Earthquake & Tsunami Educational Module

MODULE3:EARTHQUAKES&TSUNAMIS
Activity
no.
1
Title
Type
Location
Extra
Time
materials?
Classroom
No
15
mins
Stressed
Out!
Paper
exercise
Let'sMake
Earthquakes
Practical
Exercise
Classroom
Yes
60
mins
WhereDoes
theEarth
Quake?
Paper
exercise
Classroom
No
30
mins
Tsunami
Alert
Paper
exercise
Classroom
No
15
mins
Skillsdeveloped
Investigative,
interpretationoftext
Practicalexperiment;
Teamwork
Investigative,
interpretationoftext;
MapandPhoto
interpretation
Investigative,
interpretationof
imagery&text;
Mapinterpretation;
Scenariotask
Totaltime:2hrs
Allactivitiesaredevelopedinaccordancewiththenationalcorecurriculum.Activitiesarelisted
inorderofexecution.
This educational module is one of a series of five modules developed for primary schools in the Burren
region of Ireland as part of the Northern Environmental Education Development (NEED) Project (2008
2010). Modules are also available for secondary schools, visitor centres, and adult learners. This
transnationaleducationprojectaimstoraiseawarenessofgeologicalheritageandrelatedenvironmental
issues,andtousethisenhancedawarenesstopromotesustainableecotourisminkeynaturalregions
inEurope.Formoreinformationseewww.GeoNeed.orgorwww.burrenconnect.ie/geopark/need.
CONTENTS
ACTIVITY1:
STRESSEDOUT!
TeachersNotes:
StudentWorksheets:
ACTIVITY2:
LETSMAKEEARTHQUAKES!
TeachersNotes:
StudentWorksheets:
ACTIVITY3:
WHEREDOESTHEEARTHQUAKE?
TeachersNotes:
StudentWorksheets:
ACTIVITY4:
TSUNAMIALERT!
TeachersNotes:
StudentWorksheets:
NEEDModule3Earthquakes&Tsunamis
Activity1:StressedOut!
ACTIVITY1:STRESSEDOUT!
TEACHERSNOTES
Activitysummary:
Studentswilllearnhowrockscanbebrokenanddeformed(strained)bytheactions
ofstress(physicalforce).Studentswillconsiderhowheatandpressurecanaffectthe
propertiesofasolidobject.
5thand6thclass
Level:
Timerequired: 15mins(activity)
Curriculumlinks: SESEGeography:
Strand:NaturalEnvironments
Unit:Thelocalnaturalenvironment
Unit:RocksandSoil
Unit:PlanetEarthinSpace
Strand:EnvironmentalAwareness
Unit:EnvironmentalAwareness
SESEScience:
Strand:Materials
Unit:Propertiesandcharacteristicsofmaterials
Unit:ScienceandtheEnvironment
Unit:EnergyandForces
Objectives:
o
o
o
o
Tolearnhowpressureandheatcanchangetheformofsolidobjects
Tounderstandtheconceptofstressandhowitaffectsmaterials
Toseehowstressaffectsrocksbyfoldingthemandfracturingthem
Toconsiderwhererocksmaybecomesubjectedtostress(foldingand
faulting)
Skillsandconceptsdevelopment:
Maps,GlobesandGraphicalSkills
UsingPictures,MapsandModels
ASenseofPlaceandSpace
ASenseofSpace
GeographicalInvestigationSkills\WorkingScientifically\DesigningandMaking
o
o
o
o
o
o
Observing
Exploring
EstimatingandMeasuring
Analysing
Recordingandcommunicating
Evaluating
Backgroundinformationandcontext:
TherocksoftheBurrenhavebeensubjectedtobothfoldingandfaulting
actions.TheseactionsarecausedbySTRESS.Thestudyofstressingeologyformsthe
basisofthefieldofStructuralGeology.Byunderstandinghowrocksrespondto
stress,wecantrytounderstandaregionsgeologicpastandthestructuralevolution
ofanarea.Thiscanbedonebyobservingregionallywidespreadpatternsofrock
deformation.
ByunderstandingSTRESSwecanexplainhowEarthquakeshappenandhow
greatmountainrangesarebuilt.Wecanalsounderstandsomeofthefeatureswe
seeintheBurrenparticularly:
o whytherocklayersoftheBurrenslopegentlytothesouth(25south)
o whythestrataaroundMullaghmorearefolded
o whytheBurreniscrisscrossedbyfractures
WhatisStress?
Stressistheapplicationofforceonanareaorobject.Ifyouleanagainsta
table,youareputtingsomestressonit.Astrainiswhenthetablemoves,sostrainis
thechangeinshapeorvolume.
Plasticstrainoccurswhenstressisappliedtoanobject,anditbecomes
deformedandthenstaysinthatsame(new)shapeitdoesn'tresumeitsoriginal
shape.
Foldedrockshavebeensubjectedtoaplasticstrain.
Elasticstrainhappenswhenanobjectisdeformed,andthenwhenthestress
isremoved,itreturnstoitsoriginalshape.Butifyouexceedanobjectselastic
limit,thentheobjectwillbreakandshatter.(Justlikewithaplasticruler,ora
lengthofuncookedspaghetti.)
Faulting(orfracturing)occurswhenthestrainexceedsthe
elasticlimitofamaterial,andtherockbreaksorfractures.
PriorKnowledge:
Studentsshouldbefamiliarwiththefollowing:
o Rockscanbefolded
o Rockscanbefractured/faulted
o TheEarthstemperatureincreaseswithdept(about2030Cperkmdepth)
o TheBurrenwasonceburied~2.5kmbelowthesurface(300millionyearsago)
Apparatusandmaterials:
Studentworksheets
OrganisationofStudents:
Studentscanworkindividually
Activity:
(1) Eachstudentisgivenaworksheet
(2) Studentslookatthephotographsontheworksheetandtrytoanswerthe
accompanyingquestions
Studentquestionsandanswers:
Q.SomeonewassittingononeoftheseMarsbarsforawhile!Whichone?
A.MarsBarB
Q.Howdoyouknow?
A.Becauseitlookslikeitissoft,gooeyandmelted
Q.WhatdoyouthinkmadetheMarsbargosoft?
A.Thepressure/weightofsomeonesittingonitandtheheatoftheirbum!
Q.TheotherMarsBarwasinthefridgeforawhilewhatdoyounoticeabouthow
thecoldMarsbarbreaksintwo?
A.Itbreaks/crackscleanly.
Q.Whichrockswerestressedwhentheywerewarm?
A.AandD
QWhichrockswerestressedwhentheywerecold?
A.BandC
Q.Whentwosidesofarockmovealongacrack,wecallitafault.Canyouseeany
faultsintheserocks?Drawalongthefaultswithamarkerorcolouringpencil.
A.(Illustrativeanswer)
Q.Wheredoyouthinktherockswerewhentheywerestressed?Markoneletterin
eachboxonthisdiagram.
A.BandCnearthesurface.AandDdeepunderground
Q.Photoonleft=Joints(Fractures)inlimestonepavement:
Cold
Nearthesurface
Happenedlater
Photoonright=FoldedstrataonMullaghmore:
Warm
Deep
Happenedfirst
STRESSED OUT!
People say theyre stressed when they are under pressure. But other things get
stressed too... Look at what happened when we tried to break these Mars bars.
Q1.
Q2.
Q3.
Someone was sitting on one of these Mars bars for a while! Which one? _________
How do you know? _____________________________________________________
What do you think made the Mars bar go soft? ______________________________
________________________________________________________________________
The other Mars Bar was in the fridge for a while - what do you notice about how the
cold Mars bar breaks in two? ______________________________________________
Rocks can be stressed in the same way as a Mars bar. Look at these four pictures.
Q5. Which rocks were stressed when they were warm? ______________________
Q6. Which rocks were stressed when they were cold? _______________________
Q7. When two sides of a rock move along a crack, we call it a fault. Can you
see any faults in these rocks? Draw along the faults with a marker or
colouring pencil.
STRESSED OUT!
Where do you think the rocks were when they were stressed? Mark one letter
in each box on this diagram.
Earths surface
Deep underground
The rocks of the Burren have also been stressed. Match up the words with the
pictures.
cold
warm
deep
near the surface
happened first
happened later
Activity2:LetsMakeEarthquakes!
ACTIVITY2:LETSMAKEEARTHQUAKES!
TEACHERSNOTES
Activitysummary:
Students will conduct a practical experiment to observe how stress can build up
betweentwosolidbodies(bricks)andisthensuddenlyreleased.Studentswillsee
thatthebuildupandreleaseisnotalwaysthesameandhencethatearthquakes
aredifficulttopredict.
5thand6thclass
Level:
Unit:RocksandSoil
Unit:Land,riversandseasofIreland
SESEScience:
Strand:Materials
Objectives:
o
o
o
o
o
o
Tocarryoutascientificexperiment
Toworkinateamwithdifferentroles
Tolearnthatearthquakesareunpredictable
Toappreciatethatsteadilyincreasingstressleadstobrittlefailure
Toconsiderhowtheseforcesandprocessesarefundamentaltoearthquakes
Toappreciatehowearthquakes(naturalprocesses)aredifficulttopredict
ASenseofSpace
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Observing
Predicting
InvestigatingandExperimenting
Analysing
Evaluating
Stress can build up in rocks when a force is applied to the rocks. The
movementoftheEarthscrustplatescancausestresstobuildupinrocks.Whenthe
stress is suddenly released due to rock failure an earthquake can occur. The
moment when the release of the stress is often unpredictable. This is why
earthquakesaresomedifficult topredictandwhyrescue/responseauthoritiesare
facedwithdifficulties.
PriorKnowledge:
Studentsshouldbefamiliarwiththefollowing:
o ThesurfaceofPlanetEarthismadeupofseveralcrustalplatesthatmove
veryslowly
o Mostearthquakesoccuratplateboundariesmostlywhereplatescollide
(collisionzones)orslidepasteachother(transformzones),butalsoat
boundariessuchasoceanicridges(spreadingzones)
o Earthquakescanoccurwhenstressthatbuildsupinrocksisreleaseddueto
rockfailure
Fourbricks(e.g.redbricksforbuilding)
Bungeecord
Cordtotiearoundbricktobepulled
Metrestick/MeasuringTape
Sand
Studentworksheets
Studentsworkingroupsoffourorfive
Activity:
Eachstudentisgivenaworksheettorecordtheirgroupsobservations
SetUp:
1. Align3bricksinthecentreofatable(tominimizechancebricksfallingoff
table).Thesebricksaretoremainstationary.Onestudentholdsthese3
bricksinplace.(Pupilsshouldbewarnedtobecarefulofbricksthatmayfall
offthetable)
2. Acordistiedaroundafourthbrickandthebrickisplaceontopofthe
stationarybricks.
3. Attachthebungeecordtothiscord/brick.
4. Pullsteadilyonthebungeecorduntilthetopbricksuddenlybeginstoslide
overthelowerones.Thisrepresentsthepointatwhichrocksbelowthe
groundfail,resultinginanearthquakeatthesurface.
5. Repeattheactivityfivetimes
6. Recordthedistancemovedbythetopbrickforeverypull.
7. Sprinklesomesandonthestationarybricksandrepeattheactivityfive
times.
8. Recordthedistancemovedbythetopbrickforeverypull.
9. Answerthequestionontheworksheet.
Answerstoquestions
A. Sandlimitsthestressthatbuildsupbetweenthebricksastheindividual
particlesbegintomoveasstressincreases.
LETS MAKE EARTHQUAKES!

Name:____________
Stress can build up in rocks. When this
stress is released suddenly, we call it an
earthquake. You are going to do an
experiment to see how this happens.
In the table below, write the distance the brick moved after each pull and
then answer the questions.
Pull no.
Bricks on
their own
Bricks
with sand
1
2
3
4
5
Q1.
Were the results the same for every pull:

(a) without sand________________ (b) with sand ______________________
Q2.
Why do you think this is? _________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
Q3.
In general, did using sand make a difference? What kind of difference? __________
________________________________________________________________________
Q4.

________________________________________________________________________
Q5.
You have seen how stress builds up in bricks, just as it does in rocks. Do you think
that it is easy to predict when earthquakes will happen? _______________________
________________________________________________________________________
Activity3:WhereDoestheEarthQuake!
ACTIVITY3:WhereDoestheEarthQuake?
TEACHERSNOTES
Activitysummary:
StudentswilllearnwhereEarthquakesoccuraroundtheEarth.Studentswillseethe
relationship between crustal plate boundaries and earthquakes. Students will
becomefamiliarwiththeRichterScaleandconsidertheeffectsofearthquakeswith
differentmagnitudes/strengths.
Level:5thand6thclass
Unit:RocksandSoil
Unit:PlanetEarthinSpace
SESEScience:
Strand:Materials
Objectives:
o Toinvestigatewhereearthquakesoccurandwhytheyoccurintheseplaces
andnotinothers
o ToconsiderIrelandslocationwithregardtoearthquakezones
o Toidentifylocationsonamapandinterpretassociatedmapinformation
aboutearthquakes
o
o
MapsandGlobes
ASenseofSpace
o
o
o
o
o
o
Observing
Exploring
Analysing
Evaluating
PlateboundariesarefoundattheedgeoftheEarthscrustalplates.There
threetypes,collisional(convergent),spreadingridges(divergent)andtransform
(conservative).Thethreeboundariesarecharacterizedbytheirdistinctmotions.
Mostearthquakesoccurnearplateboundaries,wherestressesbetween
adjacentplatescanbuildup.Whensuddenlyreleased,asuddenshockoccursinthe
crustwhatweexperienceasanearthquake.
Atspreadingridges,earthquakesareshallow,andoccuralongtheaxisof
spreading.Earthquakesatspreadingridgestendtobesmallerthanmagnitude8.
Attransforms,earthquakesareshallow,runningasdeepas25km.
Transformstendtohaveearthquakessmallerthanmagnitude8.5.
Atcollisionalboundaries,earthquakesarefoundinseveralsettingsranging
fromtheverynearsurfacetoseveralhundredkilometersdepth.Thecoldnessofthe
subductingplatepermitsbrittlefailuredowntoasmuchas700km.Collision
boundarieshostEarth'slargestquakes,withsomeeventsatsubductionzonesin
AlaskaandChilehavingexceededmagnitude9.
PriorKnowledge:
Studentsshouldbefamiliarwiththefollowingconceptsandterms:
o ThesurfaceofPlanetEarthismadeupofseveralcrustalplates
o Thecrustalplatesmoveveryslowly
o Earthquakescanhappenwhenstressisreleasedinadjacentplates
o RichterScale
o Magnitude=Strength
o Studentworksheets
o Studentscanworkindividually
Activity:
(1) Eachstudentisgivenaworksheet.
(2) Studentslookatthemapsandphotographsontheworksheetandtryto
answertheaccompanyingquestions
Studentquestionsandanswers
Q.WhatdoyounoticeaboutwhereEarthquakeshappen?
A.Theyhappenalongplateboundaries.
Q.Whydoyouthinkthisis?
A.Becauseplates,especiallycollidingplates,buildupstressandthiscancause
earthquakes.
Q.HowfarisIrelandfromthenearestEarthquakezone?
A.1000km1500km
Q.DoyouthinktherearemoreearthquakesinareaswheretheEarthsplatesare
movingtowardseachother,orwheretheplatesaremovingapart?Whydoyou
thinkthisis?
A. Movingtowardseachother.Becauseofthebuildupandsubsequentsudden
releaseofstress.
Q.Arrangetheseplacesinorderofhowsafetheyaretolivein(safestfirst):Japan,
Spain,Ireland,Australia,Iceland
A.Ireland,Australia,Spain,Iceland,Japan,
Q.
Philippines: 7
Ireland:
03
India:
45
California:
WHERE DOES THE EARTH QUAKE?

Name:____________
This map shows the plates of the Earths crust. The yellow dots show where
earthquakes have happened over the last 40 years.
km
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Q1.
What do you notice about where earthquakes happen? _______________________

_______________________________________________________________________
Q2.

_______________________________________________________________________
Q3.
How far is Ireland trom the nearest earthquake zone? ________________________
Q4.
Do you think there are more earthquakes in areas where the Earths plates are
moving towards each other, or where the plates are moving apart? Why do you
think this is? ____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Q6.
Arrange these places in order of how safe they are to live in (safest first): Japan,
Spain, Ireland, Australia, Iceland. __________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
The strength (also called the magnitude) of an earthquake is measured on the

Richter scale. These pictures show the effects of earthquakes using this scale.
Effect
Magnitude
Description
0-3
not felt by
people, but
recorded
by instruments
windows rattle,
dishes break,
doors swing
open
cracks form
in plaster,
bricks fall
Effect
Magnitude
Description
chimneys fall,
houses shake
and move
on their
foundations
bridges twist
and break,
some buildings
collapse
total
destruction;
all buildings
collapse, objects
thrown into the
air
Four earthquakes are

marked on this map of
the Earth. Read the
comments left by
eyewitnesses. In the
boxes, write what you
think the earthquakes
measured on the Richter
Scale.
Philippines: It was impossible to stand up. Cars were lifted up into the air, roads cracked open, and the
houses just fell apart.
Ireland: What earthquake? I didnt notice anything.
India: There is not too much damage. In our house, there are some small cracks in the walls, and some plates fell
out of the cupboard and broke on the floor, but thats all.
California: It was pretty scary. Everything was shaking. The wall of our garden fell over, and the chimney of our
neighbours house fell into the street.
NEEDModule3:Earthquakes&Tsunamis
Activity4:TsunamiAlert!
ACTIVITY4:TSUNAMIALERT
TEACHERSNOTES
Activitysummary:
Students will learn how an undersea earthquake can create a tsunami wave.
Students will learn that Ireland was hit by a tsunami in 1755, after a great
earthquakestruckoffLisbon.Studentswillconsiderfactorsthatmaybeinvolvedin
anemergencyresponsetoatsunamialert.
Level:5thand6thclass
Timerequired:20mins(activity)
Unit:RocksandSoil
Unit:Land,riversandseasofIreland
Unit:Weather,climateandatmosphere
Strand:HumanEnvironments
Unit:Peoplelivingandworkinginthelocalareaanda
contrastingpartofIreland
SESEScience:
Strand:Materials
Objectives:
o Tounderstandhowtsunamisarecreatedbyearthquakes
o TorealisethatIrelandwasoncehitbyatsunami
o Toappreciatehowquicklyatsunamicantravelandhowthiscanimpact
emergencyresponse
o ToconsiderhowthecoastofClarecouldbeaffectedbyatsunami
o
o
MapsandGlobes
o
o
ASenseofSpace
ASenseofPlace
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Observing
Exploring
InvestigatingandExperimenting
Analysing
Planning
Evaluating
Backgroundinformation\context:
IndianOceanTsunami2004
OnSt.StephensDayinDecember2004,anearthquakeintheIndianOceancauseda
tsunamithatledtothedeathofover230,000peoplein11differentcountries.
o Itwasthesecondlargestearthquakeeverrecordedonaseismograph
(Withamagnitudeofbetween9.1and9.3).
o Theearthquakehadthelongestdurationoffaultingeverobserved,
between8.3and10minutes.
o Itcausedtheentireplanettovibrateasmuchas1cmandtriggered
otherearthquakesasfarawayasAlaska.
Itisestimatedthatafaultlineofover1600kmslipped~15m,wheretheIndian
PlatesubductsbeneaththeBurmaPlate.
Tsunamis can be caused by underwater disturbances such as earthquakes,

underwaterlandslides,underwatervolcanoesandunderwaterexplosions.
o Tsunamishaveasmallamplitude(waveheight)offshore,andaverylong
wavelength(oftenhundredsofkilometreslong),whichiswhytheygenerally
passunnoticedatsea,formingonlyaslightswellusuallyabout3mabovethe
normalseasurface.Theygrowinheightwhentheyreachshallowerwater.
1755TsunamiinIreland
On November 1st 1755, a great earthquake struck off the coast of Portugal. The
quake caused a tsunami, that reached the south and west coasts of Ireland in a
matterofhours.Reportsstatethatthewavecauseddamagealongthecoastfrom
KinsaletoGalwayCity.
ItissuggestedthatAughinishIsland,nearNewQuaywasseveredfromthemainland
bytheforceofthiswave.Today,AughinishIslandisinCountyClare,butcanonlybe
accessed by land via County Galway. Coastal buildings are reported to have been
damaged,aswasacastleatCoranroo,ontheGalwayClarebordernearKinvara.
PriorKnowledge:
Studentsshouldbefamiliarwiththefollowingconceptsandterms:
o Earthquakesandvolcanoescanhappenunderthesea.
o Builtupstressbetweenadjacentcrustalplatescanbereleasedasasudden
earthquake
o Earthquakescanhappenatplateboundariesandundersea
o Studentworksheets
o Studentscanworkindividually
Activity:
(1) Eachstudentisgivenaworksheet
(2) Studentsusethediagramsandmapsontheworksheettoanswerthe
accompanyingquestions
Studentquestionsandanswers:
Q.Thesediagramsshowhowtsunamisform.Canyoudescribewhathappens?
A.Stressbuildsupalongaplateboundaryduetotwoplatespushingtowardseach
other.Eventuallythestressgivewayandthereisasuddenshockanearthquake.
Themovementinthecrustupsetstheoverlyingwatercolumnintheoceanand
createsawave.
Q.Inwhatdirection(s)doyouthinkthewavewilltravel?
A.TotheLEFT
Q.WevealreadyseenthatIrelandis1300kmfromthenearestearthquakezone.Is
thiszoneonlandorunderwater?
A.Underwater
Q.HowlikelyisitthatIrelandcouldbehitbyatsunami?Why?
A.Itispossible.AnearthquakeintheAtlanticcouldtriggeratsunamiwave.
Q.Trueorfalse:
TsunamiwavesarethesamelengthasnormalwavesFalse
TsunamiwavesaremanytimeshigherthannormalwavesFalse
AtsunamiismadeofonlyonewaveFalse
Q. Wheredidtheearthquakehappen?
A.AtlanticOceanoffPortugal
Q.Howmanyhoursdidittakeforthetsunamitoreach:
Co.Clare
34hours
NewYork
78hours
Lisbon
<1hour
Brazil
7hours
Q.Ifthistsunamihappenedtoday,howwouldyoufindoutaboutitbeforeitreached
Ireland?
A.(Subjectiveanswer/discussion)
TSUNAMI ALERT!
So far weve looked at earthquakes on land. But what if an earthquake happens at sea?
A TSUNAMI !
sea
rocks
of the
Earths
crust
Q1.
These diagrams show how tsunamis form. Can you describe what happens?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q2.
In what direction(s) do you think the wave will travel? ______________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
Q3.
Weve already seen that Ireland is 1300 km from the nearest earthquake zone. Is this zone
on land or underwater? ______________________ How likely is it that Ireland could be hit
by a tsunami? Why? ____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q4.
The picture below shows what tsunami waves look like out at sea, compared to normal
waves.
normal waves
tsunami waves
True or false: Tsunami waves are the same length as normal waves __________________
Tsunami waves are many times higher than normal waves ______________
A tsunami is made of only one wave ________________________________
Lisbon Earthquake - 1755

Believe it or not, Ireland was hit
by a tsunami, in 1755. This map
shows the time it took for the
tsunami to travel through the ocean.
Q1. The earthquake epicenter was off the
coast of what European country?
_____________________________________________
Q2. How many hours did it take for the tsunami to reach:
Co. Clare?
Lisbon?
Iceland
_______
_______
_______
New York?
_______
Rio de Janeiro? _______
Exercise
Imagine you are working for the Irish coastguard. You have just found out that a
large earthquake has happened in the middle of the Atlantic. The tsunami waves are
still out at sea and are 1 m high, but they will probably get higher when they reach
the shore - maybe up to 10 m.
Look at the:
(1) Land heights map of the Burren and north Clare
Q1. What town would you evacuate first in Co. Clare? ____________________
Q2. What kind of damage do you think the tsunami would do?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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MODULE3:EARTHQUAKES&TSUNAMIS

LETS MAKE EARTHQUAKES!

Were the results the same for every pull:

Why do you think this is? _________________________________________________

Why do you think this is? _________________________________________________

WHERE DOES THE EARTH QUAKE?

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

What do you notice about where earthquakes happen? _______________________

Why do you think this is? _________________________________________________

How far is Ireland trom the nearest earthquake zone? ________________________

The strength (also called the magnitude) of an earthquake is measured on the

Four earthquakes are

Tsunamis can be caused by underwater disturbances such as earthquakes,

In what direction(s) do you think the wave will travel? ______________________________

Lisbon Earthquake - 1755

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