning (how and why they learn), which is part of the methodological stage.
Content and methodology, not only play a different role in todays teaching and learning situations,
the process of language learning has become part of the content of learning. This focus on
learning and on the learner makes the classroom dynamics and the curriculum implementation
very different from the past: the whole process is much more learner-centred and the students
become more responsible about their learning than they were in the past. This means that they have
to be more conscious about their individual learning processes and the strategies that they use in
each learning act; that is, they are supposed to learn how to learn in order to know how they learn
more efficiently.
But this awareness about the learning processes cannot be taken for granted. It may be latent
and at times it may work in a subconscious way, but it needs training. Awareness is not enough,
learners need awareness with a purpose. The learners co-responsibility in the learning process
implies reflecting and learning about themselves and knowing how to act autonomously as learners
in each teaching and learning situation. It is this complex relationship between strategy and
autonomy, learning to learn and learners responsibility in the learning process what is crucial in
this unit.
So, this module is concerned with learning strategies (LS). It focuses on the application of LS
to second language learning (SLL) and/or second language acquisition (SLA) by students learning
English (or any other language) as a second (L2) or foreign language (FL). The different sections

that we will introduce here describe the role that LS play in the SLL/SLA processes. We will
follow some of the major works on the topic (Rubin, 1975; Naiman et al. 1978; Chesterfield and
Chesterfield, 1985; OMalley and Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990; Wenden, 1991; Jimnez Raya,
1993; Manchn and Bruton, 1993; Beltrn, 1993 and Valcrcel, Coyle y Verd, 1996).
On the other hand, we will base most of our work on the cognitive theory of learning as
developed in various contributions by Lanchman, Lanchman and Butterfield, (1979); Gagn,
(1985); Shuell, (1986); Weinstein and Mayer, (1986) and, above all, Anderson, (1980, 1983 and
1985) and OMalley and Chamot, (1990).

TASK 1
Do learners know the aspects or components of each English unit, what each section aims to, the
skills they are developing? Read and match these sentences (from Madrid, D. and McLaren,
N. (1997): Making Progress 3, Workbook, (p. 5). Valladolid: Ed. La Calesa.):
What objectives can be achieved with this exercise?
What components or sections do learners and teachers find most useful to learn the
language? How much do learners learn when doing the following? (from Madrid, D. and
McLaren, N. (1997): Making Progress 1, Workbook, (p. 6). Valladolid: Ed. La Calesa.):
___________________________________________________________________________
2. A COGNITIVE THEORY OF LEARNING
Linguistic theories have long assumed that language is learnt separately from cognitive skills,
according to different principles. Language and linguistic processes are viewed as interacting with
cognition but they maintain a separate identity. One of the principal cognitive processes that has
not been taken into account in these theories is learning strategies. But more recently, some
researchers have turned away from linguistic based theories towards the field of cognitive
psychology in their attempts to explain the processes involved in SLL and SLA. Cognitive
approaches to SLA consider that language is no longer seen as a unique and separate form of
knowledge but as a complex cognitive skill that can be described within the context of how people
acquire and store knowledge in general. O'Malley and Chamot have argued that SLA cannot be
fully understood without taking into account the interaction between language and cognition in the
storage of information in memory and in the acquisition of new information.
The role of LS in the acquisition of information can be understood by reference to the
information processing framework for learning. The purpose of this framework is to explain how
information is stored in the memory and how new information is acquired. In its simplest form, the
framework suggests that information is stored in two distinct ways, either in short-term memory or
long-term memory.
The short-term memory (STM)

If we lose our short term memory, as a result of a head injury in a motorbike

accident, we can tell the doctor details about lets say our infancy- but if asked
where we have left our motorbike, for example, we would reply: 'What motorbike are
you talking about?' That is, the accident has damaged our short term memory (STM).
Sometimes, of course, the contents of the STM are passed on to the long term memory
(LTM) where they are structured. In order to pass into the long term memory,
information must first be processed and structured in the short term memory so that it
'makes sense' to the student. The process of structuring new information takes time;
but it is time well spent, because students find it almost impossible to remember
something that they do not properly understand. This vital process of structuring or
giving meaning to new information is demanding as well as time-consuming, so we
must try to give our students as much help as we can. Learning activities that involve
students in using the new ideas will aid clarification. This search for structure also
explains why many learners appreciate being given summaries and well-organised
notes.
The long-term memory (LTM)
Once the STM has 'made sense' of the information, it is then passed into the long term
memory (LTM) where, unless it is subsequently used or recalled in some other way, it is again
eventually forgotten. Forgetting and remembering, then, are not under direct conscious control;
they are automatic. There is only one way to ensure that something is remembered: repetition
and practice. As teachers, we must make sure that any knowledge we want our students to
remember is recalled and used frequently. Watson, the father of the behaviourist school of
psychology developed by Skinner, admitted this when he said that remembering depended on
'frequency and occurrence'.
According to Weinstein and Mayer (1986), in this cognitive psychology paradigm, new
information is acquired through a four-stage encoding process involving selection, acquisition,
construction andintegration (OMalley and Chamot, 1990: 17-18):
- Selection: in this stage learners focus on specific information of interest in the
environment and transfer that information into working memory.
- Acquisition: later, learners actively transfer information from working memory into
long-term-memory for permanent storage.
- Construction: thirdly, learners build internal connections between ideas contained in
working memory, this information can be used to enrich the learners understanding or
retentionof the new ideas.
- Integration: in this final process, the learner searcher for prior knowledge in long-term
memory and transfers this knowledge to working memory.
Selection and acquisition determine how
much is
learned,
whereas construction and integration determine what is learned and how it is organized.
Nevertheless, other cognitive models of learning propose a different sequence which
includes (Madrid et al. 1998):

- selecting information from the environment,

- organizing the information,
- relating it to what we already know,
- retaining what we consider to be important,
- using the information in appropriate contexts and situations,
- reflecting on the success of the learning efforts and evaluating the
effectiveness of results.
Among the different alternatives and approaches to linguistic theories O'Malley and Chamot
(1990) base most of their discussion on John Anderson's information processing model of
cognitive skill learning (1980, 1983, 1985) for five reasons (1990:19):
- Andersons work integrates numerous concepts that give the theory generality.
- It covers a broad range behaviour other than theories: comprehension and production of
oral and written texts, problem solving, etc.
- The theory distinguishes between factual knowledge and procedural skills.
- It incorporates strategic processing.
- It has been continually updated, expanded and revised.
2.1. Representation in memory
The representation of knowledge in memory is a key concept in Anderson's theory. He makes
an important distinction between 'static' information or knowing about something, which is
referred to asdeclarative knowledge and 'dynamic' information or knowing how to do something,
which he terms procedural knowledge.
Declarative or factual knowledge. It is stored in long term memory in the form of
cognitive units of meaning such as:
a) Propositional networks: associations of meaning between important elements in a
sentence. Its basic unit is the node (similar to what people call ideas) and the connection
between nodes are links.
b) Schema: larger units of interconnected features which define a concept. Schemata may be
composed of propositional neworks. Their principal value is that they facilitate making
inferences about concepts.
Procedural knowledge refers to the ability to understand and generate language or apply
our knowledge of rules to solve a problem or carry out a particular skill, such as for example,
riding a bicycle or playing the piano. It refers to the processes involved in learning how to do
something successfully. In terms of language acquisition procedural knowledge is seen as our
ability to understand and produce language (see Valcrcel, Coyle and Verd, 1996). The
representation of procedural knowledge in memory is a key issue in cognitive theory and is
contained in what Anderson refers to production systems.

TASK 2
-

Whats the difference between STM and LTM?

Give some teaching recommendations to favour the development of LTM.
Whats the difference between declarative and procedural knowledge?
What are the components of declarative knowledge?
What kind of knowledge do we develop when we teach grammar rules?
What type of knowledge does the leaner develop when (s)he writes a composition? Why?

___________________________________________________________________________
3. COGNITIVE THEORY APPLIED TO SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
The distinction made by Anderson between declarative and procedural knowledge has
obvious implications for both the theory and practice of SLA. Faerch and Kasper (1985, 1987)
were the first to apply this concept to the field of SLA. They stated that the learner's declarative
knowledge consisted of internalized interlanguage rules and memorized chunks of language
whereas procedural knowledge were those strategies and procedures used by the learner to process
L2 information for acquisition and use. According to Faerch and Kasper, procedural knowledge
can be differenciated into five separate components (OMalley and Chamot, 1990:58-59):
1) Reception procedures, such as the use of inferencing to extrapolate meaning.
2) Production procedures, such as planning and monitoring speech production.
3) Conversational procedures, such as following linguistic principles that produce coherent
texts.
4) Communication strategies, which are intended to solve problems in speech comprehension.
5) Learning procedures, such as the development of interlanguage kowledge through
hypothesis formation and testing.
As Faerch and Kasper suggest, most declarative knowledge is activated in a conscious manner,
while procedural knowledge tends to be more automatic and is activated without awareness, except
when the language user has interruptions in communication.
Conscious awareness
As Valcrcel et al. (1996:85) have pointed out, the cognitive theory of skill learning differs
somewhat from linguistic theories as regards the concept of conscious awareness in the language
learning process. Krashen (1981, 1985), as we have already seen, distinguishes 'acquired '
knowledge from 'learnt' knowledge in terms of the unconscious acquisition of the L2 system in a
natural setting when emphasis is on meaning as against the conscious study of L2 rules in the
formal language classroom. In cognitive theory the learner is said to be consciously aware of the
formal rules of the L2 during the early stages of SLA and becomes increasingly less aware of them
as proficiency is achieved. For cognitive theorists conscious attention to language forms depends
more on the stage the learner has reached in the acquisition of the skill and less on the type of
learning setting involved. In this sense cognitive theory argues for learner awareness in SLA in
contrast to Krashen's emphasis on unconscious acquisition.
Implications for language teaching

As Valcrcel et al. (1996) have argued, the idea that simply knowing 'about' the language is
insufficient if what the learner wants is to be able to use the language for successful
communication. To use the L2 functionally the learner must have acquired the necessary
procedural knowledge, which, in Anderson's terms, can only be mastered slowly and after a great
deal of practice. With this in mind it becomes clear that L2 teachers need to concentrate on
providing learners with communicative activities which focus on language as the acquisition of a
skill rather than as an object of study (see also Martnez and Valcrcel, 1992, 1993).
Representation of meaning and language transfer
The distinction between declarative and procedural knowledge has also important
implications for the concept of language transfer. The transfer of knowledge from one language to
another refers not only to declarative knowledge but also to the proceduralized knowledge
involved in language comprehension and production. When processes are learned successfully in
the L1 the learner is able to transfer them to similar situations in the L2. On the other hand,
concepts related to natural categories such as science, mathematics, and technical subjects may be
easier to transfer to the L2 than concepts related to culturally affected areas such as literature o
social studies. This theory of the representation of meaning in memory is consistent with the notion
of language transfer in SLA as an active learner strategy and an aid to acquisition (1996:83-84)
Stages of skill acquisition
The important question that follows from the distinction between declarative and procedural
knowledge is how the mind proceeds from rule-bound declarative knowledge used in performance
of a complex skill to the more automatic proceduralized stage? Anderson described three stages in
this process of skill acquisition: the cognitive, the associative and the autonomous (see OMalley y
Chamot, 1990:25-27):
a) Cognitive stage
Anderson describes the acquisition of a complex skill in terms of the proceduralization of
declarative knowledge. Applying this to SLA O'Malley and Chamot suggest that during the
cognitive stage the L2 learner engages in conscious and intensive mental activity in order to make
sense of the new language. In natural settings this would involve using the language functionally
although the learner may not fully understand the underlying structures of the expressions used. In
classroom settings the learner would pay deliberate attention to the formal structure of the language
or to the use of chunks and formulas in communicative activities. The principle characteristic of
this first stage in the learning process is the concentrated attention paid to the new language forms
in order to find meaning.
b) Associative stage
In the associative stage learners begin to use their previously acquired knowledge
procedurally. The L2 is used for communicative purposes although errors can still be detected in
learner speech. The learner continues, however, to have difficulty in using new L2 information as
attention in this second stage, now directed at improving the language skill, reduces the amount of
conscious effort available for transforming new input into declarative knowledge.

c) Autonomous stage
In the third and final autonomous stage, performance in the L2 resembles closely that of a
native speaker. The learner uses the L2 fluently and without reference to linguistic rules. Language
processing has become autonomous and acquisition of the skill accomplished.

TASK 3
Use a textbook and select three activities, each one related to the 3 stages established by OMally and Chamot:
a) Cognitive stage
b) Associative stage
c) Autonomous stage

___________________________________________________________________________
4. EXPANDING ANDERSONS COGNITIVE THEORY
4.1. Learning by formal rules
As O'Malley and Chamot have pointed out (1990:27-31), the problem with Andersons theory,
however, lies in the assumption that declarative knowledge for SLA consists essentially of the
formal rules of the language. To accept Anderson's theory it is necessary to extend his definition of
declarative knowledge to include not only the grammatical rules of the L2, which may or may not
be taught explicitly in the second language classroom, but also those highly individual 'rules' which
learners produce as a result of their own learning experience which reflect the imperfect and
temporary form their interlanguage. The fact that skill acquisition begins with the learning of the
formal rules of the language has also been criticized on the grounds that it could lead to an
inefficient and tiresome teaching methodology (see Valcrcel et al. 1996:84-85). In the acquisition
of an L2 learners prefer to become actively involved in performing the skill as early as possible in
the learning process whether they are familiar with the formal rules of the language or not. A
classroom approach which focused solely on learning grammatical rules before allowing the
learner to attempt to perform the skill would soon prove frustrating.
4.2. Unitary process for learning complex skills
Another problem with Andersons theory is the insistence on a single process to explain all
forms of learning complex cognitive skills. As Rumelhart and Norman (1978) suggest, the learning
of a complex cognitive skill may entail other processes. They distinguish three stages:
a) Restructuring: it includes the development of novel structures for interpreting new
information and for reorganizing existing knowledge.
b) Accretion: gradual accumulation of new information by matching by matching new data to
existing schemata.
c) Tuning: it acts to refine the existing knowledge based on modification of available
knowledge structures.

But the point is whether restructuring, accretion and tuning represent unique forms of learning
or can be represented through the stages described by Anderson (cognitive, associative,
autonomous).
4.3. Efficiency in the instructional approach
Another possible limitation of Andersons theory of learning complex cognitive skills is that it
may lead to inefficient instructional approaches. As Gagn (1985) notes, requiring students to learn
rules as declarative knowledge before they can perform the steps in a complex skill is a tedious
way to learn. A more effective method for learning a complex skill would be to model the
performance required by the learner while providing opportunities for practising the components of
the skill until they become automatic. In the communicative language classroom the teacher would
model the use of the L2 and provide feedback to encourage meaningful communication.
Faerch and Kasper (1985) have also proposed learning through imitation as one of the basic
processes in the acquisition and automatization of a second language. They suggest that unanalysed
chunks of language acquired through imitation are stored in short term memory where they are
gradually combined and proceduralized for automatic use. A second process described in their
work involves hypothesis formation and testing in which learners form hypotheses based on their
previous L1 or L2 knowledge and test them out in comparison with L2 input acquired receptively,
productively, metalingually or interactionally (see also Valcrcel et al. 1996). Learners are said to
test hypothesis in at least one of four ways (OMalley and Chamot, 1990:33):
1) Receptively, by comparing hypotheses to second language input.
2) Productively, by using the hypothesis to generate language and assessing the feedback.
3) Metalingually, by consulting a native speaker or text.
4) Interactionally, by making an intentional error to elicit a repair from a native speaker.
The application of cognitive theory to SLA research is a relatively recent development and
must be evaluated as such. The theory described here provides an interesting framework for the
description of SLA as that of the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill and offers insights into
such second language constructs as language transfer, interlanguage and the acquisition-learning
distinction and the role played by learning strategies. However, assumptions made about the
language learning process still require much empirical investigation if cognitive theory is to
provide a valid alternative to the approaches of linguistic based theories.
TASK 4
Helping the learners to discover they learning style and the way they learn. Read and grade yourself (as an English
learner) (from Madrid, D. and McLaren, N. (1997): Making Progress 3, Workbook, (p. 12). Valladolid: Ed. La
Calesa.):

5. LEARNING STRATEGIES AS COGNITIVE SKILLS

As we have anticipated earlier, Anderson does not distinguish LS from other cognitive
processes, perhaps because his theory focuses not only on LS but fundamentally on describing how
information is stored and retrieved. In Andersons theory, strategies can be represented the same
way as any other complex skill and described as a set of actions that are fine-tuned until they
become procedural knowledge.
One of the basic principles of the cognitive theory just outlined is the idea that learners do
not merely acquire knowledge but rather that they construct it by using their previous experience to
understand and shape new information. The role of the teacher is no longer to simply supply this
information, but to take an active part in the process of knowledge formation together with the
learner. Knowledge, in other words, is constructed and shared. This means that instruction is not
transformed directly into output, but that individuals build up their knowledge actively and
meaningfully through the activation of mental processes. The cognitive theory that is based
on these assumptions is called constructivism. According to this view of learning
individuals make their personal construction from the information they receive and develop a
certain degree of intellectual autonomy. Students are seen as active co-constructors of
knowledge. Constructivism provides a rationale for teaching by negotiation. Teachers foster the
development of higher-order thinking skills through challenging questions, modelling the
learning process, and engaging in interactive dialogue with students. This form of learning is
more demanding for the teacher, who should have not only a deep understanding of the subject
matter but also the ability to connect it with the students cognitive network: previous
concepts, experiences and schema. This requires that the teacher transcend the transmission
view of communication derived from the behaviorist cognitive network theories and apply the
principles of cognitive psychology (see Madrid et al., 1998)
As Valcrcel et al. (1996) have argued, for learning to take place the learner must actively
participate in the process. However, participating does not mean simply listening to the teacher
or looking at the textbook. Taking part in the process of learning requires the activation and
regulation of many additional factors such as:
- motivation,
- beliefs about learning,
- previous knowledge,
- interaction,
- new information,
- abilities and strategies.
Learning is considered as a process of processes; this means that the acquisition of
knowledge involves the activation of certain mental activities which must be adequately planned
in order to fulfil initial expectations. However, not all learners know or possess these learning
processes, or they use them inadequately, which could lead to poor learning or no learning at all.
For this reason the field of cognitive psychology, in recent years, has tried to identify those
cognitive processes employed by subjects as they learn, and they have become the major focus of
educational innovation in schools. The identification of these processes is what will permit the
setting up of programmes of educational improvement and intervention. This is the true
interpretation of what is meant by improving the quality of learning and here is where the role of
strategies becomes important.

If the nucleus of learning consists of those processes which act as mediators between
instructional and informative input and the output of the learner, then the nature of learning,
especially in what refers to the quantitative or qualitative nature of learning, will be determined
by those processes or strategies which are put into practice. In this way learning depends on
-

what the learner does,

the processes he uses when learning,
the strategies which develop these processes .

TASK 5
Making the learners more aware of the strategies and skills developed when receiving oral input (the listening
comprehension skill).
Answer the following questions after you have listened to a short passage (from Madrid, D. and McLaren,
N. (1997): Making Progress 3, (p. 26). Valladolid: Ed. La Calesa.):

___________________________________________________________________________
6. LEARNING STRATEGIES
In this section we will provide several definitions of learning strategies (LS) and we will
describe them within the framework of Andersons cognitive theory. Some of the most popular LS
definitions and the theorists who propose them are presented in the following table:
Authors

LS definitions

Rubin (1975, 1987) Techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire second language knowledge.
What learners do to learn and do to regulate their learning (1987:19)
OMalley and
Learning strategies are the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help
Chamot (1990)
them comprehend, learn, or retain new information.
Weinstein and
the way in which the learner selects, acquirers, organizes, or integrates new
Mayer (1986)
knowledge.
Tarone (1981)
LS are attempts to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target
language
Oxford (1990)
... operations employed by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and
use of information.
Learning strategies are specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier,
faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferrable to
new situations.
Dansereau (1985)
special thoughts or behaviours that learners use to help them comprehend, retain and/or
use the information
Stern (1992)
Learning Strategy: learners engage in activities to achieve certain goals, ... a choice of
procedures, ... some form of long term planning.

Other alternative terms used for LS are:

tactics, techniques, potentially conscious plans, consciously employed operations, learning

skills, functional skills, cognitive abilities, processing strategies, problem-solving
procedures, basic skills,
The general features of language learning strategies, according to Oxford, are the following
(1990:9-13):
1. Contribute to the main goal: communicative competence. For example, metacognitive
strategies help learners to regulate their cognition and to focus, plan and evaluate their
progress. Affective strategies develop self-confidence and perseverance needed to become
involved in language learning situations. Social strategies increase interaction
and empathy in communication.
2. Allow learners to become more self-directed. Learners do not need to have the teacher
around to guide them all the time. They are trained to rely more on themselves and be
more responsible for their learning. They are expected to gain more confidence,
involvement and proficiency.
3. Expand the role of teachers. The traditional roles of teachers as authority figures,
managers and directors of learning, leaders, controllers and evaluators are changed into a
new direction to leave space to a new teacher who acts as facilitator, helper, guide,
consultant, adviser and co-communicator.
4. Are problem-oriented. LS are tools which are used because theres a problem to solve, a
task to accomplish, an objective to meet.
5. Are specific actions taken by the learner. LS are specific actions or behaviours
accomplished by the students to enhance their learning. Examples of these actions are:
taking notes, planning for a language task, self-evaluating, etc.
6. Involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive. LS are not restricted to
cognitive functions. They also include metacognitive functions like planning, evaluating,
and arranging ones own learning, and emotional and affective functions as well.
7. Support learning both directly and indirectly. Some LS involve direct learning, but others
like metacognitive, social or affective strategies have an indirect effect.
8. Are not always observable. Some LS are not observable to the human eye. For example,
the act of making mental associations cannot be seen. So, we need the learners
cooperation to explore the non-observable LS.
9. Are often conscious. LS are often conscious, but as Oxford suggests, after a certain
amount of practice and use they may act in a automatic or subconscious way.
10. Can be taught. Another important hypothesis stated by Oxford is that LS are easy to teach
and modify through strategy training. This training is most effective when students learn
why and when specific strategies are important, how to use these strategies and how to
transfer them to new situations.
11. Are flexible. LS are not always found in predictable sequences. There is a great deal of
individuality in the way learners choose, combine and sequence strategies.
12. Are influenced by a variety of factors. Many factors affect the choice of strategies: degree
of awareness, stage of leaning, teacher expectations, age, sex, general learning style,
personality traits, motivation level, etc.

Some authors have proved that learning strategies develop with age, are used with increasing
sophistication by older students, result in improved task performance and can be taught (Oxford,
1990;OMalley and Chamot (1990).
6.1. Processes, strategies and techniques
As Valcrcel et. al (1996:87) have noted, in the available research literature there is no
consensus of opinion as to the number or indeed the names attributed to these learning processes
and strategies. As Ellis (1985: 166) points out 'the metalanguage involved in the cognitive
components of procedural knowledge is often confusing and vague'. Researchers do not use terms
like process and strategy consistently. Sometimes they are used as synonyms for general mental
operations and at other times to differentiate operations involved in language processing.
A widely accepted definition of process and strategy is that put forward by Faerch and Kasper
(1980) according to whom a process implies a sequence of operations in the development of a
plan, as in reception or production processes, and a strategy is defined as a single operation or
feature of that process (see LS taxonomy by Valcrcel et al.) Processes constitute the goals of the
various learning strategies. In this way a learner classifies semantic elements in order to retain
them in memory and store this new knowledge. Strategies consist of behaviours or concrete mental
operations related to a specific goal which are carried out by students at the moment of learning.
These behaviours are observable, either directly or indirectly, during the learning process.
While the processes involved in learning are invisible and as such are difficult to evaluate and
train, the strategies which activate them are more visible and more susceptible to teaching and
training. To supply and promote the development of learning strategies in students is not a question
of teaching them new content, but rather of training them in the acquisition of a skill which once
learnt can be transferred to other situations, facilitating in this way the learning process. It is, in
effect, a question of learning to learn. Learning is no longer restricted to the acquisition of content
(declarative knowledge) but to the acquisition of skills (procedural knowledge) with which to learn
this content.
Given the lack of agreement among theorists and researchers, Valcrcel et al. (1996) have
opted for the following terminology:
- Processes are a general category of actions directed at the acquisition and transfer of
information.
- Strategies are defined as the special actions or behaviours that learners use to help them
learn.
- Tactic or technique is used to refer to specific learner activities.
Techniques can be said to activate strategies in that they are observable behaviours which
reveal the presence of particular strategies in learners. Strategies play a mediating role between
processes and techniques and set out to develop a particular learning process for which specific
techniques are employed (Valcrcel et al. 1996: 86-87).

6.2. Strategies for SLL and SLA

When we revise the bibliography on SLL/SLA strategies we find an important lack of
agreement in terminology which can be misleading. As Oxford (1990: 17) puts it 'there is no
complete agreement on exactly what strategies are; how many exist; how they should be defined,
demarcated and categorized; and whether it is possible to create a real, scientifically validated
hierarchy of strategies'. As Valcrcel et al. (1996) have argued, one cause for that confusion is
mainly due to the fact that the research findings depend on the areas of study, age of subjects
investigated, research data techniques, etc. Consequently, unless the SLA/FLA strategy paradigm
finds a consistent conceptual framework in which linguistic acquisition, language learning in
classroom settings, and cognitive psychology are combined and their scope limited, LA strategy
researchers will continue to offer biased taxonomies of language learning strategies. The following
sections will offer some brief comments on some of those studies most often referred to in the
literature on learning strategies.
TASK 6
Helping the learner to become aware of the skills and strategies involved in the speaking skill. (from Madrid, D. and
McLaren, N. (1997): Making Progress 1, (p. 38). Valladolid: Ed. La Calesa.):
-

Now design a similar activity which makes the learners aware of the skills and strategies involved in
grammar activities. You can go over the examples in the appendix and take ideas.

Now lets see how useful are the speaking activities to learn and how often are they practised in
class? (from Madrid, D. and McLaren, N. (1997): Making Progress 3, Workbook, (p. 38 ). Valladolid:
Ed. La Calesa.):

___________________________________________________________________________
6.3. Studies in learning strategies
The literature on learning strategies in SLA emerged from a concerned for identifying the
characteristics of effective learners. Research efforts concentrating on the good language learner
(Rubin 1975; Naiman et al. 1978) have identified strategies reported by students that appear to
contribute to learning. The list of strategies identified by Rubin and Thompson (1982) can be
summarized under these statements. Effective learners ...
-

find their own way,

organize,
are creative,
make their own opportunities,
learn to live with uncertainty,
use mnemonics,
make errors work,
use their linguistic knowledge,
let context help them,

learn to make intelligent guesses,

learn some lines as wholes,
learn formalized routines,
learn production techniques,
use different styles of speech.

TASK 7
Exploring the learners opinion about their efficiency in using specific reading skills and strategies (from Madrid, D.
and McLaren, N. (1997): Making Progress 3, Workbook, (p. 46 ). Valladolid: Ed. La Calesa.):

TASK 8
Helping the learners to become more efficient in learning written English (from Madrid, D. and McLaren,
N. (1997): Making Progress 2, (p. 78 ). Valladolid: Ed. La Calesa.) and (from Madrid, D. and McLaren,
N. (1997): Making Progress 1, Workbook, (p. 42 ). Valladolid: Ed. La Calesa.):

6.3.1. Rubins taxonomy

It seems that it was Rubin (1975) who first introduced the idea that the behaviour of successful
language learners might be different in some way from that of others. This early work anticipated
that competent individuals are effective because of special ways of processing information. There
was also the suggestion that these could be learned by others who had not discovered them on their
own. Rubin's research mostly used young adults as subjects, students who happened to be taking
ESL classes at the University of Hawaii. Based on this research, Rubin proposed a classification
scheme that includes learning strategies under two primary groupings which she calls Primary
strategies, within which she includes one group of 'Strategies that directly affect learning', and
another group which includes 'Processes that contribute indirectly to learning':
Strategies that directly affect learning (Rubin, 1975)

- Clarification/verification: Asks for an example of how to use a word or expression,

repeats words to confirm understanding
- Monitoring: Corrects errors in own/other's pronunciation, vocabulary,
spelling, grammar, style.
- Memorization:Takes notes of new items, pronounces out loud, finds a
mnemonic, writes items repeatedly.
- Guessing/inductive inferencing: Guesses meaning from key words,
structures, pictures, context, etc.
- Deductive reasoning: Compares native/other language to target
language; Groups words; Looks for rule of co-occurrence
- Practice: Experiments with new sounds; Repeats sentences until
pronounced easily; Listens carefully and tries to imitate.
Processes that contribute indirectly to learning
- Creates opportunities for practice: Creates situation with native

speaker; Initiates conversation with fellow students; Spends time in

language lab, listening to TV, etc.
- Production tricks: Uses circumlocutions, synonyms, or cognates; Uses
formulaic interaction; Contextualizes to clarify meaning

TASK 9
Efficiency of group work (from Madrid, D. and McLaren, N. (1997): Making Progress 1, Workbook, (p.
66 ). Valladolid: Ed. La Calesa.):

6.3.2. Naiman, Frlich, Stern and Todescos contribution

Naiman et al. (1978) proposed an alternative classification scheme which contains five broad
categories of learning strategies and a number of secondary categories. The primary strategies were
found to be common to all good language learners interviewed, whereas the secondary strategies
were represented only in some of the good learners:
Primary strategy classification and representative secondary strategies (Naiman et
al. 1978)
- Active task approach:
1. Responds positively to learning opportunity or seeks and exploits
learning environments.
2. Adds related language learning activities to regular clasroom
program.
3. Practices
- Realization of language as a system:
1. Analyzes individual problems
2. Makes L1/L2 comparison
3. Analyzes target language to make inferences
4. Makes use of fact that language is a system
- Realization of language as a means of communication and interaction:
1. Emphasizes fluency over accuracy
2. Seeks communicative situations with L2 speakers
- Management of affective demands:
1. Finds sociocultural meanings
2. Copes with affective demands in learning
- Monitoring L2 performance:
1. Constantly revises L2 system by testing inferences and asking L2
native speakers for feedback.

Naiman et al. (1978) also identified what they referred to as "techniques" for second language
learning, which differed from strategies in their scheme by being focused on specific aspects of
language learning. The techniques, with selected examples of each, are as follows (see Valcrcel et
al. 1996: 90):
Sound acquisition: repeating aloud after a teacher, a native speaker, or a tape; listening
carefully; and talking aloud, including role playing.
Grammar: Following rules given in texts; inferring grammar rules from texts; comparing
L1 and L2; and memorizing structures and using them often.

Vocabulary: making up charts and memorizing them; learning words in context; learning
words that are associated; using new words in phrases; using a dictionary when necessary;
and carrying a notebook to note down new items.
Listening comprehension: listening to the radio, records, TV, movies, tapes, etc.; and
exposing oneself to different accents and registers.
Learning to talk: not being afraid to make mistakes; making contact with native speakers;
asking for corrections; and memorizing dialogues.
Learning to write: having pen pals; writing frequently; and frequent reading of what you
expect to write.
Learning to read: reading something every day; reading things that are familiar; reading
texts at the beginner's level; and looking for meaning from context without consulting a
dictionary.
TASK 10
Read the techniques proposed by Naiman et al. (1978) again and relate them to the information provided by the learner
in connection with the way they proceed when learning vocabulary (from Madrid, D. and McLaren, N. (1997):
Making Progress 2, (p. 38). Valladolid: Ed. La Calesa.):

___________________________________________________________________________
As Valcrcel et al. (1996) have noticed, although the Rubin (1975) and Naiman et al. (1978)
classification schemes are substantially different, and do not have any grounding in theories of
second language acquisition or cognition, and their studies do not specify which strategies are
fundamental to learning and which ones might be most useful, they did, however serve as a basis
for further research. Although, not explicitly, they give recognizition to metacognitive and social
strategies. In fact many teachers will see their own classroom practices reflected in this early
research and will be able to recognize the techniques and strategies used by 'good language
learners'.
6.3.3. OMalley and Chamots studies (1990)
One of the best known research work on SL learning strategies was conducted in the 1980s by
O'Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Kupper and Russo (1985) in the United States, with an
explicit theoretical background in cognitive theory. In a first study, O'Malley et al. (1985a)
collected strategy data on the basis of interviews with secondary-school ESL learners, interviews
with their teachers and observations and from situations outside the classroom. In this study they
reported 26 strategies identified (O'Malley & Chamot 1990: 119).
After completing their
initial study with ESL students, O'Malley et al. extended their research to students studying a
foreign language in high school and college settings to determine if the strategies discovered in
ESL students would be the same as those used by native English-speaking students learning a
foreign language. The results of these studies provided a refinement of their previous definitions of
learning strategies, an analysis of strategic differences between effective and less effective
students, longitudinal comparisons of students, and a description of preferred strategies for
different types of foreign language tasks. This is the final taxonomy after their foreign language
longitudinal study (OMalley and Chamot:1990:137-139)
A. METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES:

They involve thinking about the learning process, planning for learning, monitoring the learning task,
and evaluating how well one has learned.
1. Planning: Previewing the organizing concept or principle of an anticipated learning task (advance
organization); proposing strategies for handling an upcoming task; generating a plan for the parts,
sequence, main ideas, or language functions to be used in handling a task.
2. Directed attention: Deciding in advance to attend in general to a learning task and to ignore irrelevant
distractors; maintaining attention during task execution.
3. Selective attention: Deciding in advance to attend to specific aspects of language input or situational
details to assist in performance of a task; attending to specific aspects of language input during task
execution.
4. Self-management: Understanding the conditions that help one successfully accomplish language tasks
and arranging for the presence of those conditions; controlling one's language performance to
maximize use of what is already known.
5. Self-monitoring: Checking, verifying, or correcting one's comprehension or performance in the course
of language task.
6. Problem identification: Explicitily identifying the central points needing resolution in a task or
identifying an aspect of the task that hinders its succesful completion.
7. Self-evaluation: Checking the outcomes of one's own language performance against an internal
measure of completeness and accuracy; checking one's language repertoire, strategy use, or ability to
perform the task at hand.

B. COGNITIVE STRATEGIES:
They involve interacting with the material to be learned, manipulating the material mentally or
physically, or applying a specific technique to a learning task.
1. Repetition: Imitating a language model, including overt practice and silent rehearsal.
2. Resourcing: Using available reference sources of information about the target language, including
dictionaries, textbooks, and prior work.
3. Grouping: Ordering, classifying, or labelling material used in a language task based on common
attributes; recalling information based on grouping previously done.
4. Note taking: Writing down key words and concepts in abbreviated verbal, graphic, or numerical form
to assist performance of language task.
5. Deduction/Induction: Conciously applying learned or self-developed rules to produce or understand
the target language.
6. Substitution: Selecting alternative approaches, revised plans, or different words or phrases to
accomplish a language task.
7. Elaboration: Relating new information to prior knowledge; relating different parts of new information to each other; making meaningful personal associations to information presented, in the following
ways:
a. Personal elaborations: making judgements about or reacting personally to the material
presented.
b. World elaboration: Using knowledge gained from experience in the world.
c. Academic elaboration: Using knowledge gained in academic situations.
d. Between parts elaboration: Relating parts of the task to each other.
e. Question elaboration: Using a combination of questions and world knowledge to
brainstorm logical solutions to a task.
f.
Sel-evaluative elaboration: Judging self in relation to materials.
g. Creative elaboration: making up a story line, or adopting a clever perspective.
h. Imagery: Using mental or actual pictures or visuals to represent information; coded as a
separate category, but viewed as a form of elaboration.
8. Summarizing: Making a mental, oral, or written summary of language and information presented in a
task.
9. Translation: Rendering ideas from one language to another in a relatively verbatim manner.
10. Transfer: Using previously acquired linguistic knowledge to facilitate a language task.

11. Inferencing: Using available information to guess the meanings or usage of unfamiliar language items
associated with a language task, to predict outcomes, or to fill in missing information.

C. SOCIAL AND AFFECTIVE STRATEGIES:

They involve interacting with another person to assist learning or using affective control to assist a
learning task.
1. Questioning for clarification: Asking for explanation, verification, rephrasing, or examples about the
material; asking for clarification or verification about the task; posing questions to the self.
2. Cooperation: Working together with peers to solve a problem, pool information, check a learning task,
model a language activity, or get feedback on oral or written performance.
3. Self-talk: Reducing anxiety by using mental techniques that make one feel competent to do a learning
task.
4. Self-reinforcement: Providing personal motivation by arranging rewards for oneself when a language
learning activity has been successfully completed.

OMalley and Chamot research work has also provided some very important conclusions:
-

Foreign language (FL) students and ESL students showed similar patterns of
metacognitive and cognitive strategy use.
Students at all levels reported using far more cognitive strategies than metacognitive
ones.
In metacognitive strategy use FL students predominantly reported using planning
strategies, such as selective attention, organizational planning, and self-management.
In cognitive strategy use, students at the beginning level of language study relied most
on repetition, translation and transfer, whereas more advanced students relied most on
inferencing.
Use of social and affective strategies was reported much less frequently than use of
metacognitive strategies.
FL students of all ability levels were found to use learning strategies. More effective
students used learning strategies more often and had a wider repertoire of learning
strategies than did less effective students.
Strategies which involve simple operations on linguistic material, such as repetition
and memorization, or the use of formulaic language, seem to be the first acquired and
are the most frequently used in secondary school classrooms (O'Malley et al. 1985a).
More sophisticated strategies such as elaboration, monitoring, or grouping, etc. which
involve the transformation on material emerge later and are employed less frequently.
Perhaps the simpler strategies are available to all and training can influence their
frequency and appropriateness of use.
The more complex strategies might not be available to everyone, and their use may
have to be explicitly taught to some students.

The use of metacognitive strategies, the most exciting development in recent strategy
research, may not translate directly into easy application, since such strategies may be
the most demanding of all to teach to students and implement effectively.
The use of strategies reported by FL students is highly related to the type of instruction
they received in classrooms as cognitive strategies are directly related to specific
learning tasks. For example, in a classroom in which grammar is emphasized,
successful students would use deduction as a strategy in applying rules to formulate
correct sentences, and in a classroom in which vocabulary acquisition or reading for
details is emphasized, students would find translation as a strategy to be effective. That
brings into prominence the role of teachers and the type of instruction students are
involved in. One consequence to be drawn from that is the importance of the role played
by teachers.
O'Malley et al. report from their training study that it seems that strategy training can
have a direct influence on performance. Possibly the most trainable strategies are those
which have the quickest return and the less trainable strategies are those associated with
aspects of language learning and cognitive processes, and whose effects can only be
observed if they are used over extended periods of time.

TASK 11
Helping students to become more efficient when watching videos in English and develop as many strategies (cognitive,
metacognitive, social and affective) as possible (from Madrid, D. and McLaren, N. (1997): Making Progress 2, (p.
54).Valladolid: Ed. La Calesa.):

6.3.4. Oxfords contribution (1990)

Oxfords (1990) work on strategies is perhaps the most widely known among language
teachers in recent years. In her book, she presents a strategy system which is divided into two
major classes: direct and indirect. These two classes are subdivided into a total of six groups:

Direct class:
memory strategies
cognitive strategies
compensation strategies
Indirect class:
Social strategies
Affective strategies
Metacognitive strategies

According to Oxford, direct and indirect strategies support each other and each strategy
group is capable of connecting with and assisting every other strategy group, as follows

(1990:15): Memory Strategies , Cognitive Strategies, Social Strategies, Compensation

Strategies , Metacognitive Strategies, Affective
Strategies .
As Oxford (1990) has noticed, at this stage in the short history of language learning strategy
research, there is not complete agreement on exactly what strategies are, how many strategies exist;
how they should be defined, demarcated, and categorized; and whether it is or ever will bepossible to create a real, scientifically validated hierarchy of strategies. Even though classification
conflicts are inevitable, she proposes the following taxonomy (1990:18-21):
DIRECT STRATEGIES (Oxford, 1990)
(Memory, cognitive, compensation strategies)
A.

B.

C.
D.

A.

B.
C.

D.

A.

Group I: MEMORY STRATEGIES

Creating mental linkages:
1. Grouping
2. Associating/elaborating
3. Placing new words into a context
Applying images and sounds:
1. Using imagery
2. Semantic mapping
3. Using keywords
4. Representing sounds in memory
Reviewing well:
1. Structured reviewing
Employing action:
1. Using physical response or sensation
2. Using mechanical techniques
Group II: COGNITIVE STRATEGIES
Practicing:
1. Repeating
2. Formally practicing with sounds and writing systems
3. Recognizing and using formulas and patterns
4. Recombining
5. Practicing naturalistically
Receiving and sending messages:
1. Getting the idea quickly
2. Using resources for receiving and sending messages
Analyzing and reasoning:
1. Reasoning deductively
2. Analysing expressions
3. Analysing contrastively (across languages)
4. Translating
5. Transfering
Creating structure for input and output:
1. Taking notes
2. Summarizing
3. Highlighting
Group III: COMPENSATION STRATEGIES
Guessing Intelligently:
1. Using linguistic clues
2. Using other clues

B.

Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing:

1. Switching to the mother tongue
2. Getting help
3. Using mime or gesture
4. Avoiding communication partially or totally
5. Selecting the topic
6. Adjusting or approximating the message
7. Coining words
8. Using a circumlocution or synonym

INDIRECT STRATEGIES (Oxford, 1990)

(Metacognitive, Affective and Social Strategies)
Group I: METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES
Centering your learning:
1. Overviewing and linking with already know material
2. Paying attention
3. Delaying speech production to focus on listening
B. Arranging and planning your learning:
1. Finding out about language learning
2. Organizing
3. Setting goals and objectives
4. Identifying the purpose of a language task
5. Planning for a language task
6. Seeking practice opportunities
C: Evaluating your learning:
1. Self-monitoring
2. Self-evaluating
A.

A.

B.

C.

A.
B.
C.

Group II: AFFECTIVE STRATEGIES

Lowering your anxiety:
1. Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing or meditation
2. Using music
3. Using laughter
Encouraging yourself:
1. Making positive statements
2. Taking risks wisely
3. Rewarding yourself
Taking your emotional temperature:
1. Listening to your body
2. Using a checklist
3. Writing a language learning diary
4. Discussing your feelings with someone else
Group III: SOCIAL STRATEGIES
Asking questions:
1. Asking for clarification
2. Asking for correction
Cooperating with others:
1. Cooperating with peers
2. Cooperating with proficiency users of the new language
Empathizing with others:
1. Developing cultural understanding

2.

Becoming aware of others thoughts and feelings

TASK 12
Read Oxfords taxonomy again and select six activities in an English textbook so that each activity or
exercise implies the development of a strategy belonging to these groups of strategies:
Memory strategies
- Social strategies
Cognitive strategies
- Affective strategies
- Compensation strategies
- Metacogniitve strategies

___________________________________________________________________________
According to Valcrcel et al. (1996), Oxford's work is not very clear as regards her treatment
of cognitive strategies since the classification scheme she suggests continually confuses the
concepts of processes, strategies and techniques, from the point of view we outlined above. What it
would seem to be is more of a good summary of all the possible strategies and techniques so far
identified by other researchers, with examples of each strategy linking them with each of the four
language skills, than a systematic approach to learning strategies with empirically valid research
results to justify this particular classification. However, having said that, the block of strategies she
refers to as 'indirect strategies' including metacognitive, affective and social strategies does seem to
be a more clarifying, systematic and relevant grouping.
6.3.5. Valcrcel, Coyle and Verds taxonomy (1996)
For Valcrcel et al. (1996), the cognitive component of procedural knowledge comprising LA
depends on mental processes involved in hypothesis formation through reception of new L2
knowledge (internalizing input), hypothesis formation through production (interaction) and
automatization through language use (output). In the following tables they offer a tentative
proposal of a possible classification of those processes, strategies and techniques taken from the
currently available taxonomies, trying to link the ones closely related with the instructional process
(see Gagn 1974 and Beltrn 1993: 42) with those identified in the literature on SLA and which
they consider as most applicable to the field of classroom foreign language learning.

PROCESSES

STRATEGIES

TECHNIQUES

Planning learning
tasks

- Setting goals and objectives.

- Identifiying the purpose of a task.

I. SENSITIVIZATION (Motivation)
1. PLANNING

Organizational
planning
Self-management

- Planning the parts, sequence, main

ideas, to be used in handling task.
- Identifiying and controlling one's
language performance.
- Evaluate one's own capacity.

- Checking, verifying or correcting one's

errors.
Self-monitoring
- Identifying the central points needing
resolution in a task.
Problem
identification
2. AFFECTIVE

Emotional control
Encouraging
oneself

- Self-talk to lower one's learning

anxiety.
- Making positive statements.
- Taking risks wisely.
- Rewarding oneself.

Self-responsibility
Self-reinforcement

- Writing language learning diary.

- Discussing learning feelings with
someone else.
- Active participation in learning tasks.
- Self-evaluation

Decision taking
- Giving priorities to learning needs
3. SOCIAL

Questioning for
clarification

- Asking for explanation, or verification.

- Asking for correction

Appeal for
assistance
Cooperation

Empathizing
with others

- Working together with peers to solve a

problem, pool information, model a
language activity or get feedback on
oral or written performance.
- Becoming aware of others' thoughts
and feelings.
- Developing cultural understanding.

II. ACQUISITION (Codification)

1. COMPREHENSION

Directed
attention

- Exploring / setting aims of learning

task.
- Getting global information.
- Activation of previous knowledge.

Intensive
attention

- Physical response.
- Underlining, ticking.

Selective
attention

- Taking notes.
- Matching.
- Making associations: using clues, using
imagery.

Guessing

2. RETENTION

3. CONSTRUCTION

Memorization

- Grouping, semantic mapping.

- Key word method.
- Placing new words into context.
- Reviewing.
- Speaking to self.

Imitation

- Repeating a language model overt

practice
- Silent rehearsal.
- Using formulas & patterns.

Elaboration

- Recombining.
- Substitution.
- Note-taking.
- Paraphrasing.

Interaction

- Display & referential questions.

- Practising patterns in pairs and groups.

Analysis

- Analysing contrastively L1>< L2.

- Inducing meaning and rules from
context.

Resourcing
- Using dictionaries, grammar indexes,
textbooks.
4. TRANSFORMING

Translating

- Rendering ideas from one language to

another.

Inferencing
- Applying rules & meaning deductively.
Extending

- Deducing meaning from existing

knowledge.

Summarizing

- Building texts (oral/written) with help

of cues.
- Making reports from received
information.

III. AUTOMATIZATION
1. TRANSFER

Low level
transfer
High level
Transfer

2. LANGUAGE
USE
FOR
ON

COMMUNICATI

Overcoming
limitations in
speaking and

- Apply knowledge to seemingly similar

tasks (semicontrolled production).
- Apply knowledge to different tasks
(free production).

- Guessing from context.

- Getting help.
- Code-switching.

writing

- Foreignizing words.
- Using mime or gesture.
- Coding words.
- Planning discourse in advance.
- Restructuring discourse.
- Using a circumlocution or synonym.
- Simplifying or avoiding L2 rules.

IV. EVALUATION
1. SELF-ASSESMENT

Of products

- Checking the outcomes of one's

languague performance

Of processes
Initial

- Checking strategy use or ability to

perform the task at hand.

Formative

- Diagnosis and detection of abilities and

requirements.

Summative

- Interaction evaluation-learning
- Evaluation of goal achievement.

7. METACOGNITION AND INSTRUCTION IN LEARNING STRATEGIES

The role assigned by some authors to LS seems to be fundamental. For example, Brown
et al. (1983) conclude that the strategies, or the deliberate plans and routines used in learning,
remembering, and problem solving are the primary determinants of learning outcomes. They also
highlight the distinction between cognitive and metacognitive strategies. As we have illustrated
in the previous taxonomies, the former, in OMalley and Chamots words, involve interacting
with the material to be learned, manipulating the material mentally or physically, or applying a
specific technique to a learning task, the latter, involve thinking about the learning process,
planning for learning, monitoring the learning task, and evaluating how well one has learned (see
OMalley and Chamots taxonomy).
Consequently, metacognitive strategies involve both the knowledge about learning
(metacognitive knowledge) and control or evaluation over learning (metacognitive
strategies). Metacognitive knowledgerefers to knowledge of ones own cognitive processes.
According to Brown et al. (1983) it is stable, thus it is retrievable for use with learning tasks. It is
also statable, that is it can be reflected upon and used as the topic of discussion with others.
Nevertherless, it may be fallible, so that what one believes about ones cognitive processes may be
inaccurate, such as the belief that simple rote repetition is the key that underlies all learning. It
seems to appear late in development, since the ability of learners to step back from learning and
reflect on their cognitive processess may require prior learning experiences as a point of reference.

But regulation of learning, as distinguished from knowledge about learning, entails the use
of metacognitive strategies. These include in OMalley and Chamots taxonomy the following:
1. Planning
2. Directed attention
3. Selective attention
4. Self-management
5. Self-monitoring
6. Problem identification

7. Self-evaluation
According to OMalley and Chamot, metacognitive strategies do not necessarily share the qualities
of being stable and statable with metacognitive knowledge, and may be more task- and agedependent. In the following section we provide techniques to help the students develop their
metacognition in connection to the learning activities and learning strategies that they are
constantly using to learn English.

TASK 13
-

How efficient are you as an English learner? How many strategies do you usually use for learning? Read the
Valcrcel et al. taxonomy, the column headed with STRATEGIES in a vertical direction, and grade yourself by
writing the correspondent score by each strategy. Use the following scale:
5 = always

4 = very often

3 = usually

2 = seldom

1 = never

When you have graded yourself according to the 36 strategies, sum up the scores and get the total. Was your total
low or high? (notice that the possible maximum score is 180).
-

Now work out the subtotals for each of the three groups and each of the ten processes. Which of the ten
PROCESSES obtained the lowest score? So, what techniques should you use to improve your learning?
________________________________________________________________________________

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