1.1 Vectors in The Plane (2-D)

Chapter 1: Fundamental Vectors 1-1
Summary of 1.1
1.1 Vectors in the Plane (2-D)
a) Theory
- Vector Calculus (2-D).
b) Revision
- KE04403 single variable.
THEORY
c) Application
- Obtain magnitude (speed),
slopes (direction) in 2-D.
- Obtain tangents and Normals in
2-D.
d) Formula & Theorem
- Eqn. (1.1) (1.2)
- Eqn. (1.7)
- Eqn. (1.8) (1.9)
e) Exam Question
- Example 1.5
- Example 1.7
- Example 1.8
Figure 1.1:
The directed line
segment AB .
1) Some of the things we measure are determined by their magnitudes.

To record mass, length, or time, for example, we need only write down a
number and name an appropriate unit of measure. These are scalar
quantities, and the associated real numbers are scalars.
2) We need more information to describe a force, displacement, or
velocity. To describe a force, we need to record the direction in which it
acts as well as how large it is. To describe a body's displacement, we
have to say in what direction it moved as well as how far. To describe a
body's velocity, we have to know where the body is headed as well as
how fast it is going. These are vector quantities, called vectors.
1.1.1 Equal Vectors

THEORY
A quantity such as force, displacement, or velocity is represented by a

directed line segment (Figure 1.1). The arrow points in the direction of
the action and its length gives the magnitude of the action in terms of a
suitably chosen unit. The directed line segment AB has initial point A
and terminal point B; its length is denoted by | AB | . Directed line
segments that have the same length and direction are equivalent.
Definitions Vector, Equal Vectors
A vector in the plane is a directed line segment. Two vectors are equal
(or the same) if they have the same length and direction.
Thus, the arrows we use when we draw vectors are understood to
represent the same vector if they have the same length, are parallel, and
point in the same direction (Figure 1.2).
In textbooks, vectors are usually written in lowercase, boldface letters,
u , v , w and F . In handwritten form, it is customary to draw small

arrows above the letters, for example u , v , w and F .
FIGURE 1.2:
EXAMPLE
The four arrows (directed
line segments) shown here
have the same length and
direction. They therefore
represent the same vector,
and we write
AB CD OP EF .
Example 1.1: Showing Vectors are Equal

Let A (0, 0) , B (3, 4) , C (4, 2) , and D (1, 6) .
Show that the vectors u AB and v CD are equal.
Solution 1.1:
We need to show that u and v have the same length and
direction.
FIGURE 1.3:
Two equal vectors. They have the same length and direction.
KE05503 Calculus II
We use the distance formula to find their lengths.

| u || AB | (3 0)2 (4 0)2 5
| v || CD | ( 1 ( 4))2 (6 2)2 5
Next we calculate the slopes of the two line segments.

40 4
62
4
,
Slope of AB
Slope of CD
30 3
1 ( 4) 3
The line segments have the same direction because they are parallel and
directed toward the upper right. Therefore, u v because they have the
same length and direction.
1.1.2 Component Form

THEORY
FIGURE 1.4:
(a) The standard position
of a vector is where the
initial point is the origin,
(b) The coordinates of Q
satisfy x 1 v1 x 2 and
y1 v2 y2 .
Let v PQ . There is one directed line segment equivalent to PQ whose

initial point is the origin (Figure 1.4). It is the representative of v in
standard position and is the vector we normally use to represent v .
Definition Component Form of a Vector
If v is a vector in the plane equal to the vector with initial point 0, 0
and terminal point v1 , v 2 , then the component form of v is
v v1 , v 2
Thus, a vector in the plane is also an ordered pair
v1 , v2 of real
numbers. The numbers v 1 and v 2 are the components of v . The vector
v1 , v2 is called the position vector of the point v1 , v2 .

Observe that if v v1 , v 2
is represented by the directed line
segment PQ , where the initial point is P x 1 , y1 and the terminal point

is Q x 2 , y 2 , then x 1 v1 x 2 and y 1 v 2 y 2 (Figure 1.4) so that
v1 x 2 x 1 and v2 y2 y1 are the components of PQ .
In summary, given the points P x 1 , y1 and Q x 2 , y 2 , the position

vector v v1 ,v 2 equivalent to PQ is v x2 x1 , y2 y1 .
Two vectors a, b and c, d are equal if and only if a = c and b = d, so
(1.1)
that v1 , v2 x 2 x1 , y2 y1 .
1.1.3 Magnitude and Length

The magnitude or length of the vector PQ is the length of any of its
equivalent
directed
line
segment
representations.
If
v x2 x1 , y2 y1 is the position vector for PQ (Figure 1.4), then the
distance formula gives the magnitude or length of v , denoted by the
symbol | v | .
The magnitude or length of the vector v PQ is
2
FORMULA
| v | v1 v2 ( x2 x1 )2 ( y2 y1 )2
(1.2)
KE05503 Calculus II
EXAMPLE
Example 1.2: Finding the Component Form and Length

Find the (a) component form and (b) length of the vector with initial
point P = (3, 4) and terminal point Q = (5, 2).
Solution 1.2:
(a) The position vector v representing PQ has components
v1 x 2 x 1 = (5) (3) = 2 and v2 y2 y1 = 2 4 = 2 (Figure
FIGURE 1.5:
The vector PQ equals the
position vector
v 2, 2 . (Example
1.5). The component form of PQ is v 2,2 .

(b) The length of v = PQ is | v | ( 2)2 ( 2)2 2 2 .
1.2)
EXAMPLE
Example 1.3: Force Moving a Cart

A small cart is being pulled along a smooth horizontal floor with a
20 lb force F making a 45 angle to the floor (Figure 1.6). What is
the effective force moving the cart forward?
Solution 1.3:
The effective force is the horizontal component of F a, b ,
FIGURE 1.6:
The force pulling the cart
forward is represented by
the vector F of length 20
(pounds) making an angle
of 45 with the horizontal
ground (positive x -axis).
(Example 1.3)
2
14.14 Ib.
a | F | cos 45 (20)
2
1.1.4 Zero Vector and Unit Vectors

The only vector with length 0 is the zero vector 0 0,0 .
The zero vector is also the only vector with no specific direction.
THEORY
Any vector v of length 1 is a unit vector. If v v1 ,v2 makes an angle

with the positive x -axis, then
v1 | v | cos cos
| v | 1
v2 | v | sin sin
(Figure 1.7).
In summary, a unit vector v in the plane having angle with the
positive x -axis is represented by v cos , sin .
FIGURE 1.7:
The unit vector
v v 1 ,v 2 has length 1,
As varies from 0 to 2, the terminal point of a unit vector v traces the

unit circle counterclockwise, taking into account all possible directions.
so v1 cos and
v 2 sin , where is the
angle v makes with the
positive x-axis. As varies
from 0 to 2, the terminal
point of v traces the unit
circle.
1.1.5 Vector Algebra Operations

Two principal operations involving vectors are vector addition and
scalar multiplication.
FORMULA
Definitions Vector Addition and Multiplication

Let u u1 ,u2 , v v1 , v 2 be vectors with k a scalar (real
number).
Addition:
u + v = u1 ,u2 + v1 , v2 = u1 v1 , u2 v2
Scalar multiplication: ku = ku1 , ku 2
(1.3)
(1.4)
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The definition of vector addition is illustrated geometrically in Figure

1.8a, where the initial point of one vector is placed at the terminal point
of the other. Another interpretation is shown in Figure 1.8b (called the
parallelogram law of addition), where the sum, called the resultant
vector, is the diagonal of the parallelogram. In physics, forces add
vectorially as do velocities, accelerations, and so on.
A geometric interpretation of the product ku of the scalar k and vector u
is displayed in Figure 1.9. First, if k > 0, then ku has the same direction
as u; if k < 0, then the direction of ku is opposite to that of u. Comparing
the lengths of u u1 , u2 and ku, we see that
2
| ku | (ku1 )2 (ku2 )2 k 2 (u1 u2 )

2
k 2 (u1 u2 )
FORMULA
| k || u |
FIGURE 1.8:
(a) Geometric
interpretation of the
vector sum.
(b) The parallelogram law
of vector addition.
(1.5)
That is, the length of ku is the absolute value of the scalar k times the
length of u. In particular, the vector (1)u = u has the same length as u
but points in the opposite direction.
By the difference u v of two vectors, we mean
u v = u + (v).
FORMULA
If u u1 , u2 and v v1 , v 2 , then
u v = u1 v1 , u2 v2 .
(1.6)
Note that (u v) + v = u, so adding the vector ( u v) to v gives u

(Figure 1.10a). Figure 1.10b shows the difference u v as the sum u +
(v).
FIGURE 1.9:
Scalar multiples of u.
Example 1.4: Operations on Vectors

Let u = (1, 3) and v = (4, 7). Find
(a) 2u + 3v
(b) u v
(c)
1
u
2
EXAMPLE
Solution 1.4:
(a) 2u + 3v = 2 1, 3 3 4, 7
= 2(1) 3(4), 2(3) 2(7) 10, 27
(b) u v = 1, 3 4 , 7
= 1 4 , 3 7 5, 4
1
(c) u =
2
FIGURE 1.10:
(a) The vector u v, when
added to v, gives u. (b) u
v = u + (v).
1 3
1
1 3
,

10
2 2
2
2 2
Vector operations have many of the properties of ordinary arithmetic.

These properties are readily verified using the definitions of vector
addition and multiplication by a scalar.
KE05503 Calculus II
1.1.6 Properties of Vector Operations

Let u, v, and w be vectors and a,b be scalars.
FORMULA
EXAMPLE
Example 1.5: Finding Ground Speed and Direction

A Boeing 727 airplane, flying due east at 500 mph in still air,
encounters a 70 mph tailwind acting in the direction 60 north of
east. The airplane holds its compass heading due east but,
because of the wind, acquires a new ground speed and direction.
What are they?
Solution 1.5:
If u = the velocity of the airplane alone and v = the velocity of the
tail-wind, then | u | = 500 and | v | = 70 (Figure 1.11).
FIGURE 1.11:
Vectors representing the velocities of the airplane and tailwind in
Example 1.5.
We need to find the magnitude and direction of the resultant
vector u + v. If we let the positive x-axis represent east and the
positive y-axis represent north, then the component forms of u and
v are
u 500 , 0 and v 70 cos 60, 70 sin 60 35, 35 3
Therefore,
u v 535 , 35 3
| u v | 5352 (35 3 )2 538.4

and
tan 1
35 3
6.5
535
Interpret
The new ground speed of the airplane is about 538.4 mph, and
its new direction is about 6.5 north of east.
KE05503 Calculus II
1.1.7 Standard Unit Vectors

THEORY
Any vector v a , b in the plane can be written as a linear combination

of the two standard unit vectors i 1, 0 and j 0, 1 as follows:
v a, b a, 0 0, b a 1, 0 b 0, 1 ai bj
FIGURE 1.12:
v is a linear combination
of i and j.
The vector v is a linear combination of the vectors i and j; the scalar a

is the horizontal or i-component of v and the scalar b is the vertical
or j-component of v. The slope of a nonvertical vector v a , b is the
slope shared by the lines parallel to it. Thus, if a 0, the vector v has
slope b/a (Figure 1.12).
EXAMPLE
Example 1.6: Expressing Vectors as Linear Combinations of i & j

Let P = (1, 5) and Q = (3, 2). Write the vector v = PQ as a linear
combination of i and j and find its slope.
Solution 1.6:
The component form of v is (3 ( 1), 2 5) (4 , 3) .
Thus, v 4,3 4i (3)j 4i 3j ; The slope of v is 3/4.
1.1.8 Length and Direction

In studying motion, we often want to know the direction an object is
headed and how fast it is going.
EXAMPLE
Example 1.7: Expressing Velocity as Speed Times Direction

If v = 3i 4j is a velocity vector, express v as a product of its speed
times a unit vector in the direction of motion.
Solution 1.7:
Speed is the magnitude (length) of v:
| v | (3)2 ( 4)2 9 16 5.
The vector v/ | v | (unit vector) has the same direction as v:

2
v
3 4

1.
|v|
5 5
v 3i 4j 3i 4j
.
|v|
5
5 5
IMPORTANT
(1.7)
Length (speed) Direction of motion
Generally, if v 0, then its length | v | is not zero and
1
1
v
| v | 1.
|v|
|v|
That is, v/| v | is a unit vector in the direction of v.

We can therefore express v in terms of its two important features,
length and direction, by writing v = | v |(v/| v |). If v 0, then
1. v/| v | is a unit vector in the direction of v;
2. the equation v = | v |(v/| v |) expresses v in terms of its length
and direction.
The unit vector v/| v | is called the direction of v.
Thus, v = 5((3/5)i (4/5)j) expresses the velocity vector in Example 1.7
as a product of its length and direction.
KE05503 Calculus II
1.1.9 Tangents and Normals

IMPORTANT
THEORY
When an object is moving along a path in the plane (or in space), its
velocity is a vector tangent to the path. Moreover, if the object is
speeding up or slowing down, forces are acting in the tangent direction
and perpendicular (or normal) to it.
A vector is tangent or normal to a curve at a point P if it is parallel or
normal, respectively, to the line that is tangent to the curve at P.
Example 1.8 shows how to find such vectors for a differentiable curve
y f (x ) in the plane.
EXAMPLE
FIGURE 1.13:
The unit tangent and
normal vectors at the point
(1, 1) on the curve
y
x
1
. (Example 1.8)
2 2
Example 1.8: Finding Vectors Tangent and Normal to a Curve

x3 1
An object is moving along the curve y
.
2 2
Find unit vectors tangent and normal to the curve at (1, 1).
Solution 1.8:
We find the unit vectors that are parallel and normal to the
curve's tangent line at (1, 1) (Figure 1.13).
The slope of the line tangent to the curve at (1, 1) is
3x 2
3
y '
|x 1 .
2
2
We look for a unit vector with this slope. The vector v = 2i + 3j
has slope 3/2, as does every nonzero multiple of v. To find a
multiple of v that is a unit vector, we divide v by
| v | 22 32 13 ,
obtaining
u
v
2i
3j
.
|v|
13
13
IMPORTANT
(1.8)
The vector u is tangent to the curve at (1, 1) because it has the

same direction as v. Of course,
2i
3j
u
,
13
13
which points in the opposite direction, is also tangent to the
curve at (1, 1). Without some additional requirement (such as
specifying the direction of motion), there is no reason to prefer
one of these vectors to the other.
To find unit vectors normal to the curve at (1, 1), we look for unit
vectors whose slopes are the negative reciprocal of the slope of
u. This is quickly done by interchanging the scalar components
of u and changing the sign of one of them. We obtain
n
3i
13
2j
13
and n
3i
13
2j
13
IMPORTANT
(1.9)
Again, either one will do. The vectors have opposite directions
but both are normal to the curve at (1, 1). (See Figure 1.13.)
KE05503 Calculus II
Summary of 1.1
a) Theory
- Vector Calculus (3-D).
b) Revision
- Section 1.1 (2-D).
1.2 Vectors in the Space (3-D)

1.2.1 Cartesian Coordinates
THEORY
c) Application
- Obtain magnitude (speed),
slopes (direction) in 3-D.
d) Formula & Theorem
- Eqn. (1.10)
- Eqn. (1.14)
- Eqn. (1.15) (1.18)
e) Exam Question
- Example 1.12
- Example 1.13
To locate points in space, we use three mutually perpendicular

coordinate axes, arranged as in Figure 1.14. The axes shown there make
a right-handed coordinate frame. When you hold your right hand so that
the fingers curl from the positive x-axis toward the positive y-axis, your
thumb points along the positive z-axis.
The Cartesian coordinates ( x , y , z ) of a point P in space are the numbers
at which the planes through P perpendicular to the axes cut the axes.
Cartesian coordinates for space are also called rectangular
coordinates because the axes that define them meet at right angles.
Points on the x-axis have y- and z-coordinates equal to zero. That is, they
have coordinates of the form ( x , 0, 0) . Similarly, points on the y-axis
have coordinates of the form (0, y , 0) . Points on the z-axis have
coordinates of the form (0, 0, z ) .
The planes determined by the coordinates axes are the xy-plane, whose
standard equation is z = 0; the yz-plane, whose standard equation is x =
0; and the xz-plane, whose standard equation is y = 0. They meet at the
origin (0, 0, 0) (Figure 1.15). The three coordinate planes x = 0, y = 0,
and z = 0 divide space into eight cells called octants. The octant in
which the point coordinates are all positive is called the first octant;
there is no conventional numbering for the other seven octants.
FIGURE 1.14:
The Cartesian coordinate
system is right-handed.
Example 1.9: Interpreting Equations and Inequalities

EXAMPLE
Solution 1.9:
(a) z 0
The half-space consisting of the points on

and above the xy-plane.
(b) x = 3
The plane perpendicular to the x-axis at x =
3. This plane lies parallel to the yz-plane
and 3 units behind it.
(c) z = 0, x < 0, y > 0 The second quadrant of the xy-plane.
(d) x > 0, y > 0, z > 0 The first octant.
(e) 1 y 1
The slab between the planes y = 1 and y = 1
(f) y = 2, z = 2
The line in which the planes y = 2 and z = 2
intersect. Alternatively, the line through the
point (0, 2, 2) parallel to the x-axis.
F IGURE 1.15:
Eight octants.
EXAMPLE
Example 1.10: Graphing Equations

What points P(x, y, z) satisfy the equations x 2 y 2 4 and z = 3?
Solution 1.10:
The points lie in the horizontal plane z = 3 and, in this plane,
make up the circle x 2 y 2 4 . We call this set of points "the
circle x 2 y 2 4 in the plane z = 3" or, more simply, "the circle
F IGURE 1.16:
The circle x2 + y 2 = 4, z = 3.
x 2 y 2 4 , z = 3" (Figure 1.16).
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1.2.2 Vectors in Space

THEORY
Vectors in space are like vectors in the plane except there is a third
component. Just as in the plane (Section 1.1), vectors in space are
directed line segments. Two such vectors are equal if they have the
same length and direction. Vectors are used to represent forces,
displacements, velocities, and accelerations in space.
If v is a vector in space equal to a vector with initial point (0, 0, 0) and
terminal point v 1 , v 2 , v 3 , then the component form of v is
v v 1 , v 2 , v 3 . As in the plane, this is also the position vector of the
FIGURE 1.17:
The position vector of a
point in space.
point v 1 , v 2 , v 3 . The vector from the initial point P1 x 1 , y1 , z1 to the

terminal point P2 x 2 , y2 , z 2 is v P1 P2 x 2 x 1 , y2 y1 , z 2 z1 .
(1.10)
The vectors represented by the directed line segments from the origin
to the points (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), and (0, 0, 1) are the standard unit
vectors and are denoted by i, j, and k (Figure 1.17). The position vector
r from the origin to the typical point P(x, y, z) can then be written as
r OP xi yj zk .
Thus, the vector P1 P2 x 2 x 1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 can be expressed as
P1 P2 ( x2 x1 )i ( y2 y1 )j (z2 z1 )k . (See Figure 1.18.)
FIGURE 1.18:
P1 P2 ( x 2 x 1 )i ( y 2 y1 )j
( z 2 z 1 )k
In this section, we summarize the properties of vectors in space (which

are identical to the properties studied in Section 1.1 for planar vectors).
The definitions of addition, subtraction, and scalar multiplication are
the same as in the plane. They also satisfy the same properties and
interpretations.
FORMULA
Definitions Vector Operations

Let u u1i u2 j u3 k and v v1 i v 2 j v3 k be vectors with k a
scalar (real number).
Addition:
u + v = (u1 v1 )i (u2 v 2 )j (u3 v3 )k
Subtraction:
u v = (u1 v1 )i (u2 v 2 )j (u3 v3 )k
Scalar Multiplication
ku = (ku1 )i (ku2 )j (ku3 )k
(1.11)
(1.12)
(1.13)
1.2.3 Magnitude
As for planar vectors, magnitude and direction are important features of
a vector in space. We find a formula for the magnitude (length) of
v v1 i v 2 j v3 k by applying the Pythagorean Theorem to the right
2
triangles in Figure 1.19. From triangle ABC, | AC | v1 v2 , and from

triangle ACD,
2
| v | | v1i v2 j v3 k | | AD | | AC |2 | CD |2 v1 v2 v3
FIGURE 1.19:
We find the length of v =
AD by applying the
Pythagorean Theorem to
the right triangles ABC
and ACD.
DEMO
Definition
(1.14)
Magnitude (Length) of a Space Vector
The magnitude (length) of v v1 i v 2 j v3 k is

2
FORMULA
| v | | v1i v2 j v3 k | v1 v2 v3 .
KE05503 Calculus II
1.2.4 The Zero Vector

The zero vector in space is the vector 0 0,0,0 0i 0j 0k . As in the
plane, 0 has zero length and no direction.
1.2.5 Unit Vectors
A unit vector in space is a vector of length 1. The lengths of the

standard unit vectors are
| i | | 1i 0j 0k | 12 02 02 1
| j | | 0i 1j 0k | 02 12 02 1
| k | | 0i 0j 1k | 02 02 12 1
confirming that the standard unit vectors are indeed unit vectors. If v
0, then v/| v | is a unit vector in the direction of v.
EXAMPLE
Example 1.11: Finding a Unit Vector

Find a unit vector u in the direction of the vector from P1(1, 0, 1)
to P2(3, 2, 0).
Solution 1.11:
We divide P1 P2 by its length:
P1P2 (3 1)i (2 0)j (0 1)k 2i 2j k
| P1 P2 | (2)2 (2)2 ( 1)2 3
P1 P2
| P1 P2 |
2i 2j k 2 2 1
i j k .
3
3 3 3
1.2.6 Length and Direction

THEORY
As in the plane, if v 0 is a nonzero vector in space, then v/| v | is a unit

vector in the direction of v. The equation expresses v as a product of its
length and direction.
v |v|
Length
EXAMPLE
v
|v|
(1.15)
Direction
Example 1.12: Velocity as Speed Times Direction

Express the velocity vector v = i 2j + 3k of a projectile as a
product of its speed and direction.
Solution 1.12:
As in the plane, speed is the magnitude of the velocity vector,
and we have v (1)2 ( 2)2 (3)2 14 , then,
v
|v|
i 2j 3k
14
14
v | v |
Interpret
If distance is measured in meter
and time in seconds, then the
speed of the object is 14 m/s
and it is moving in the direction
of the unit vector
1 14 i 2 14 j 3 14 k .
IMPORTANT
2
3
14
i
j
k
14
14
14
= (length of v) (direction of v)
KE05503 Calculus II
EXAMPLE
Example 1.13: A Force Vector

A force of 6 N is applied in the direction of the vector v = 2i + 2j k.
Express the force F as a product of its length and direction.
Solution 1.13:
The force vector is
F6
v
|v|
2i 2 j k
2 2 2 ( 1) 2
2
2
1
2
6 i j k .
3
3
3
1.2.7 Distance and Spheres in Space

The distance between two points P1, and P2 in space is the length of
P1 P2 . The Distance Between P1(x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2),
| P1 P2 | ( x 2 x 1 )2 ( y2 y1 )2 ( z 2 z1 )2
(1.16)
FORMULA
Example 1.14: Finding the Distance Between Two Points

Find the distance between P1(2, 1, 5) and P2(2, 3, 0).
EXAMPLE
Solution 1.14:
| P1 P2 | ( 2 2)2 (3 1)2 (0 5)2
16 4 25
45 3 5
F IGURE 1.20:
The sphere
( x x 0 )2 ( y y0 )2
( z z0 )2 a2
We use the distance formula for spheres in space (Figure 1.20). A point
P(x, y, z) lies on the sphere of radius a centered at P0(x0, y0, z0) precisely
when | P1 P2 | a or ( x x 0 )2 ( y y0 )2 ( z z 0 )2 a2 . The Standard
Equation for the Sphere of Radius a and Center (x0, y0, z0),
( x x 0 )2 ( y y0 )2 ( z z 0 )2 a2 .
FORMULA
EXAMPLE
(1.17)
Example 1.15: Finding the Center and Radius of a Sphere

Find the center and radius of the sphere
x 2 y 2 z 2 3x 4z 1 0 .
Solution 1.15:
We find the center and radius of a sphere the way we find the
center and radius of a circle: Complete the squares on the x-, y-,
and z-terms as necessary and write each quadratic as a squared
linear expression. Then, from the equation in standard form,
read off the center and radius. For the sphere here, we have
x 2 y 2 z 2 3x 4z 1 0
( x 2 3x ) y 2 ( z 2 z ) 1
2
2
2
2
2
x 3x 3 y 2 z 2 4z 4 1 3 4
2
2
2 2
KE05503 Calculus II
3
21
2
2
x y z 2
2
4
From this standard form, we read that x0 = 3/2, y0 = 0, z0 = 2,

and a 21 / 2.
The center is (3/2,0,2).
The radius is 21 / 2.
1.2.8 Midpoints
The coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment are found by

averaging.
The midpoint M of the line segment joining points P1(x1, y1, z1)
and P2(x2, y2, z2) is the point
x 1 x 2 y1 y 2 z 1 z 2
,
,
.
2
2
2
(1.18)
FORMULA
To see why, observe (Figure 1.21) that
FIGURE 1.21:
The coordinates of the midpoint are the averages of the coordinates of
P 1, and P 2.
OM OP1 12 ( P1 P2 ) OP1 12 (OP2 OP1 )

12 (OP1 OP2 )
x1 x2
y y2
z z2
i 1
j 1
k
2
2
2
Example 1.16: Finding Midpoints

Find the midpoint of the segment joining P1(3, 2, 0) and P2(7, 4, 4).
EXAMPLE
Solution 1.16:
The midpoint is
37 2 4 0 4
,
,
(5,1,2) .
2
2
2
KE05503 Calculus II
TUTORIAL QUESTION 1.1 [20 marks]

TUTORIAL
(a)
What are the two conditions must be applied if two

different vectors are equal?
2 marks
(i) Let A = (1, 2), B = (5, 3), C = (7, 5), and D = (3, 4). Show
that the vectors AB and DC are equal.
2 marks
(ii) Hence or otherwise, prove that ABCD is a
parallelogram.
4 marks
(b)
LNK is a triangle. M is a point lies on the line LN where LN

= 4LM. E is a point lies on the line KM where KM = 3EM. F
is a point lies on the line KN where KN = 3KF. It is given
that LM u and LK v .
(i) Find LF and EN in the term of u and v.
4 marks
(ii) Prove that the point L, E, and F lie on the same line.
3 marks
(c)
An airplane is flying in the direction 10 east of south at

600 km/h. Find the component form of the velocity of the
airplane, assuming that the positive x-axis represents due
east and the positive y-axis represent due north.
5 marks
TUTORIAL ANSWER 1.1

(a) Magnitude and direction of both vectors should be the same
(i) AB = DC = 4i + j, [Give reasons]
(ii) [Show the steps-working]
(b)
2
3
1
3
(i) [Plot the triangle] LF (2u v ) , EN (10u v ) .

(ii) [Show the parallel vector and common point]
(c) 104 .189 ,590 .885
KE05503 Calculus II
TUTORIAL SOLUTION 1.1

TUTORIAL
(a)
Two different vectors are equal only if they have equal

length (magnitude) and equal direction (slope).
2 marks
(i)
AB AO OB
OB OA
(5i 3j) (i 2 j)
4i j
DC DO OC
OC OD
(7i 5j) (3i 4 j)
4i j
AB DC
Hence, it has been shown that AB and DC are equal.

2 marks
(a)
(ii)
AD AO OD
OD OA
(3i 4 j) (i 2 j)
2i 2j
BC BO OC
OC OB
(7i 5j) (5i 3j)
2i 2j
AD BC AB DC ABCD is a parallelogram.
4 marks
(b)
(i)
LF LK KF
LK 13 KN
LK 13 KL LN
v~ 1 v~ 4u~
2
3
2u~ v~
EN EM MN
1
3
KM 3LM
13 KL LM 3LM
1 v~ u~ 3u~
3
1
3
10u~ v~
4 marks
KE05503 Calculus II

TUTORIAL
(b)
(ii)
LE LM ME
LM 13 MK
LM 13 ML LK
u~ 1 u~ v~
1
3
2u~ v~
As shown in (b) (i) LF 23 2u~ v~ , LE // LF where

LE k LF k 2 .
Therefore, it can be proved that L, E, F lie on the

same line as LE // LF with L be the common point.
3 marks
(c)
10 east of south equivalent to

270 + 10 = 280 north of east
Therefore, the component form of the velocity of the

airplane is
600 cos 280 , sin 280
104.189,590.885
5 marks
KE05503 Calculus II

TUTORIAL
(a)
By applying the parallelogram law of addition vectors to a

triangle of vector u, v and w,
(i) Show using graphical method, w u v .
1 mark
(ii) Derive the formula of magnitude for the vector of
w w1i w2 j w3k by applying the Pythagorean Theorem to
the right angles.
5 marks
(iii) Hence or otherwise, express the vector 9i 2j 6k as a
product of its length and direction.
4 marks
(b)
Suppose that A, B, and C are the corner points of the thin

triangular plate of constant density shown in Figure T1.1
Figure T1.1
(i) Find the vector from C to the midpoint M of side AB.
4 marks
(ii) Find the vector from C to the centre of mass that lies on
the median CM.
2 marks
(iii) Find the coordinates of the point in which the median
of triangle ABC intersect.
4 marks
TUTORIAL ANSWER 1.2
(a)
(i) [Refer to notes]
(ii) [Refer to notes]
2
6
9
i j k
11 11 11
(iii) 11
(b)
3
3
i j 3k
2
2
(ii) i j 2k
(i)
(iii) (2, 2, 1)
KE05503 Calculus II

TUTORIAL
(a)
(i)
wuv
1 mark
(a)
(ii)
Change v v1i v2 j v3k to w w1i w2 j w3k .
| AC |
w12 w2 2 ,
| w | | w1i w2 j w3k |
|AD|
|AC|2 |CD|2
w1 2 w2 2 w3 2
5 marks
(a)
(iii)
Magnitude = | 9i 2 j 6k |
= 9 2 ( 2 ) 2 6 2
= 11
Unit Vector =
9
2
6
i j k
11 11
11
2
6
9
9i 2 j 6k 11 i j k .
11 11 11
4 marks
KE05503 Calculus II

TUTORIAL
(b)
(i)
The midpoint of AB is M , ,0 .
5 5
2 2
CM CO OM
5 5
1i 1 j 0 3k
2 2
3
3
i j 3k
2
2
(b)
(ii)
The desired vector is

=
4 marks
2
CM
3
23
3
i j 3k
32
2
= i j 2k
2 marks
(b)
(iii)
The vector whose sum is the vector from the origin

to C and the result of part (ii) will terminate at the
centre of mass.
The terminal point of i j 3k + i j 2k
= 2i 2j k is the point 2,2,1 which is the location of
the centre of the mass.
4 marks
KE05503 Calculus II

TUTORIAL
(a)
Let OA a , OB b , OP p , where P is a point located on the

line AB.
a b
(i) If AP , prove that p
.
PB
4 marks
(ii) If
m
1
AP PB, ( m n ) , prove that p
( na mb ) .
mn
n
4 marks
(iii) Hence or otherwise, find P if P divides A and B in the
ratio of 2:3.
4 marks
(b)
A bird flies from its nest 5 km in the direction 60 north of

east, where it stops to rest on a tree. It then flies 10 km in
the direction due southeast and lands atop a telephone
pole. Place an xy -coordinate system so that the origin is
the birds nest, the x -axis points east, and the y -axis
points north.
(i) At what point is the tree located?
4 marks
(ii) At what point is the telephone pole?

4 marks
TUTORIAL ANSWER 1.3
(a)
(i) [Prove - Refer to solution]
(ii) [Prove - Refer to solution]
(iii)
1
3a 2b
5
(b)
5 5 3
(i) ,
2 2
5 10 2 5 3 10 2
,
(ii)
2
2
KE05503 Calculus II

TUTORIAL
(a)
(i)
OP OB BP
1
OB
BA
1
1
a b
1
a b
p b
(a)
(ii)
AP
4 marks
m
BP
n
BP n 1
m
a b
n
p
m
1
n
1
na mb
mn
AP
4 marks
(a)
(iii)
Use the equation from (ii),

let m 2, n 3 .
1
3a 2b
23
1
3a 2b
5
4 marks
KE05503 Calculus II

TUTORIAL
(b)
2 marks
(b)
(i)
The tree is located at the tip of the vector OP

= 5 cos60 i 5 sin 60 j
=
5
5 3
i
j
2
2
5 5 3
.
P ,
2 2
3 marks
(b)
(ii)
The telephone pole is located at the point Q, OQ

which is the tip of the vector OP BQ
= 5 cos60 i 5 sin 60 j + 10 cos315 i 10 sin 315 j
10 2
5
5 3
10 2
i
i
j +
j
2
2
2
2
= 5 10 2 i 5 3 10 2 j
2 2
2
2
3 2 2 .
5
5
Q 1 2 2 ,
2
2
3 marks
KE05503 Calculus II

TUTORIAL
(a)
PQRS is a polygon, where A, B, C, and D are the midpoint of

PQ, QR, RS, SP.
(i) Prove that ABCD is a parallelogram.
5 marks
(ii) If E is the midpoint of CD, BE intercepts AC at F, prove
that AF = 2FC.
(Hint: Let AF 2 FC , show that B, E, and F are on the same
line)
5 marks
(b)
Find the unit vectors that are tangent and normal to the
curve y x 2 at (2,4) . Then sketch the vectors and curve
together.
5 marks
(c)
Find the unit vectors that are tangent and normal to the
curve x 2 2 y 2 6 at (2,1) . Then sketch the vectors and curve
together.
5 marks
TUTORIAL ANSWER 1.4

(a)
(i) [Prove - Refer to solution]
(ii) [Prove - Refer to solution]
(b)
1
i
17
4
j,n
i
17
17
1
i
17
4
i
Normal, n
17
Tangent, u
17
1
j,u
4
17
1
17
j,
j,
[Sketch - Refer to solution]

(c)
Tangent, u
Normal, n
1
1
2
j,u
j, n
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
j,
j,
[Sketch - Refer to solution]
KE05503 Calculus II

TUTORIAL
(a)
(i)
Let
a~ 12 ( ~
p q~)
~
b 12 (q~ ~
r)
~
~
~
1
c (r s )
2
~
d 12 (~
s~
p)
~
AD d a~
12 (~
s~
p) 12 ( ~
p q~)
~~
~)
12 (q
r ) 12 ( ~
pq
1 (~
s q~)
~
AB b a~
~
BC c~ b
12 (~
r ~
s ) 12 (q~ ~
r)
12 (~
r ~
s ) 12 (~
s~
p)
~
~
1
(s q )
~
DC c~ d
12 (~
r~
p)
12 (~
r~
p)
AD BC AB DC ABCD is a parallelogram.
5 marks
(a)
(ii)
AF k AC (1)
BF m BE (2)
From (1),
AF AB BF
k AC AB BF
Sub (2) into (1)
k AB BC u~ m BE
k u~ v~ u~ m v~ 1 u~
Compare the coefficient of u~ and v~

k 1 12 m
km
2
3
2
AF AC
3
2
2
AF FC
3
3
AF 2 FC
A, F, C lie on the same line as AF // FC with F be the

common point.
5 marks
KE05503 Calculus II

TUTORIAL
(b)
dy
2 x | x 2 4
dx
i 4j is tangent to the curve at (2, 4)
Therefore the unit tangent vectors are

u
17
17
j,u
17
17
j;
Therefore the unit normal vectors are

n
17
17
j,n
17
17
j.
5 marks
(c)
dy
0
dx
dy
2x
| x2, y 1 1
dx
4y
2x 4 y
i j is tangent to the curve at (2, 1)
Therefore the unit tangent vectors are

u
1
2
j,u
1
2
j;
Therefore the unit normal vectors are

n
1
2
1
2
j, n
1
2
1
2
j.
5 marks
KE05503 Calculus II

1.1 Vectors in The Plane (2-D)

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1.1 Vectors in The Plane (2-D)

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Chapter 1: Fundamental Vectors 1-1

1.1 Vectors in the Plane (2-D)

1) Some of the things we measure are determined by their magnitudes.

1.1.1 Equal Vectors

A quantity such as force, displacement, or velocity is represented by a

Example 1.1: Showing Vectors are Equal

Chapter 1: Fundamental Vectors 1-2

We use the distance formula to find their lengths.

Next we calculate the slopes of the two line segments.

1.1.2 Component Form

Let v PQ . There is one directed line segment equivalent to PQ whose

Thus, a vector in the plane is also an ordered pair

numbers. The numbers v 1 and v 2 are the components of v . The vector

v1 , v2 is called the position vector of the point v1 , v2 .

is represented by the directed line

segment PQ , where the initial point is P x 1 , y1 and the terminal point

In summary, given the points P x 1 , y1 and Q x 2 , y 2 , the position

1.1.3 Magnitude and Length

Chapter 1: Fundamental Vectors 1-3

Example 1.2: Finding the Component Form and Length

1.5). The component form of PQ is v 2,2 .

Example 1.3: Force Moving a Cart

1.1.4 Zero Vector and Unit Vectors

Any vector v of length 1 is a unit vector. If v v1 ,v2 makes an angle

As varies from 0 to 2, the terminal point of a unit vector v traces the

1.1.5 Vector Algebra Operations

Definitions Vector Addition and Multiplication

Scalar multiplication: ku = ku1 , ku 2

Chapter 1: Fundamental Vectors 1-4

The definition of vector addition is illustrated geometrically in Figure

| ku | (ku1 )2 (ku2 )2 k 2 (u1 u2 )

Note that (u v) + v = u, so adding the vector ( u v) to v gives u

Example 1.4: Operations on Vectors

Vector operations have many of the properties of ordinary arithmetic.

Chapter 1: Fundamental Vectors 1-5

1.1.6 Properties of Vector Operations

Example 1.5: Finding Ground Speed and Direction

| u v | 5352 (35 3 )2 538.4

Chapter 1: Fundamental Vectors 1-6

1.1.7 Standard Unit Vectors

Any vector v a , b in the plane can be written as a linear combination

The vector v is a linear combination of the vectors i and j; the scalar a

Example 1.6: Expressing Vectors as Linear Combinations of i & j

1.1.8 Length and Direction

Example 1.7: Expressing Velocity as Speed Times Direction

The vector v/ | v | (unit vector) has the same direction as v:

Length (speed) Direction of motion

Generally, if v 0, then its length | v | is not zero and

That is, v/| v | is a unit vector in the direction of v.

Chapter 1: Fundamental Vectors 1-7

1.1.9 Tangents and Normals

Example 1.8: Finding Vectors Tangent and Normal to a Curve

The vector u is tangent to the curve at (1, 1) because it has the

Chapter 1: Fundamental Vectors 1-8

1.2 Vectors in the Space (3-D)

To locate points in space, we use three mutually perpendicular

Example 1.9: Interpreting Equations and Inequalities

The half-space consisting of the points on

Example 1.10: Graphing Equations

x 2 y 2 4 , z = 3" (Figure 1.16).

Chapter 1: Fundamental Vectors 1-9

1.2.2 Vectors in Space

point v 1 , v 2 , v 3 . The vector from the initial point P1 x 1 , y1 , z1 to the