Reminders / Announcements

ALEKS Objective #5 is due Sunday

Pre-lab #3 is due today.
Midterm #1 has being graded (mostly)

More

70

68

66

64

62

60

58

56

54

52

50

48

46

44

42

40

38

36

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

50

Midterm 1 scores

60

Avg. = 61.5/70 (88%)

SD = 7.1
Max 70 (50)

40

30

20

10

Methods for Quantifying How Much Solute

is in a Solvent

(b)

A quick note on parts per notation

One part per hundred (%): One part per 100 parts
Equivalent to one drop of water diluted into 5 milliliters (one
spoon-full) or one second of time in 1 minutes.
One part per million (ppm): One part per 1,000,000 parts
Equivalent to one drop of water diluted into 50 liters or one
second of time in approximately 11 days.
One part per billion (ppb): One part per 1,000,000,000 parts
Equivalent to 1 drop of water diluted into 250 chemical drums
(50 m3), or one second of time in approximately 31.7 years.
One part per trillion (ppt): One part per 1,000,000,000,000 parts
Equivalent to 1 drop of water diluted into 20, two-meter-deep
Olympic-size swimming pools (50,000 m3), or one second of
time in approximately 31,700 years.

Remember !!
Concentrations are ratios. They are not additive!
Volumes are additive: V(total) = V1 + V2 + V3 +
(in general)
Masses are additive:

m(total) = m1 + m2+ m3 +

Moles are additive:

n(total) = n1 + n2 + n3 +

Concentrations are not additive: c = c1 + c2 + c3 +

Molality vs. Molarity

In 142 you learned how to calculate molarity:
mol of solute/volume (L)
Molality is a similar measure of concentration, but has form:
mol of solute / kg solvent
Molality is based on mass, so is independent of temperature
or pressure (things that might change volume).
Mass (g) of solute
MM (g/mole)
Mole of solute

Since the density of

water is 1 g/mL (1 kg/L),
for dilute aqueous
solutions, molarity and
molality are essentially
the same.

divide by kg solvent (usually water)

Molality (b) of solution

Like Dissolves Like!

Polar/Ionic solutes - dissolve best in polar solvents.
Why? Strong dipole-dipole intermolecular interactions
increases solubility.

Non-polar solutes - dissolve best in non-polar solvents.

Why? To dissolve a non-polar molecule in a polar
solvent requires breaking strong dipole-dipole
interactions of the solvent!

Key Point: For dissolving to occur, forces created

between solute and solvent must be
comparable in strength to the forces destroyed
within both.

What Affects Solubility?

Structure
Whether a solute is hydrophobic or hydrophilic
Pressure
Little effect on solids or liquids
LARGE effect on gases
Temperature
Tricky to predict with solids and liquids (though
the process of dissolving is always faster with
higher temperature).
Gas solubility always decreases with increasing
temperature (think warm soda yuck!)

Structure Affects Solubility

Effect of Structure on Solubility

Nonpolar, fat-soluble
(builds up in fatty tissues
pros and cons!)

Polar, water-soluble
(must be consumed
regularly pros and
cons!)

Other examples:
Vitamins D, E, and K (fat soluble); Vitamin B (water-soluble)
DDT pesticide (fat soluble)
Dioxins group of molecules , herbicides and pollutants (fat
soluble)
BaSO4 gastroenterology, enhances X-rays (insoluble)

Predicting Relative Solubilities of Substances

Problem: Predict which solvent will dissolve more of the given
solute.
(a) Sodium Chloride
in methanol (CH3OH) or in propanol (CH3CH2CH2OH).
(b) Ethylene glycol (HOCH2CH2OH)
in water or in hexane (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3).
(c) Diethyl ether (CH3CH2OCH2CH3)
in ethanol (CH3CH2OH) or in water.
Plan: Examine each solute and solvent to determine which
intermolecular forces will be active.
A solute tends to be more soluble in a solvent that has the same
type of intermolecular forces active.

Predicting Relative Solubilities of Substances

Problem: Predict which solvent will dissolve more of the given
solute.
(a) Sodium Chloride in methanol (CH3OH) or in propanol
(CH3CH2CH2OH).
Solution:
Methanol - NaCl is an ionic compound that dissolves
through ion-dipole forces. Both methanol and propanol
contain a polar O-H group, but propanols longer
hydrocarbon chain would interact only weakly with the
ions and be less effective in stabilizing the ions.

Predicting Relative Solubilities of Substances

Problem: Predict which solvent will dissolve more of the given
solute.
(b) Ethylene glycol (HOCH2CH2OH) in water or in hexane
(CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3).
Solution:
Water - Ethylene glycol has two O-H groups and is
stabilized by extensive H-bonding in water.
(c) Diethyl ether (CH3CH2OCH2CH3) in ethanol (CH3CH2OH) or
in water.
Solution:
Ethanol - Diethyl ether shows both dipolar and dispersion
intermolecular forces and could form H bonds to both
water and ethanol. The ether would be more soluble in
ethanol because solvation in water must disrupt
many more strong H-bonding interactions.

Effect of Temperature on Solubility

Solubility increases with increasing temperature if the
solution process is endothermic:
Solute + Solvent + Heat

Solution

Solubility decreases with increasing temperature if the

solution process is exothermic:
Solute + Solvent

Solution + Heat

Recall Le Chteliers Principle

Effect of Temperature on Solubility

Predicting the temperature

dependence of solubility (of
solids) is very difficult. The
rate of dissolution might
increase with temperature,
but the total amount of
solute that will dissolve with
increasing/decreasing
temperature is
unpredictable. (You have to
do an experiment!)

Gas Solubility
The solubility of gases
always decreases with
temperature.
Pressure also affects gas
solubility

Increase in gas solubility with increased pressure

At
equilibrium

Increase in P
(and rate of
dissolution)

Increase in [gas
dissolved]

Henrys Law
The amount of gas dissolved in a solution is directly proportional
to the pressure of the gas above the solution.
P = kHx
P: partial pressure of the gaseous
solute above the solution
x: mole fraction of the dissolved
gas
kH: a constant characteristic of a
particular solution

Henrys Law - Lake Nyos in Cameroon

CO2 buildup in colder, denser water layers near lakes bottom (high
pressure, large mole fraction); overturn in 1986 sent water
supersaturated with CO2 to the surface and released an enormous
amount of CO2 into the area, suffocating thousands of humans and
animals

The formation of solutions from pure

substances is generally always favored by
ENTROPY*
When two pure substances are mixed, the disorder of
the system is increased
As with any chemical reaction, solvation is a balance
between enthalpy and entropy

Gibbs Free Energy

G = H - TS
*Small, highly charged ions going into water sometimes results in a more ordered state.

A quantitative description of solvation:

The Solution Cycle

A quantitative description of solvation:

The Solution Cycle
Step 1: Solute separates into components - overcoming
attractions in order to expand and make room for solvent -Endothermic
Step 2: Solvent expands - overcoming intermolecular
attractions to spread out and make room for the solute -Endothermic
solvent (aggregated) + heat
solvent (separated)
DHsolvent > 0
Step 3: Solute and Solvent particles mix - particles attract
each other and give off energy as they interact -- Exothermic
solute (separated) + solvent (separated)
solution + heat
DHmix < 0

The Solution Cycle

(a) Steps in an Exothermic Reaction

(b) Steps in an Endothermic Reaction