CHAPTER 3

ROOTS OF EQUATIONS
Exact or Approximate?

Most often when we talk about solving an equation or factoring a polynomial, we

mean an exact (or analytic) solution. The other type, approximate (or numeric)
solution, is always possible and sometimes is the only possibility.
When you can find it, an exact solution is better. You can always find a
numerical approximation to an exact solution, but going the other way is much
more difficult. This page spends most of its time on methods for exact solutions,
but also tells you what to do when analytic methods fail.

Step by Step

How do you find the factors or zeroes of a polynomial (or the roots of a polynomial
equation)? Basically, you whittle. Every time you chip a factor or root off the
polynomial, you’re left with a polynomial that is one degree simpler. Use that new
reduced polynomial to find the remaining factors or roots.
At any stage in the procedure, if you get to a cubic or quartic equation
(degree 3 or 4), you have a choice of continuing with factoring or using the cubic
or quartic formulas. These formulas are a lot of work, so most people prefer to
keep factoring.

Follow this procedure step by step:

1. If solving an equation, put it in standard form with 0 on one side and

simplify.

2. Know how many roots to expect.

3. If you’re down to a linear or quadratic equation (degree 1 or 2), solve by

inspection or the quadratic formula.
Then go to step 7.

4. Find one rational factor or root. This is the hard part, but there are lots of
techniques to help you
 If you can find a factor or root, continue with step 5 below; if you can’t,
go to step 6.

5. Divide by your factor. This leaves you with a new reduced polynomial
whose degree is 1 less
For the rest of the problem, you’ll work with the reduced polynomial and
not the original. Continue at step 3.

6. If you can’t find a factor or root, turn to numerical methods.

Then go to step 7.

7. If this was an equation to solve, write down the roots. If it was a

polynomial to factor, write it in factored form, including any constant
factors you took out in step 1.

This is an example of an algorithm, a set of steps that will lead to a desired result
in a finite number of operations. It’s an iterative strategy, because the middle
steps are repeated as long as necessary.

Cubic and Quartic Formulas

The methods given here — find a rational root and use synthetic division — are the easiest.
But if you can’t find a rational root, there are special methods for cubic equations (degree
3) and quartic equations (degree 4), both at Mathworld.

Step 1. Standard Form and Simplify

This is an easy step — easy to overlook, unfortunately. If you have a polynomial equation,
put all terms on one side and 0 on the other. And whether it’s a factoring problem or an
equation to solve, put your polynomial in standard form, from highest to lowest power.
For instance, you cannot solve this equation in this form:
x³ + 6x² + 12x = −8
You must change it to this form:
x³ + 6x² + 12x + 8 = 0

Also make sure you have simplified, by factoring out any common factors. This may
include factoring out a −1 so that the highest power has a positive coefficient. Example: to
factor
7 − 6x − 15x² − 2x³
begin by putting it in standard form:
−2x³ − 15x² − 6x + 7
and then factor out the −1
 −(2x³ + 15x² + 6x − 7) or (−1)(2x³ + 15x² + 6x − 7)

If you’re solving an equation, you can throw away any common constant factor. But if
you’re factoring a polynomial, you must keep the common factor.
Example: To solve 8x² + 16x + 8 = 0, you can divide left and right by the common
factor 8. The equation x² + 2x + 1 = 0 has the same roots as the original equation.
Example: To factor 8x² + 16x + 8 , you recognize the common factor of 8 and rewrite
the polynomial as 8(x² + 2x + 1), which is identical to the original polynomial. (While it’s
true that you will focus your further factoring efforts on x² + 2x + 1, it would be an error to
write that the original polynomial equals x² + 2x + 1.)

Your “common factor” may be a fraction, because you must factor out any fractions so that
the polynomial has integer coefficients.
Example: To solve (1/3)x³ + (3/4)x² − (1/2)x + 5/6 = 0, you recognize the common
factor of 1/12 and divide both sides by 1/12. This is exactly the same as recognizing and
multiplying by the lowest common denominator of 12. Either way, you get
4x³ + 9x² − 6x + 10 = 0, which has the same roots as the original equation.
Example: To factor (1/3)x³ + (3/4)x² − (1/2)x + 5/6, you recognize the common factor
of 1/12 (or the lowest common denominator of 12) and factor out 1/12. You get
(1/12)(4x³ + 9x² − 6x + 10), which is identical to the original polynomial.

REFERENCE
AUTHOR: Stan Brown -- Oak Road Systems

PUBLICATION: http://oakroadsystems.com/math/polysol.htm

COPYRIGHT: Copyright © 2002–2010 --- revised 13 Sep 2009