9.

4 CHEMICAL MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT

1. Much of the work of chemists involves monitoring the reactants
and products of reactions and managing reaction conditions.
1.2.1 Outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry or enterprise,
identifying the branch of chemistry undertaken by the chemist and explaining a
chemical principle that the chemist uses.
1.2.2 Identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and
analyse data.
1.3.1 Gather, process and present information from secondary sources about the
work of practising scientists identifying: the variety of chemical occupations, a
specific occupation for a more detailed study.
Environmental chemists use special techniques to monitor pollution in air, chemical spills,
surveying land and water pollution. They usually work for the Government or private companies
to ensure they comply with environmental guidelines.
Metallurgical chemists study metals, alloys and their properties. They also research in the
development of new alloys and optimise their production. These chemists work for companies
such as BHP.
Inorganic chemists research the synthesis of inorganic chemicals such as ammonia, acids and
nitrates. Organic chemists research the synthesis of organic chemicals such as solvents, soaps
and hydrocarbons. Both types of chemists are widely employed in the chemical industry.
Biochemists study the chemical interactions within living things. They research the effects of
certain chemicals on living things to evaluate their potential toxicity. They may work for
Government departments, pharmaceutical or agricultural industries.
Polymer chemists investigate the properties of polymers and their development. They aim to
improve the structures and alter the properties of polymers to create new products. They can
work for industrial companies, government agencies and universities.
An organic chemist, working in a linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) factory, for example,
may have to:

use computers to predict the properties of the polymer based on different monomers,
temperature and catalyst.
constantly monitor the equipment to ensure the required conditions and the purity of the
reagents are maintained. An impurity may contaminate the catalyst, slow the reaction or
stop it altogether. A change in the purity of the reagents may lower the quality of and/or
change the properties of the polymer.
carry out quality control processes to ensure the product satisfies. A test of viscosity
would indicate if the polyethylene is suitable to be used as a thin-layer film. A test of
density would indicate the level of branching in the molecule.
evaluate the processes by the research and development of the product including
problems of contamination, bagging of product, the flow rate through the extruder and the
economy of production. This is why collaboration of data is necessary between chemists,
chemical engineers and technicians.

-I-

1.2.3 Describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion, where

reactants form different products under different conditions and thus would need
monitoring.
The combustion of petrol in an internal combustion engine produces different products depending
on the abundance of oxygen. In a plentiful supply, the octane burns completely to produce carbon
dioxide and water:
2C8H18(l) +

50O2(g)

16CO2(g)

18H2O(l)

If the supply of oxygen is less abundant, the reaction undergoes incomplete combustion. This will
produce, depending on the oxygen supply, carbon monoxide and carbon (soot):
2C8H18(l) +

17O2(g)

16CO(g)

9H2O(l)

2C8H18(l) +

9O2(g)

16C(s)

9H2O(l)

Different driving conditions, such as stop-starting, idling and speeding, produce different
conditions for combustion. Since carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, carbon monoxide is a toxic
gas and soot is a carcinogenic substance, and to minimise environmental pollution, chemical
engineers that work in the automotive industry have to monitor the levels of these gases.

- II -

2. Chemical processes in industry require monitoring

and management to maximise production.
2.2.1 Identify and describe the industrial uses of ammonia.
Ammonia (NH3) is a very important industrial chemical. Most of the ammonia manufactured is
used to make fertilisers such as ammonium nitrate and urea. Ammonia can be oxidised to
produce nitric acid for the manufacture of explosives such as nitroglycerine. It is also used in the
production of plastics such as PAN and nylon as well as being used as a refrigerant gas.
Domestically it is used as a cleaning agent and disinfectant.
2.2.2 Identify that ammonia can be synthesised from its component gases, nitrogen
and hydrogen.
2.2.3 Describe that the synthesis of ammonia occurs as a reversible reaction that
will reach equilibrium.
2.2.4 Identify the reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen as exothermic.
Ammonia is manufactured by the Haber process, where nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas are
reacted using an iron catalyst to form ammonia gas. This reaction is a reversible exothermic
equilibrium:
N2(g)

3H2(g)

2NH3(g)

H = 92kJ

2.2.5 Explain why the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures.

2.2.6 Explain why the yield of product in the Haber process is reduced at higher
temperatures using Le Chateliers Principle.
Using collision theory, we can deduce that as the temperatures increase, the kinetic energy
between the molecules of gas increases, thus creating more successful collisions. This in turn
increases the rate of reaction.
Under Le Chateliers Principle, if the temperature of an equilibrium system is increased, the
endothermic reaction is favoured. Since the production of ammonia is the exothermic reaction,
thus its yield will be reduced.
2.2.7 Explain why the Haber process is based on a delicate balancing act involving
reaction energy, reaction rate and equilibrium.
The balancing act is a balance of temperature against reaction rate and against the yield of the
product. A high temperature would reduce the yield but a low temperature would not provide
enough activation energy for the reaction to occur. A moderate temperature is thus used with a
catalyst so a lowered activation energy is reached. This combination allows a greater yield than a
high temperature alone.
2.2.8 Explain that the use of a catalyst will lower the reaction temperature required
and identify the catalyst(s) used in the Haber process.
The reaction between hydrogen and nitrogen is very slow at room temperature since nitrogen is
an unreactive molecule with a strong triple covalent bond. A catalyst will lower the reaction
temperature required (since too high a temperature is economically impractical and will reduce
yield of ammonia). The catalyst used in the Haber process is an iron catalyst, Fe 3O4, allows the
reaction to run at a moderate temperature of about 450 550C.

- III -

2.2.9 Analyse the impact of increased pressure on the system involved in the Haber
process.
High pressure drives the molecules together, increasing the rates of reaction. Since the system is
in equilibrium, with both reagents and products being gases, the Le Chateliers Principle predicts
that increased pressure on the system will favour the reaction with the lower number of moles.
Thus the ammonia-forming reaction is favoured, and the yield is increased. Increased pressure is
used in the Haber process, about 15 25MPa (150 250 atmospheres).
2.2.10 Explain why monitoring of the reaction vessel used in the Haber process is
crucial and discuss the monitoring required.
The continual monitoring of the reaction vessel of the Haber process is crucial. Automatic
monitors measure a variety of conditions, mainly temperature and pressure of the reaction vessel
and the stoichiometric ratio of the gases.
The ratio of the gases is necessary to ensure maximum yield from the reagents. The temperature
is recorded to maintain maximum efficiency of the yield and so that the heat generated by the
exothermic reaction can be fed back to maintain the temperature. Pressure of the vessel is
monitored for safety reasons and to maintain a high yield. The catalyst is also monitored to
ensure that it is not poisoned by gases such as CO which are by-products of the hydrogen
production process.
2.3.1 Gather and process information from secondary sources to describe the
conditions under which Haber developed the industrial synthesis of ammonia and
evaluate its significance at that time in world history.
Fritz Haber was born in 1868 in Prussia, the son of a prosperous German chemical merchant.
After his education, Haber left his fathers business to study organic chemistry at the University of
Jena. At the age of 25, Haber began teaching and researching physical chemistry and quickly
gained recognition for his research into electrochemistry and thermodynamics.
During the first decade of the twentieth century, world-wide demand for nitrogen-based fertilisers
was exceeding supply. The largest source for fertiliser production was the huge guano (sea bird
droppings) deposits on the coast of Chile. Many scientists desired to solve the problem on this
fast disappearing supply of ammonia and nitrogenous compounds.
Haber invented his process for the large-scale production of ammonia from nitrogen and
hydrogen gas, both of which are abundant and inexpensive. By using a moderate temperature
(~500C), high pressure (~30MPa), an iron catalyst, he, together with Carl Bosch, a chemical
engineer, was able to force the relatively unreactive gases to combine into ammonia. By this
breakthrough many further products, such as fertilisers and explosives could be made.
During the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Haber was placed in charge of a research centre for
chemistry and physics, and placed his services before the German government. For the duration
of the war, Haber, a loyalist to his country, produced many breakthroughs that helped sustain
Germany.
The significance of the Haber process is enormous, because gave Germany, though it was
landlocked, the essential raw materials for the production of fertilisers, for the growing of crops,
and of nitric acid, the basis of explosives. In this way, Haber allowed Germany to be independent
of Chile and other countries, and shouldered the German military machine with his achievements
for four years. Without him, Germany would have never had a chance to win the war.

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3. Manufactured products, including food, drugs and household

chemicals,
are analysed to determine or ensure their chemical composition.
3.2.1 Deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests.
3.3.1 Perform first-hand investigations to carry out a range of tests, including flame
tests, to identify the following ions: phosphate, sulfate, carbonate, chloride,
barium, calcium, lead, copper, iron.

CATION

PRECIPITATE TESTS

FLAME TEST

Barium Ion (Ba2+)

forms white ppt with CO32,

SO42 and PO43
forms no ppt with OH

Lime-green flame when

barium nitrate soln. was
sprayed into bunsen flame
Brick-red flame when
calcium nitrate soln. was
sprayed into bunsen flame

Calcium Ion (Ca2+)

forms white ppt with SO42,

OH and PO43

Lead Ion (Pb2+)

forms white ppt with Cl, OH

CO32, SO42 and PO43

Copper Ion (Cu2+)

tested with NH3(aq) to

form a deep blue solution
forms pale-blue ppt with OH

Iron(II) Ion (Fe2+)

forms a white ppt with OH

which quickly turns brown
forms with thiocyanate ions
(SCN) to form a blood red
soln. (FeSCN2+)

Iron(III) Ion (Fe3+)

Blue-green flame when

copper nitrate soln. was
sprayed into bunsen flame

ANION

PRECIPITATE TESTS

Phosphate Ion (PO43)

forms a yellow precipitate when

HNO3 and ammonium molybate
is added and the solution warmed.

Sulfate Ion (SO42)

white precipitate with barium

nitrate, calcium nitrate or lead nitrate

Carbonate Ion (CO32)

addition of acid produces CO2 gas.

all metal ions produce white precipitate.

Chloride Ion (Cl)

forms a white precipitate with AgNO3(aq)

3.3.2 Gather, process and present information to describe and explain evidence for
the need to monitor levels of one of the above ions in substances used in society.

-V-

One metal that must be monitored carefully is lead. Lead is a toxic, heavy metal. It can damage
all the organs of the body, especially the brain, kidneys and reproductive system, by disrupting
enzyme function. Lead inhibits the formation of haemoglobin in blood, causing anaemia and
reducing the ability of blood to carry oxygen. It can cause neurological damage in the brain,
especially in children.
Lead accumulates in the body and is difficult to excrete, and increases in concentration in the
higher end of the food chain (a process called biomagnification). Its accumulation in air has been
caused by the (now-ceased practice of) addition of lead into petrol, the mining and refining of lead
and deterioration of lead-based paints.
The health and environmental destruction of lead makes it very necessary and important to
monitor lead ion levels in our atmosphere, water, food and soil.
3.2.2 Describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in detecting
concentrations of metal ions in solutions and assess its impact on scientific
understanding of the effects of trace elements.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is an important technique in measuring the concentrations
of metal ions in very minute quantities. In atomic spectroscopy a liquid sample containing the
metal ion to be tested is aspirated through a plastic tube into a flame hot enough to vaporise the
molecules into atoms. A cathode lamp of the specific metal passes through the vaporised sample.
A detector measures the amount passing through the flame and gives out the absorbance
(amount absorbed) reading.
The basis of AAS is the result of the electron structure of the atom. Under quantum theory,
electrons move to higher or lower energy levels by absorbing or releasing electromagnetic
radiation of a particular frequency. Since each element has a different set of electron energy
levels, each has its own set of absorption lines. The greater the concentration of the metal ion,
the more radiation is absorbed and the less reaches the detector. According to the Beel-Lambert
Law, the amount of light absorbed is proportional to the amount of a substance present. A
calibration graph using solutions of known concentrations allows the concentration of the
unknown to be determined.
The development of the AAS has allowed chemists to measure accurately and rapidly
concentrations of metal ions in water systems and in animals and plants. Such has lead to our
understanding of trace elements, those elements which are required by living things in very
minute quantities. Prior to this understanding, there were instances where animals had health
problems in seemingly good pastureland due to deficiencies in cobalt and human illnesses, due
to lack of trace elements in their diet, could not be diagnosed. Now, with atomic absorption
spectroscopy, these problems are easily and effectively rectified.
3.3.3 Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to
measure the sulfate content of lawn fertiliser and explain the chemistry involved.
3.3.4 Analyse information to evaluate the reliability 1 of the results of the above
investigation and to propose solutions to problems encountered in the procedure.
A sample of fertiliser containing (NH 4)2SO4 was crushed by a mortar and pestle and weighed to a
mass of 10 grams. It was then dissolved in a beaker of warm water. Ba(NO 3)2 was added dropby-drop in excess until no more white precipitate of BaSO 4 will form. The precipitate was then
filtered with extra-fine filter paper or a suction-filter, dried and weighed. The sulfate content was
then calculated.

My tutor suggests this dot-point would be better expressed as evaluate the validity.

- VI -

The chemistry of this experiment is totally valid 2; we attempt to precipitate the sulfate ions in the
fertiliser with an excess of barium ions. The solubility of BaSO 4 is very low so the remaining SO42
in solution is negligible. So we assume, without loss of any significant precision, that all the SO 42
precipitates as BaSO4. Upon weighing the amount of BaSO4 formed, we can calculate how much
SO42 in original sample.
Like all other gravimetric experiments, extreme care is needed to be able to repeat similar results.
To ensure no loss of the original fertiliser, or BaSO4 when weighing, the experiment must be
conducted in a room free of fans or draught. Another problem encountered is the minute size of
the BaSO4 crystals, making it very difficult to filter. To counter this, we add concentrated HCl acid
which is somewhat adsorbed onto the BaSO 4 surface during precipitation. This makes the surface
of microcrystals slightly charged and hence attracts other charged microcrystals. This helps the
microcrystals to coagulate into larger crystals which would not pass right through the sintered
glass funnel. However, there are surely crystals that pass through and this is the main source of
error. Of course, the repetitions conducted, more reliable the results become.
3.3.5 Gather, process and present information to interpret secondary data from AAS
measurements and evaluate the effectiveness of this in pollution control.
In the University of Sydneys High School Chemistry Workshop, an AAS machine was
demonstrated to us and used to test the concentration of Fe 2+ ions in various samples of water.
The results were as follows:

SOURCE OF WATER

ABSORBANCE READING

CONCENTRATION (PPM)

Tap
Creek
A rusted rainwater tank

0.003
0.0012
0.252

0.0
0.2
4.0

As can be seen, the ability of the AAS technique to measure in parts per million (ppm) allows
chemists to measure metal ions of a very low concentration. However, the AAS must be daily
calibrated with the ion to be measured for the machine to measure accurately. By monitoring the
ions that are known pollutants, atomic absorption spectroscopy is a very effective and
inexpensive method to control pollution.

4. Human activity has caused changes in

the composition and the structure of the atmosphere.
Chemists monitor these changes so that further damage can be
limited.
4.2.1 Describe the composition and layered structure of the atmosphere.
The atmosphere has a layered structure, based on the temperature increases/decreases relative
to the height. The troposphere is the layer closest to the earth, up to ~15 km above sea level,
where the temperature decreases as the altitude increases. The troposphere is the layer with the
most mass of gas (~80%), and all weather occurs in this layer. The next closest layer, the
stratosphere, extends from ~15km to ~50km altitude, where the temperature increases as the
altitude increases. The ozone layer is found in the bottom of the stratosphere. The next layer up
is the mesosphere, up to ~75km, where the temperatures fall with altitude increases. No water
vapour or ozone is present in this layer. The thermosphere is the next layer, extending to ~200km,
where temperature increases with altitude, until ~1200C. The exosphere, the furthermost layer of
the atmosphere verges into space and its limits are not defined.

Kudos to phen0l: the validity and reliability evaluation is adapted from his notes.

- VII -

4.2.2 Identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources.
Tropospheric pollutants are derived mainly from the combustion of fossil fuels in power stations,
motor vehicles and industry and emissions from the smelting and purification of minerals. Carbon
monoxide and carbon (in the form of soot) are formed from the incomplete combustion of fossil
fuels and from natural sources such as bushfires. Oxides of nitrogen are formed by lightning,
bacterial decay, emissions from combustion engines and coal-fired power-stations. Hydrocarbons
vapours are emitted from exhausts gases and landfills and natural sources, such as ruminant
animals such as cows and sheep. Sulfur dioxide is produced naturally by volcanoes and geysers
and artificially by coal-fired power-stations, combustion of fossil fuels and smelting of sulphide
metal ores.
4.2.3 Describe the ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere
UV radiation shield and a lower atmosphere pollutant.
Ozone serves as an important molecule in the upper atmosphere (the stratosphere) because,
being reactive, it absorbs UV radiation to form diatomic oxygen, and similarly, diatomic oxygen
absorbs UV radiation to form ozone:
O3(g)
ozone

UV radiation

activation energy

O2(g)
+
diatomic oxygen

O2(g)
+
diatomic oxygen

O(g)

UV radiation

oxygen radical activation energy

O(g)
oxygen radical
O3(g)
ozone

This absorption of UV radiation minimises the amount of radiation that reaches the earth. UV
radiation causes damage to the DNA of living cells (in humans the depletion of protein-53 in the
DNA strand). The damage caused interrupts the genes controlling the lifespan of cells, and in turn
produces cancerous tumours. Therefore ozone is a molecule that acts as an UV radiation shield
in the upper atmosphere.
However, in the lower atmosphere (the troposphere), ozone is seen as a pollutant because it is a
poisonous gas. Ozone causes eye irritation and in high concentrations (>0.12ppm), breathing
problems in asthmatics. Furthermore, ozone, because of its high reactivity, attacks double bonds
in molecules, especially polymers, causing their deterioration. Ozone is also a component of
photochemical smog.
4.2.4 Describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond.
The coordinate covalent bond is a bond formed by one atom donating the electron pair only. It
can be formed by a molecule reacting with its radical (i.e. an atom of the same element with
unpaired electrons). An example of this is the formation of ozone, where UV radiation, or some
other form of activation energy, causes diatomic oxygen to react with the oxygen radical to form
ozone:
O2(g)
+
diatomic oxygen

O(g)

UV radiation

oxygen radical activation energy

O3(g)
ozone

The oxygen radical bonds to a pair of electrons in one of the oxygen atoms in diatomic oxygen
molecule without sharing any of its own. This is the coordinate covalent bond of ozone.
4.2.5 Demonstrate the formation of coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis electron
dot structures.
3

Diagrams sourced from http://hsc.csu.edu.au

- VIII -

A coordinate covalent bond forms when one atom in a species (a molecule or ion containing nonmetallic atoms) provides both electrons in the covalent bond. Some ions, such as hydronium and
ammonium, contain a coordinate covalent bond. In the formation of the hydronium ion, one of the
non-bonding electron pairs on the oxygen atom is used to form a covalent bond between the
hydrogen ion (H+) and the oxygen atom.
4.2.6 Compare the properties of the oxygen allotropes of O 2 and O3 and account for
them on the basis of molecular structure and bonding.

PROPERTY

DIATOMIC OXYGEN

OZONE

Symbol
MP (C)
BP (C)
Density
Reactivity
Stability

O2
219
193
Slightly denser than air
Highly reactive
Stable

O3
183
111
~1.5 times denser than air
Very highly reactive
Dissociates readily to form O2

4.2.7 Compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free
radical.
When a diatomic oxygen molecule is split by high energy UV the atoms produced are
represented on the Lewis diagram4 by:

These energetic oxygen atoms have unpaired electrons called free radicals. The unpaired
electrons make the radical very reactive, more so than diatomic oxygen and ozone.
4.2.8 Identify the origins of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons in the
atmosphere.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons (bromofluorocarbons) were used as refrigerants in pre1980s air conditioners and refrigerators, used as propellants in spray-cans and used in the
manufacture of plastics. When molecules of these compounds were used or leaked out, they
escaped into the atmosphere.

Diagrams sourced from http://hsc.csu.edu.au

- IX -

4.2.9 Identify and name examples of isomers (excluding geometrical and optical) of
haloalkanes up to eight carbon atoms.
4.3.2 Gather, process and present information from secondary sources including
simulations, molecular model kits or pictorial representations to model isomers of
haloalkanes.
Haloalkanes are molecules that contain only carbon, hydrogen and at least one halogen (Group
VII of the Periodic Table), and single bonds. Examples of haloalkanes include:

MODEL OF MOLECULE

NAME

FORMULA

tetrachlorometh
ane

CCl4

trichloromethan
e (chloroform)

CHCl3

1,2dibromoethane

C2H4Br2

2-chloropropane

C3H7Cl

1,5-dibromo-3fluoropentane

C5H9Br2F

1-chlorobutane

C4H9Cl

-X-

1,1dibromobutane

C4H8Br2

1-iodobutane

C4H9I

4.2.10 Discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the
effectiveness of steps taken to alleviate these problems.
4.3.1 Present information from secondary sources to write the equations to show
the reactions involving CFCs and ozone to demonstrate the removal of ozone from
the atmosphere.
CFCs undergo photodissociation (reactions using the energy of light to break bonds); thereupon
they release chlorine atom radicals. It is these radicals which destroy ozone molecules:
1)

CClF3(g)

example of a CFC

UV radiation

photodissociation

CF3(g)
+
fluorocarbon radical

2)

Cl(g)
+
chlorine radical

O3(g)

ozone molecule

ClO(g)
radical

3)

ClO(g)
radical

O(g)

oxygen radical

O2(g)
+
oxygen molecule

Cl(g)
chlorine radical

+
O2(g)
oxygen molecule
Cl(g)
chlorine radical

Therefore, the direct effect of CFC use is the long-term depletion of the ozone layer; the chlorine
radical is regenerated in the process and can thus deplete more ozone molecules. Since the
ozone layer is important in the lower stratosphere as a UV absorption shield, its depletion will
result in more UV rays reaching the earth; further, UV radiation can damage the skin and eyes of
animals and promote cancerous tumours.
In 1987, the Montreal Protocol was signed to alleviate the problems cause by CFC use. The
member countries of the protocol promised to immediately replace all CFCs with HCFCs
(hydrochlorofluorocarbons), which are less reactive and destructive than CFCs. It was planned
that HCFCs will then be phased and out replaced by other hydrocarbons by the year 2000. The
protocol also offered assistance to developing countries to help them minimise their use of CFCs.
The protocol has been effective in that CFCs have been removed from all developed countries,
but in developing countries CFCs are still in use. However the protocol has been very effective in
that CFC use has been dramatically minimised and 2003 was the first year that the rate of ozone
depletion has levelled off.
4.2.11 Analyse information available that indicates changes in atmospheric ozone
concentrations, describe the changes observed and explain how this information was
obtained.

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In the late 1980s, the TOMS (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer) aboard the Nimbus-7 satellite
recorded significant thinning of the ozone layer over Antarctica, evidence led to the acceptance of
the theory that CFCs and the chlorine radicals they produce led to the decline of the ozone layer.
Since then, very large decreases (known as holes) have been observed by TOMS.
There is an increase in ozone thinning during spring in Antarctica after a long winter, because ice
crystal surfaces help generate molecular chlorine by the reaction of HCl and ClONO2. The Cl2
photodissociates with the extra UV radiation in spring to produce more chlorine free radicals that
increases ozone depletion. By summer the Cl2 levels have depleted and ozone concentrations
return to normal levels.
The information about ozone concentrations are collected by TOMS on satellites, spectrometers
on scientific balloons and ground-based spectrometers.

4.3.3 Present information from secondary sources to identify alternative chemicals

used to replace CFCs and evaluate the effectiveness of their use as a replacement
for CFCs.
CFCs have been replaced by other compounds with significantly lower ozone depletion potential
(ODP). HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons) were the first CFC-replacement chemicals, since they
react in the troposphere with OH free radicals; however because this was a slow reaction, some
HCFCs still reached the stratosphere where they released chlorine atoms.
HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) are now more readily used as replacements of CFCs in refrigeration
and air conditioning units as they contain no chlorine atoms and thus have zero ODP.
Hydrocarbons (such as butane) have replaced CFCs as aerosol propellants.
HFCs and hydrocarbons are effective replacements of CFCs and help restore the ozone
depletion that CFC use has caused. With them, CFCs have been removed from all developed
countries and the rate of ozone depletion, in this year, has levelled off for the first time.

5. Human activity also impacts on waterways. Chemical

monitoring and management assists in providing safe water
for human use and to protect the habitats of other organisms.
5.2.1 Identify that water quality can be determined by considering: concentration
of common ions, total dissolved solids, hardness, turbidity, acidity, dissolved
oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand.
Water quality can be monitored by considering the following:
Concentration of
Common Ions

In testing water quality, the following cations are usually

determined: Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+. The following anions are also
determined: Cl, SO42, HCO3, Fl. AAS is used to determine the
concentration of specific metal ions in the water. ISE (Ion

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selective electrodes) can be used for both anions and cations.

Gravimetric analysis can also be used by precipitating specific
ions out of solution.

Total Dissolved Solids

Hardness

The measure of TDS is done either by evaporation of a water

sample, or conductivity (in milliSiemens per metre) and
multiplying the conductivity by 0.68 (for a result in mg/L). TDS
indicates the levels of mineral salts in the water.
Hardness is a measure of the waters ability to lather (to form
soap bubbles). Calcium and magnesium ions present, however,
will precipitate and form insoluble scum. Hardness can be
determined quantitatively by titrating water with EDTA or relatively
by seeing how many drops of soap solution needs to be added to
lather the water.

Turbidity

Water is described as turbid if it contains suspended particles. It is

measured in mg/L or NTU. It is measured by pouring a sample of
water down a calibrated device called a turbidity tube (with a
black cross on the bottom), and added until the cross can no
longer be seen.

Acidity

Some living things can only survive in water with a specific pH

level. Acidity (or basicity) of the water sample is usually measured
with a pH meter or narrow range pH paper.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Dissolved oxygen levels indicate the waters ability to support

aquatic life. Oxygen levels increase where there is increased
contact between water and air (such as tumbling of water and
wave formation). DO can be measured by a thallium oxygensensitive probe, or by a Winkler titration.

Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD)

Biochemical oxygen demand is a measure of the rate of oxygen

use of microscopic organisms. It is also an indirect measure of
organic waste present in the water. A DO test is done a sample of
water; it is sealed and left in the dark for a period of (5) days and
the DO test repeated. The difference between DO levels is the
BOD level (high BOD levels indicate pollution).

5.2.2 Identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in
natural bodies of water such as rivers and oceans.
Factors which affect the concentration of ions in natural water systems include:

Climatic factors, such as rain and floods: these will initially dilute the concentration of ions
in the water, but over the longer term, will cause mineral ions to be leeched from the soil

- XIII -

and water. The type of rock over which the water moves will determine the types of ions
present (eg. limestone rocks produce Ca2+ and CO32 ions).
Industrial wastes and runoff: these will increase the concentration of specific ions (used in
industry) into local waterways. Waste water can also be acidic or alkaline and contain
heavy metals.
Agriculture and farming: fertilisers contain various salts of nitrogen and phosphorous.
During rain the concentration of NH4+, NO3 and PO43 increase in local waterways.
Sewage discharge: nitrates and phosphates are likely to be present in sewage discharge
into water systems such as ocean outfalls.

5.2.3 Describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitise
mass water supplies.
Water is purified and sanitised in four steps: screening, flocculation, filtration and chlorination.
Screening is used to remove large particles from the catchment such as tree branches and
animal carcasses. Flocculation is the addition of a flocculant such as iron (III) chloride (FeCl 3) or
aluminium hydroxide to coagulate suspended particulates and settle in settling tanks. Filtration is
then performed through sand and anthracite (a type of coal) filters to remove all undissolved
particulates. Chlorination is then performed with the addition of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and
chloramine to kill bacteria because hypochlorite (OCl) ions destroy their cell walls.
Our screening and flocculation methods are very effective compared to world standards, but does
not work well in high turbidity. Our chlorination method is very effective, but is more expensive
than other methods. An example of failure, however, was shown three years ago when
Cryptosporidium and Giardia entered our drinking water. Overall, an assessment of the
purification and sanitation of our mass water supplies has shown that these methods are very
effective in delivering us clean and drinkable water.
5.2.4 Describe the design and composition of microscopic membrane filters and
explain how they purify contaminated water.
A membrane filter can further purify water. It is usually made from two tubes, the inner one being
a filter with many fine pores. Water is run across the outer tube and is filtered as it falls through
the inner tube. Ultrafilters are those which have filter pores as small as 2 nanometres to remove
particles including large molecules, protozoans, spores and bacteria. Nanofilters are those which
have a pore size of 1 nanometre to filter out smaller organic molecules and those with special
coatings can also remove multivalent cations. Many of these filters are made from polymers, such
as cellulose acetate, which are arranged in various configurations (spirals, flat sheets, hollow
tubes etc). They are very useful for filtering drinking water and can be reused after cleaning.
5.3.1 Perform first-hand investigations to use qualitative and quantitative tests to
analyse and compare the quality of water samples.

5.3.2 Gather, process and present information on the range and chemistry of the
tests used to: identify heavy metal pollution of water, monitor possible
eutrophication of waterways.
To identify heavy metal pollution:

A water sample can be tested with atomic absorption spectroscopy with the correct light
source for the specific ion to be tested.
Na2S is added to the water sample. If a precipitate forms, the heavy metal present could
be: Pb2+, Ag+, Hg2+, Cu2+, Cd2+, Au2+

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A base is added to the water sample. If a precipitate forms, the heavy metal present
could be: Cu+, Zn2+, Fe3+, Co2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, Al3+

To monitor eutrophication of waterways, the concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorous and their

ratio (N:P) must be considered.
To monitor nitrate:

FeSO4 was added into the sample, followed by concentrated H 2SO4. If a brown ring forms
halfway down the solution, NO3 is present.

To monitor phosphorous:

5 drops of NH3(aq) is added to a 10mL sample of water. 5 drops of Ba(NO 3)2(aq) is added; a
white precipitate will form. Add Mg2+ ions in an ammonia/ammonium buffer; if white
precipitate remains, PO43 ions are present.

To prevent algae blooms caused by eutrophication, N:P ratio should be 10:1, but the
concentration of the ions should be taken into consideration since all cyanobacteria grow well in
high levels of nitrates.
5.3.3 Gather, process and present information on the features of the local town
water supply in terms of: catchment, possible sources of contamination in this
catchment, chemical tests available to determine the levels and types of
contaminants, physical and chemical processes used to purify water, chemical
additives in the water and the reasons for the presence of these additives.
Sydneys water supply is collected from four main catchment areas totalling 1600 hectares: the
Upper Nepean, Woronora, Warragamba and Shoalhaven, and includes a complex network of
dams and reservoirs. The largest dam, Warragamba, was completed in 1960 and holds about 2
million megalitres of water. The catchment is protected from contamination by security parameter
fencing and prohibition of farming in the vicinity. Possible sources of contamination, however, are
falling branches and silt from rainwater.
Most of the water travels to Prospect Water Filtration Plant, where 3000ML of water are treated
per day. Screening is used to remove large particles from the catchment such as tree branches
and animal carcasses. The addition of a flocculant such as iron (III) chloride (FeCl 3) or aluminium
hydroxide (Al(OH)3) forces suspended particulates to coagulate and settle in settling tanks.
Filtration is then performed through sand and anthracite (a type of coal) filters to remove all
undissolved particulates.
Water entering the plant is tested for manganese concentration, pH, algae levels, true colour,
hardness, temperature, turbidity and conductivity.
Chemical additives are added to the water as needed:
Chlorination is performed with the addition of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and
chloramine to kill bacteria because hypochlorite (OCl) ions destroy their cell walls.
Fluoride ions is added to protect against cavities and increase tooth enamel hardness.
Sulfuric acid to break down any discolouration caused by the presence of organic matter.
Lime water (Ca(OH)2), sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide to lower acidity.
Chlorine dioxide to decompose any suspended organic matter.
Water leaving the plant are retested to ensure the treatments are effective, including testing the
concentrations of fluoride, chloride, iron, manganese and aluminium ions.

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