Power quality and good housekeeping.

(part
2)
Mar 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Waggoner, Ray
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Just because nonlinear loads are present doesn't automatically mean they are the source of system
problems.
Harmonics are power-related. That is, they will repeat, cycle by cycle, even as their waveshapes
are integer multiples of the fundamental (60 Hz). While harmonic currents and voltages may
vary with differing loads (or speed cycles in the case of variable speed drives), their presence
results in the consuming of space on the power system or the creating of voltage distortion across
the entire distribution bus.
In certain instances, however, system operation problems may be intermittent, coming and going
without pattern or apparent correlation. This usually indicates a wiring and grounding problem,
where multiple pathways for circulating electrical noise exist. As a result, the noise may interfere
with a sensitive signal circuit. Because the signal circuit is not protected from such phenomena,
it may become disrupted or damaged by the transient energy.
Let's take a look at one example where intermittent problems were experienced and mistakenly
attributed to harmonic interaction.
Frozen food processing case history
A medium sized industrial customer in the food processing industry called because it was
experiencing operating problems with several pieces of sensitive electronic equipment that
controlled part of its manufacturing process. This equipment was a group of three 5 hp adjustable
speed drive powered conveyor systems that moved product through the preparation process. The
speed of the drive systems depended upon the level of production. The drive systems had
recently been purchased and installed. The disturbances to the conveyor systems were so severe
that the system controls had to be manually reset in order to continue production.
The facility manager, who was familiar with the problems associated with harmonics, believed
there was a harmonic interaction problem on the electrical distribution system, primarily due to
the new drives. Further discussion revealed that the building service transformer was rated at
3000kVA and that the three drive systems were the only harmonic producing loads in the
processing area.
Site analysis

Doubting seriously that harmonics interaction was the cause of the trouble (because of the small
number of nonlinear loads relative to the electrical service size), we recommended that a further
survey of the site might provide some additional information. We expected to find some other
phenomena correlating with the upsets.
Voltage and current measurements were taken with a true rms digital multimeter at the building
service and found to be well within specified operating parameters and capacity. Using a current
harmonic analyzer, we observed that the THD (total harmonic distortion) in current was less than
2% and individual harmonic distortion, in current, for the odd harmonics up to the 21st to be less
than 3% each.
A study of the utility distribution system operation over the prior three months did not reveal any
correlation between its operation and the upsets experienced at this site.
We then moved to the drive locations in the building to examine the installation. Each drive
system had its own dedicated circuit from a subpanel and each of these circuits fed a 120V/120V,
single-phase, electrostatically shielded, wall-mounted transformer near each drive. The
transformer's secondary then fed the drive control system.
From a visual standpoint, it was apparent that the installer had given thought to the installation
with the use of dedicated circuits and shielded transformers, which assist in the control of
electrical noise while establishing a solid ground reference for the sensitive electronics
referenced to ground.
To verify that the transformers were indeed providing noise rejection and a stable ground
reference, we again used the true rms multimeter to measure voltage between the case of one
drive control system and the power system neutral.
What would you expect to measure? Zero volts, right? Instead we measured a power system
neutral-to-case ground voltage of 35V! When the other two transformers were investigated,
approximately the same voltages were measured. At least we were on the track of something
consistent with the possible explanation of the system's behavior.
Fig. 1 (see page 18) shows the proper installation of these transformers. Notice how the
incoming ground, shield, core, secondary neutral and secondary ground are all bonded at one
point. This is called a single point ground. This single point ground is then grounded to the
building ground system.
When the covers of the transformers were removed to verify the wiring connections, what was
found is shown in Fig. 2 (see page 18). The neutral was not bonded to the single point ground
and the transformer was not locally grounded to the building ground system. When these
connections were made, the neutral-to-case ground voltage returned to zero and the unexplained
upsets ceased to occur.
This case history provides an interesting example of the difference between a power related
anomaly, or something that repeats with a cyclical pattern, and a disturbance that behaves in a

random or transitory fashion. Here, the end user had not given any thought to wiring-related
problems, assuming instead that the equipment installer had taken care of the necessary details.
Mistakenly, the transitory disturbances were attributed to harmonics.
There are many aspects of power quality. Before you address the more in-depth concerns, make
sure that the "housekeeping" is cared for, especially that the wiring and grounding of the
installation have been carried out properly so that safety and signal reference protection is
provided.

Is unobstructed workspace required at all

times?
Mar 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Hartwell, Frederic P.
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Although switchgear must be readily accessible and meet minimum working clearances, the
entire workspace need not be readily accessible.
The drawing shows a motor control center in an industrial occupancy, where there will be forklift truck traffic nearby. In order to be sure that the trucks wouldn't inadvertently strike the
equipment, the owner rigged a removable barrier 2 ft away, with the posts set in over-sized holes
so it could be lifted out easily. This way the fork-lift trucks had more room to maneuver in the
adjacent aisle. We were questioned as to whether this arrangement violated the NEC.
The EC&M Panel's analysis
We think the arrangement shown is a clever solution to a difficult problem, and we think it
complies with the Code. There are two requirements that intersect, the first being that the
overcurrent devices used for short-circuit and ground-fault protection in the motor control center
must be readily accessible in accordance with Sec. 240-24(a):
(a) Readily Accessible. Overcurrent devices shall be readily accessible.
The term "readily accessible" is defined in Article 100 as follows:
Accessible, Readily: (Readily Accessible.) Capable of being reached quickly for operation,
renewal, or inspections, without requiring those to whom ready access is requisite to climb over
or remove obstacles or to resort to portable ladders, chairs, etc. (See "Accessible.")
In this case the barrier is not so close or built in such a way that actual access to operate the
switches is in question. We agree that if it were, if it were necessary to remove the barrier in
order to operate the equipment, then this installation would need to be reconfigured. In general,
this must be determined by the local authority having jurisdiction, but as shown we doubt there

will be a problem with access. Note that the 2-ft aisle width in front of the motor control center is
also acceptable as the minimum width of a doorway into the workspace about large switchgear
generally, per Sec. 110-16(c):
(c) Access and Entrance to Working Space. At least one entrance of sufficient area shall be
provided to give access to the working space about electric equipment.
For equipment rated 1200 amperes or more and over 6 ft (1.83 m) wide, containing overcurrent
devices, switching devices, or control devices, there shall be one entrance not less than 24 inches
(610 mm) wide and 6 1/2 feet (1.98 m) high at each end.
Although the questioner didn't give the exact physical size or bus rating of the motor control
center in question, we think there is adequate access even if this is large enough to come under
the special provisions in the second paragraph of this rule. In an emergency the switches in this
motor control center can be reached quickly and without resorting to removing the barrier.
Workspace
The other requirement to be addressed is working clearance in front of this equipment. This is
equipment that is likely to require examination while energized, and as such, must meet the
minimum working clearances in Table 110-16(a). Furthermore, in accordance with Sec. 11016(b), that space "shall not be used for storage." As shown in the drawing, the owner has taken
steps to ensure that that will be the case, with prominent floor markings to that effect. Indeed, the
barrier, with its own marking, probably assists in maintaining compliance with this rule.
Nevertheless, the barrier does fall squarely within the workspace required by Sec. 110-16:
110-16. Working Space About Electric Equipment (600 Volts, Nominal, or Less). Sufficient
access and working space shall be provided and maintained about all electric equipment to
permit ready and safe operation and maintenance of such equipment.
(a) Working Clearances. Except as elsewhere required or permitted in this Code, the dimension
of the working space in the direction of access to live parts operating at 600 volts, nominal, or
less to ground and likely to require examination, adjustment, servicing, or maintenance while
energized shall not be less than indicated in Table 110-16(a). Distances shall be measured from
the live parts if such are exposed or from the enclosure front or opening if such are enclosed.
Concrete, brick, or tile walls shall be considered as grounded.
The general requirements in Sec. 110-16 apply to all succeeding subsections to the extent they
would be applicable, including the requirement that workspace be both provided "and
maintained." As noted previously, subsection (a) applies to this installation. Therefore, the
workspace size must be sized in accordance with the table, and then maintained as such. This is
the provision that causes some to question this installation. We think that maintaining a
workspace is different than maintaining ready access. Both need to be done, but only the latter
requires the sense of immediacy that would disallow a temporary obstruction.

In performing any "examination, adjustment, servicing, or maintenance while energized," as

described in Sec. 110-16(a), an electrician will not be doing something for which the amount of
time involved in removing the barrier would be a safety issue. This is critical. Any time a Code
requirement is applied, those applying that requirement should always try to make sure that they
are accomplishing a safety objective.
This is different than disallowing storage uses. If this area is used for storage, it is no longer
defined as basically electrical space. Most importantly, the storage can quickly impede ready
access to the equipment, which is a definite safety issue. Here that is simply not a problem.
Note that many installations, particularly those outdoors, are placed in specially constructed
enclosures that are designed to be compatible with the surrounding architecture. Often residential
meter/disconnects are boxed in with similar construction to that of the building. As long as these
have doors in front that open to provide the required working clearance when it is required, these
arrangements are routinely accepted. We think that removing the barrier in this case is not that
much different from opening a door.
Dedicated space
Although this is a motor control center covered in Art. 430, Part H, its installation requirements
are found elsewhere, as given in the scope of the article, Sec. 430-1:
430-1. Scope. This article covers motors, motor branch-circuit and feeder conductors and their
protection, motor overload protection, motor control circuits, motor controllers, and motor
control centers.
Exception No. 1: Installation requirements for motor control centers are covered in Section 3844.
Exception No. 2: Air-conditioning and refrigerating equipment are covered in Article 440.
The important reference here is in Ex. 1, which sends us to Sec. 384-4:
384-4. Installation. Equipment within the scope of Article 384 shall be located in rooms or
spaces dedicated to such equipment. Such space shall include that space described in Section
110-16 and, in addition, shall include an exclusively dedicated space extending 25 feet (7.62 m)
from the floor or to the structural ceiling with a width and depth that of the equipment. No
piping, ducts, or equipment foreign to the electrical equipment or architectural appurtenances
shall be permitted to be installed in, enter, or pass through such spaces or rooms.
This reserves both the area above and below the motor control center and the working clearance
areas as dedicated spaces for electrical purposes. The barrier, since it is readily removable, is not
an "architectural appurtenance" and not excluded by this requirement. Furthermore, since the
barrier's only function is to protect the electrical equipment from physical damage, it clearly isn't
foreign to the electrical installation. This is true even though it isn't electrical equipment.

There is, however, a new fine print note (No. 4) that some might be tempted to apply in this case.
We are aware that fine print notes are not directly enforceable; however, we are choosing to treat
this one in a mandatory way for the purposes of this article because it will appear as mandatory
text in the CMP 9 rewrite of this section for the 1996 NEC:
(FPN No. 4): It is not the intent that any of the provisions of this rule or the exceptions thereto
allow any equipment to be located in the working space described in Section 110-16. This might
seem to exclude everything from the working clearance zone, including the barrier. That was not
intended; the note arose from proposals addressing power transformers permanently located
under panelboards. The idea was merely to strictly correlate this rule with the requirements in
Sec. 110-16, particularly the second paragraph:
In addition to the dimensions shown in Table 110-16(a), the work space shall not be less than 30
inches (762 mm) wide in front of the electric equipment. The work space shall be clear and
extend from the floor or platform to the height required by this section. In all cases, the work
space shall permit at least a 90-degree opening of equipment doors or hinged panels.
This paragraph was modified in 1993 to make it very clear that the workspace went all the way
down to the floor in front of the switchgear, and a transformer is certainly equipment within the
meaning of the fine print note. The key word, however, is "equipment." This is defined in Art.
100:
Equipment: A general term including material, fittings, devices, appliances, fixtures, apparatus,
and the like used as a part of, or in connection with, an electrical installation.
We think that this definition applies to electrical apparatus and the supporting hardware directly
involved therewith. We doubt that it can be applied to a stand-alone construction feature. The
effect would be to broaden the scope of the NEC far beyond its intended application, with
unforeseen consequences. However, some clarification may be in order, perhaps by adding the
word "permanently" ahead of "located" in the note.
Other considerations
This analysis was based on an arrangement essentially as depicted in the drawing on page 88.
There was abundant illumination from adjacent sources as provided in Sec. 11016(e), and there
was plenty of headroom, actually much more than the 6 1/2 ft required in Sec. 110-16(f). Keep in
mind that all such requirements need to be satisfied.
EDITOR'S NOTE:
These answers are given by our panel of experts. I am chairing this panel, and the other panel
members include Bill Summers, James Stallcup, and Dan Leaf. The opinion expressed is that of
the panel. If a panelist disagrees with the majority opinion, his explanation is printed following
the answer. Although authoritative, the answers printed here are not, and cannot be relied on as
formal interpretations of the national Electrical Code.

The basics of 400-Hz power systems.

Mar 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Dedad, John A.
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Although the use of 400-Hz power is certainly declining, especially in mainframe computer
power systems, some existing systems may need upgrading because of additional equipment or
retrofitting. As such, it's important that you understand the restrictions associated with this
frequency. These restrictions are the result of skin effect and proximity effect.
Skin and proximity effects
Skin effect. In general, 3-phase, 400-Hz power systems are designed the same way as 60-Hz
systems, except for one important aspect: size of conductor. The higher system frequency
increases the skin effect on conductors.
Because of the magnetic linkages within a wire or cable's conductor (copper or aluminum) when
it's carrying AC current, the current density on the conductor's outer surface becomes greater
while at its center becomes less. In other words, the greater portion of current is concentrated
near the outside of the conductor; thus the term "skin effect."
Because of this phenomenon the cross-sectional area of the conductor is effectively reduced and,
as a result, its resistance is correspondingly increased.
There are several key relationships involving skin effect that you should remember.
* For a given conductor size and material, say 4/0 AWG copper or 500kcmil aluminum, the skin
effect increases with frequency.
* For a given material and constant frequency, the skin effect increases with the size of
conductor.
* For a given conductor size and constant frequency, the skin effect decreases as the resistivity of
the conductor material increases. For example, the skin effect of a 4/0 AWG aluminum conductor
is less than that of a same sized copper conductor.
Proximity effect. When two conductors carrying AC current are close together, their magnetic
fields interact and force the current into the side of each adjacent conductor. This phenomenon is
called proximity effect.
Like skin effect, this further reduces the effective cross-sectional area, with the AC resistance
further within the conductor increased.

Proximity effect is the distortion of current distribution caused by the induction between the
currents in conductors. This phenomenon causes a concentration of current in those parts of
conductors nearest each other. As a result of this abnormal current concentration, the effective
resistance of the conductors is increased accordingly.
In general, proximity effect is directly proportional to the magnitude of current and inversely
proportional to the distance between conductors. In other words, as the current increases,
proximity effect increases; and, as the distance between the conductors increases, proximity
effect decreases.
Side effects
As mentioned, increased frequency will increase the skin and proximity effects, thereby
increasing the conductor material's effective resistance. The increased frequency will also
increase reactance and this, combined with increased resistance, will increase voltage drop.
Higher frequency will also increase the effect of magnetic materials on cable reactance and
heating. For this reason, you should not install cables on higher frequency systems in steel or
magnetic conduits, or run them along magnetic structures in buildings.
AC/DC resistance ratio curves
The ratio of AC to DC resistance is called the skin effect ratio. The curves in the diagram show
the AC/DC resistance ratio that would exist on a 400-Hz power system, along with the resulting
reduction in current rating necessary from a heating standpoint to counteract the effect of this
increased frequency.
In the discussion here, reactance can be taken as directly proportional to the frequency without
introducing any appreciable errors. This method of determining reactance does not take into
account the reduction due proximity effect; however, this change is not large and the error
introduced by neglecting it is relatively small.
These curves are drawn up for single conductor 600V cables in nonmagnetic raceway or armor.
The 400-Hz reactance curve should not be used for single conductor cables in air that are spaced
apart from each other. By using these curves together with 60-Hz ampacity tables from the NEC,
you will be able to properly size wire and cable for 400-Hz systems.

Electric West 95 show highlights melding of

technologies.
Mar 1, 1995 12:00 PM, DeDad, John A.
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Power distribution monitoring systems are enhanced and now include power quality analysis
capabilities and unlimited trip curve shaping.
What's new in electrical products and technologies? Well, the Electric West 95 Show held in
Anaheim, Calif. last month highlighted many new products. From a performance viewpoint,
however, there are some surprises. One such surprise is the enhanced performance of power
distribution monitoring systems.
These sophisticated systems, which were first introduced in the late '80s by the four major power
distribution switchgear manufacturers, have been dramatically improved. Included now are
power quality analysis, proactive circuit protection, energy conservation, and enhanced
communication with electronic trip units and solid state starters. What was once a passive
technology has now become very proactive.
Next generation equipment
When first introduced, the typical power distribution monitoring system did just about what its
name implied; that is, it passively monitored the performance of a system and took real-time
measurements of such parameters as amperage, phase-to-phase and phase-to-neutral voltage,
power factor, vars, frequency, demand watts, etc. The brains of the system, the microprocessor,
was located in the electronic trip units of main and feeder circuit breakers and electronic starters.
This, more or less, remains the case today.
One area of power distribution monitoring, protection, and coordination, has advanced into the
next generation so to speak. We're all familiar with the manual operation of adjusting the curve
shape for an electronic trip unit in a breaker. We take out the venerable small screw driver and
make the necessary settings at the face of the trip unit.
Now, however, with the introduction of a new solid state electronic trip unit with built-in
communications capability and an enhanced monitoring system by one manufacturer, you can
proactively shape a breaker's trip curve from your computer, with virtually infinite settings for
optimum system coordination. Also included are extended curve shaping options such as long
delay [I.sup.4]t settings for example. You can even have Zone Selective Interlocking down to a
70A molded case circuit breaker.
Think about it. You can actively compensate for temporary load changes such as large motor
repairs and scheduled partial system outages, all from your desk.
Power quality analysis
One predominant feature shown with most power distribution monitoring systems is power
quality analysis. Want a spectrum analysis on a certain feeder? You've got it. Want to see the
voltage and current wave-forms? No problem. Want a listing of transients including sags, swells,
their magnitude, the time and date of the specific transient? It's at your finger tips. What about
percent Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) on current and voltage, system or feeder k-factor,
CBEMA derating factor, crest factor? The information is available. And all of these data can be

downloaded into a computer for historical logging and future printout. The use of a point-andclick program makes the system user friendly.
Energy conservation
These new power distribution monitoring systems, coupled with electronic trip units having
microprocessors, allow you to monitor power usage at the feeder level. Thus, accurate energy
allocation budgeting is attainable. As with power quality analysis, this information can be downloaded into a computer and logged for future reference, historical record keeping, and report
generation.
What's new in wire connectors?
Even the mundane twist-on wire connector has gone hi-tech. Highlighted at the show were two
brands of water-tight twist-on connectors. Instead of expensive and time consuming poured
water-tight splices, we can now use these quick, inexpensive devices in damp environments
without fear of future connection problems.
We also have twist-on connectors with extended skirts, flexible skirts, and sealed skirts for
improved bare conductor coverage in device and junction boxes.
One new and historically requested product introduced at the show was a twist-on connector for
aluminum-to-copper connections. The device has a specially formulated compound within it that
cuts aluminum oxide and prevents corrosion. To counter the "cold flow" characteristic of
aluminum, the connector has a live-action spring that expands and contracts. This product will
attract much attention.

Understanding modern motors and

controllers.
Mar 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Lawrie, Robert J.
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Included are the latest developments, fundamentals, NEC rules, standards, special features, and
other important details on motors and controllers.
Motors and controllers are better than ever. They perform better, are more versatile, have wider
application, are more dependable, and have longer life. To use this equipment effectively, you
should have a thorough knowledge of the many advances, features, and variations of the latest
motors and controls. For example, some modern motors use more efficient cooling techniques,
better bearings, and similar design refinements. Specialized motors, such as the variablefrequency geared elevator motor, are now available. Also, the design ramifications of the metric
motor must be considered.

Likewise, improvements in motor controls have been significant, primarily due to the rapid
application and success of solid-state design. Practically, every motor controller available comes
in a solid-state version, or at least has some components such as overload relays that are solid
state. Adjustable-speed drives and soft-start units are typical of modern controls that have
become highly successful.
[TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 1 OMITTED]
In addition, it's important that you have an in-depth knowledge of motor and controller basics to
assure proper selection, application, installation, and maintenance.
Motor selection
Available motors include single- and 3-phase induction types, wound-rotor motors, synchronous
machines, DC motors, and a variety of special designs.
Squirrel-cage induction motors are the most widely used because of their simple design, low
cost, and minimal maintenance requirements. Because of the widespread use of integral 3-phase
induction motors, we'll focus on these motors. Because induction motors vary considerably in
design and performance, their selection and installation demands care on your part.
Horsepower
The fundamental first step in selecting an induction motor that will drive a certain load is to
determine its horsepower rating. Sometimes, this is as simple as obtaining the specifications
from the nameplate on the driven load. Possibly the rated load can be obtained from the supplier
or from analyzing other similar loads. The horsepower requirements can also be calculated from
known data, or possibly the actual load can be tested and the required power measured. Ideally,
the motor should be sized so that the load is 75 to 95% of the motor's full-load rating. This
assures high efficiency.
As a final resort, try driving the load at rated load and voltage with a motor that appears to have
about the right rating. Measure the input current and temperature rise of the motor to determine if
it's too small or too large, thus, selecting the proper size motor.
Torque and speed
There's more to selecting a motor than determining its horsepower. The horsepower rating is
determined from the motor rated-load output characteristics of torque and speed. For a particular
application, the motor must have a rated-load torque to drive the machine at the required speed.
However, there are three other torque characteristics that must be considered, as shown in Fig. 1.
These include locked-rotor or starting torque, pull-up torque, and breakdown torque.
A motor must have sufficient starting and pull-up torque to bring the driven machine to operating
speeds, and it must be able to overcome peak loads (breakdown torque) without stalling. The
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) has available standard curves to which

all NEMA design motors must adhere. These curves permit effective selection of the motor for
the job at hand.
The NEMA "design type" determines the electrical characteristics of induction motors. NEMA
designates standard design types as A, B, C, and D. You can obtain the performance of each type
from the appropriate NEMA curves, which show available torque at various speeds.
[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 2 OMITTED] These characteristic curves are used to select the
proper design letter to match the load. For example, if you use a Design B motor to drive a load
that needs a high starting torque, the motor may over-heat during starting and trip out prior to
reaching operating speed. When this happens, you may decide to defeat the motor protection,
causing the motor to burn out. Or, you may install a larger motor that will not only cost more, but
because it's oversized, will operate inefficiently.
The differences shown by the curves are due primarily to the differences in the rotor resistance
and reactance introduced during design. The curves for any specific design also vary according
to motor size. Output torque values drop as rated horsepower increases at any given synchronous
speed.
Design B is the industry's "workhorse" for general-purpose, across-the-line starting duty. It has a
"normal" or relatively high starting torque for accelerating high-inertia loads and handles shortduration overloads to 200% full-load torque or more before reaching the breakdown point.
Where the load duty-cycle has a peak in excess of the Design B breakdown torque, a Design A
motor may be used. This type has a starting torque very close to the Design B motor but develops
a higher breakdown torque and will have a higher starting current.
The Design C motor is characterized by a low starting current and high starting torque. It's
suitable for loads requiring a high starting torque and rather rapid acceleration, such as
conveyors and compressors.
For extremely heavy starting conditions, the Design D motor is available and is well suited for
such high-inertia loads as punch presses, cranes, and elevators, although its running efficiency is
low. Characteristics of NEMA design motors and their appropriate applications are summarized
in Table 1.
Load variations. Where the load varies with time, a horsepower-versus-time curve will permit the
determination of required peak horsepower. Calculation of the root-mean-square horsepower will
indicate the proper motor rating from a heating standpoint. In case of extremely large variations
in load, or where shutdown accelerating or decelerating periods are a large portion of the cycle,
the horsepower may not give a true indication of the equivalent continuous load. Thus, the motor
manufacturer should be consulted.
Speed
By selecting the right motor and speed, you can sometimes avoid the necessity of using a speedcontrol device. Constant-speed motors operate at practically uniform speed during normal

operations. Induction motors are available from 514 to 3600 rpm in the smaller sizes.
Synchronous speed ratings of integral-horsepower motors are given in Table 2.
Multispeed motors are available for application to loads most effectively operated at two or more
specific speeds. A 2-speed motor can be of the single-winding type with two fixed speeds or a
special 2-speed, single-winding type with flexible ratio of low to high speed. Multispeed motors
can be selected as either variable torque for fans and centrifugal pumps; constant torque for
conveyers, compressors, and positive-displacement pumps; and constant horsepower for winches
and machine tools.
Where the application requires speed adjustment over a range, the DC drive, variable-speed AC
motor drive, or mechanical speed changer can be provided.
Code letter
The NEC requires that the motor nameplate contain a code letter indicating the locked-rotor
(starting) kVA per horsepower. (See Table 3.) These code letters are important since they
determine the starting current of the motor, thus aiding in the selection of the proper type of
motor starting control. This data is also used to obtain the maximum setting of motor branch
circuit protective devices (NEC Table 430-152).
Service factor
Service factor is defined as the permissible amount of overload a motor will handle within
defined temperature limits without overheating. When voltage and frequency are maintained at
nameplate rated values, the motor may be overloaded up to the horsepower obtained by
multiplying the rated horsepower by the service factor shown on the nameplate. However,
locked-rotor torque, locked-rotor current, and breakdown torque remain unchanged. NEMA has
defined service factor values for standard polyphase dripproof, 60 Hz motors in its standards in
accordance with horsepower, speed, and NEMA design. These values range from 1.00 to 1.15 for
standard motors and for open motors, up to 1.25.
Insulation and temperature rise
The insulation of a motor's windings is subject to thermal aging. Degradation of the insulation's
dielectric capability allows shorting to occur between conductors, causing failure. There is a
specific temperature rise permitted by standards based on insulating material capabilities. A ruleof-thumb says that for every 10 [degrees] C rise above the limit, insulation life is halved. The
total allowable temperatures for the different insulation classes, including ambient temperature
and temperature rise, are as follows.
* Class A, 105 [degrees] C.
* Class B, 130 [degrees] C.
* Class F, 155 [degrees] C.

* Class H, 180 [degrees] C.

Depending on the method of measurement, size of motor, ambient temperature, etc., the
permitted temperature rise will vary; nevertheless, the maximum temperature must not be
exceeded.
Normally, it's not necessary to indicate on a specification the type of insulation required. Class B
insulation is considered standard and will most often be supplied. Requirements such as a 1.15
service factor for a totally enclosed motor will usually be met by the manufacturer by supplying
a higher grade of insulation. There are cases, however, when selecting a higher insulation class is
justified as a safety factor or to provide for some particular condition that may not be adequately
covered by the ambient temperature chosen. An encapsulated motor includes more material over
the windings, leading to higher-than-normal temperatures. The increased temperature of an open
dripproof motor with a 1.15 service factor can be compensated for by reducing the service factor
or by supplying a higher-rated insulation.
Permitted temperature rise of different insulations is based on operation of the motor at altitudes
of 3300 ft or less. When this elevation must be exceeded, there are several alternatives. If the
motor has 1.15 service factor, it can then be operated at unity factor at altitudes up to 9000 ft in a
40 [degrees] C ambient.
Cycling of the load also affects the temperature of the windings. Standard motors are rated for
continuous duty; that is, the load is relatively constant for long periods of time. If the application
requires that the motor be started and stopped often, or if the load is cyclical, duty-cycle
information should be included in the specifications. Larger frame sizes or higher-rated
insulations may be required.
Efficiency considerations
The operating efficiency of a motor has become a major factor because of ever-increasing energy
costs. More than half of the typical industrial user's power costs are for energy consumed by
motors. This makes it essential that operating costs vs initial costs be considered when selecting
a motor.
High-efficiency motors are available that have substantially lower losses than standard lines. In
recent years, most major manufacturers have standardized on the term "premium efficiency"
(PE) to define their most efficient motors. These newer motors have improved steel, better
laminations and insulations, more copper, and rotor fin designs that provides more cooling.
Efficiency of a motor is determined by a standard test called for by the NEMA MG-112.53
standard. The test technique, called IEEE 112A-Method B, provides a consistent efficiencymeasurement standard for those who use it. The testing provides an efficiency number, which is
stamped on the motor nameplate, that indicates the motor' s efficiency. (See Table 4.) This
number represents the nominal or average efficiency of the motor. In addition, the value of the
motor's minimum efficiency must be determined; this value is available from the manufacturers.

You should use the minimum efficiency value in investment payback calculations so that a more
conservative estimate is obtained.
Responsible motor manufacturers feel that the IEEE 112A-Method B test procedure produces
more accurate results and consequently have accepted it as their test method. However, some
manufacturers use other procedures that tend to result in higher efficiency numbers. These
numbers may mislead users into thinking they are getting more than they really are.
The cost of a PE motor is usually greater than a standard motor, depending on the quality of its
design. If the motor runs continuously or at least 16 hrs/day or more, this extra cost is usually
well justified and will be returned in 1 to 2 years. In some instances, even an 8-hr operation may
result in reduced total costs that will justify the initial premium paid for a PE motor. For best
results, be sure the motor selected is of the correct size and design for the job, and that it's
installed properly and tested for efficient operation.
Electrical connections
After you've made sure that supply voltage requirements are correct, you can make the motor
terminal connections. Stator winding connections should be made as shown on the nameplate
connection diagram or in accordance with the wiring diagram attached to the inside of the
conduit box cover.
Terminal connection problems are usually caused by the branch circuit conductor being a size
that is different from the motor leads. Branch circuit wire size is normally determined in
accordance with the NEC, based on the motor full-load current, increased where required to limit
voltage drop. The motor leads, on the other hand, are permitted a higher current-carrying
capacity for a given AWG size than equivalent conductors used in branch circuit wiring because
they are exposed to circulating air within the motor.
When connecting the motor terminals to the line leads, you should use connectors sized to the
conductor. There may be difficulties in matching the two sets of connectors so that the full
surface area of the small terminal can contact that of the larger. Washers should never be used
between motor lugs and the branch circuit lugs in an attempt to promote better contact.
A higher degree of reliability is possible if connections are tightened according to torque
specifications as shown in Table 5. Recommended terminations can be made up with a torque
wrench.
Motor leads should be clamped at or near the point where they enter the box. A neoprene sheet
"lead separator gasket" is helpful. This limits movement of cable under starting currents. Extra
sleeving around leads in this area eliminates chafing or cutting of cable jackets. Holes in steel
plates through which leads pass should be chamfered or at least deburred.
Terminal box

Be sure the motor terminal box is of sufficient size to permit good, reliable connections. Over the
years, the most frequent single complaint of those who work with motors is that "the terminal
box is too small!" In the 250- to 1000-hp range, the type and size of incoming cable determine
how much room is needed.
When mounting conditions permit, the motor terminal box may be turned so that entrance can be
made upward, downward, or from either side. For oversize conduit boxes, such as those required
for stress cones or surge protection equipment, the mounted height of the motor may have to be
increased for accessibility.
When starting up large drives, watch the light reflect from flat terminal box surfaces. A
"shimmer" indicates box vibration of fairly high amplitude, even when motor frame vibration is
quite low. Such shaking may eventually crack the box, break bolts, or damage the leads. When in
doubt, brace it.
Hazardous locations
Motors suitable for use in hazardous locations are tested and listed by UL in its Hazardous
Location Equipment Directory. These motors, which are supplied with a testing lab Class I,
Groups C and D, or Class II, Groups E, F, or G labels, have been designed and manufactured in
accordance with standards established for explosion proof (Class I) and dust-ignition proof
(Class II) machines. Parts are machined to very close tolerances, including conduit box and/or
collector ring access covers. Extreme care must be taken during disassembly and reassembly,
since any nicks or burrs may destroy the explosion proof or dust-ignition proof features of the
machine. If these features are altered in any way, the machine will no longer comply with the
provisions of the inspection and label service manual and will no longer be properly classified as
a labeled motor. The label should therefore be removed and the motor considered unsafe for use
in hazardous locations. Always consult the manufacturer or a listed apparatus repair firm to
assure safe and proper assembly.
modulation
Motors for use in hazardous locations must be marked with an identification number that
indicates the operating temperature range.
To date, there are no motors listed for Groups A and B; hence, where such conditions are
encountered, motors must be located outside the hazardous area. Motors suitable for other Class I
locations are designated as explosion proof.
Likewise, motors for use in Class III locations are not listed. Class III locations are those where
ignitable fibers or flyings are present, such as in textile mills and woodworking plants. However,
totally enclosed nonventilated motors and the so-called lint-free or self-cleaning textile squirrelcage motors are commonly used. The latter may be acceptable to the local inspecting authority if
only moderate amounts of flyings are likely to accumulate on or near the motor, which must be
readily accessible for routine cleaning and maintenance.

Motor controls
Selecting the correct starting equipment for a motor is dependent on the system and load
characteristics. Be sure the controller enclosure is appropriate for the location and environment.
Normally, one of the following types of starters will be appropriate.
Across-the-line versus reduced-voltage starting is the principal decision where induction motors
are involved. The distribution system must be capable of supplying starting current without
excessive voltage drop at the motor. Torque sufficient to accelerate the load is dependent on
voltage. Full-voltage (across-the-line) starting should be specified unless there are limitations on
inrush currents, the load is of the high-breakaway type, or the local utility restricts such starting.
Reduced-voltage starting provides a cushioned start and has the effect of stabilizing the line
voltage. There are several methods used to obtain reduced-voltage starting: part-winding, reactor
or resistor, auto-transformer, and wye-delta are the most common. Solid-state starters also have
become an effective choice in reduced-voltage applications. Aside from not having moving
power-circuit parts, their chief advantage is tailoring the output closer to the needs of the load,
since many elements are field-adjustable.
There are many additional ways that induction motors are controlled, including the use of
reversing, 2-speed, and other specialized starters. Well pumps and fire pumps require equipment
packaged to meet their special requirements.
Solid-state starters
Modern solid-state starters offer numerous advantages where reduced-voltage starting is
required. In addition to lower starting currents and reducing mechanical shock to equipment
upon starting, they are frequently furnished with a wide variety of functions that boost
performance and increase reliability. These features include precise overcurrent protection,
current-limiting, single-phasing protection, transient protection, shunt trip, precise starting and
stopping time, power-factor control, and others.
A particularly lost-cost but valuable option is a "power-factor corrector" that permits significant
energy savings when motors are operated at very low loadings, up to 50 to 69% of full load.
Solid-state starters are available in ranges up to several hundred horsepower.
Variable-speed drives
The most commonly used variable-speed drives include the eddy-current clutch or magnetic
couplings, variable-pitch sheave drives, and DC motors. In the early 1960s, SCR (thyristor)controlled DC drives came on the scene to provide an effective and efficient means of speed
control of DC motors. However, application of the DC motor, particularly in a harsh
environment, still presents maintenance problems.
Adjustable-speed drives, which are essentially solid-state, have proven to be highly effective in
recent years and are being applied successfully in conjunction with AC induction motors. Of

course, AC squirrel-cage motors are constant-speed machines. Use of these adjustable-speed

drives permits these motors to run at selected speeds as required for a process and/or to conserve
energy.
Presently, three basic adjustable-speed techniques are being used: variable voltage input (VVI),
current source inverter (CSI), and pulse width modulation drives (PWM). A variation of the VVI
is termed a chopper variable voltage input (CVVI). Each type offers advantages and
disadvantages, as shown in Table 6 (see page 32). All types use controlled rectifiers to convert
incoming power from AC to DC voltage. Thyristors or high-power transistors are used at the
output to provide the desired frequency and voltage for the speed desired or required, resulting
also in more efficient operation of the motor. Final choice depends on the application,
performance desired, and characteristics of each motor-driven load arrangement.
Solid-state protective relays
Solid-state protective relays have been in use since the early '80s and provide excellent
protection for motors that are expensive or used in critical applications. These relays are
microprocessor-based and offer a wide variety of protection and operating functions such as
overload, jam, (locked rotor), ground fault, motor overtemperature, beating over-temperature,
phase unbalance or reversal, plus many others.
New developments
Similar to the rest of the electrical industry, motor controller development is rapidly changing the
way motors are started, protected, and controlled.
* Self-protected motor controllers provide for motor disconnect, branch circuit, short-circuit, and
ground-fault protection and overload protection within one package.
* Thermal memory circuitry permits the protective relay to "remember" selected heat buildup
levels and prevents the motor from being damaged.
* New types of current-transformer-based overload relays directly sense current flowing in the
motor leads from the load side of an electromechanical starter. This provides greater accuracy,
single-phase protection, no wasting of energy by eliminating overload heaters, and eliminates
stocking quantities of overload heaters.
* Adjustable-speed drives, programmable logic controllers, annunciators, sensing and logic
devices all can be integrated and prewired along with the electromechanical starters typically
found in an MCC.
* IEC-type controllers have permitted the downsizing of motor starting equipment. For instance,
more starters can be mounted in an MCC vertical section than was previously practical.
* New panelboard-type enclosures provide flexibility in locating IEC-type motor controllers near
equipment where space is at a premium.

Installation considerations
Proper installation of an electrical motor is essential to obtain top-quality operation, efficient
performance, and maximum reliability. For a totally cost-effective installation, procedures should
consider all aspects of engineering, design, selection, application, and maintenance as well as the
details of assembly, hardware, and interrelationship of components and materials. The work
demands close coordination, planning, and teamwork on the part of the engineers, installers, and
maintainers on the project. And the completion of a successful motor installation requires that the
latest and best construction techniques be employed.
Receiving and handling. When a motor is received, it should be thoroughly inspected for dents or
other signs of damage. This inspection should be done before the motor is moved from the
shippers truck or vehicle. Examine all literature provided with the motor. Do not remove tags
pertaining to assembly, storage, lubrication, and operation. File all literature with specifications
and drawings pertaining to the motor for reference during installation and for guidance during
startup and operation.
On smaller motors, turn the shaft to be sure that it spins freely. If equipped with antifriction
bearings, they will normally be prelubricated and ready for operation. However, motors having
sleeve bearings are usually shipped without lubricating oil in the bearing; often they are filled
with an antirust fluid. These are usually large motors with large bearings that should be inspected
through the sight glass and bearing drain openings. Check for any accumulation of moisture and
remove the fluid. Then, fill the bearing reservoirs to normal level with a high-grade industrial
lubricating oil. Remove any dirt, metal filings, or other contamination that might appear in the
oil, or replace the oil.
Always check motor nameplate for proper voltage, phase, frequency, horsepower, etc. Large
motors are sometimes shipped disassembled. When assembling, be sure all mating parts are
clean. Cleaning can be done with a magnet, vacuum cleaner, or dry compressed air (air pressure
less than 60 psi).
When handling motors by hoist, be sure to use lifting bolts if they are provided. Always
disconnect any coupling between motor and load before lifting, unless the base is strong enough
to assure that shaft or bearings will not be damaged.
Handling of large, heavy motors should be supervised by experienced and qualified personnel.
Safety of workers and avoidance of damage to the motor are primary considerations. Details
concerning types of cranes, hoists, jacks, rollers, wire ropes, cables, hooks, slings, and the many
other aspects of moving heavy apparatus are extensive.
Safety is of paramount importance during the installation, startup, and operation of motors.
Safety begins with proper design, application, and selection of the motors and associated
components. Be sure that the motor has been well matched to handle the type of load to be
driven. Be certain that the enclosure is suited to the surrounding environment and that there is
adequate ventilation to assure operation at or below motor design temperature. Check that the

motor, gears, belts, driven machinery, etc. are guarded so that anyone near the installation will
not be harmed by accidental contact.
All personnel involved with the installation should be familiar with NEMA MG2, Safety
Standards for Construction and Guide for Selection, Installation and Use of Electric Motors and
Generators. Pertinent NEC rules, especially Art. 430, and all local safety rules must be observed.
In addition, OSHA rules must also be followed during the installation of motors and controls.
These regulations are included in Part 1010 of the Occupational Safety and Health Standards.
Obtain a copy of this document from any local OSHA office.
Foundation. A rigid foundation is essential for minimum vibration and proper alignment between
motor and load [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 3 OMITTED]. Concrete, reinforced as
required, makes the best foundation, particularly for large motors and driven loads. In sufficient
mass, it provides rigid support that minimizes deflection and vibration. It may be located on soil,
structural steel, or building floors, provided the total weight (motor, driven unit, foundation) does
not exceed the allowable bearing load of the support. Allowable bearing loads of structural steel
and floors can be obtained from engineering handbooks. Building codes of local communities
give the recommended allowable bearing loads for different types of soil. For rough calculations,
the sub-foundation should be approximately 2 1/2 times the total unit weight.
Whether the motor base is concrete or steel, it must be level. If concrete, be sure it is not too
high. A motor can always be raised with shims; but reduction of height is difficult.
In the event that the motor must be mounted on steel, all supports must be of adequate size and
strength and braced to assure maximum rigidity. The requirement for a level base is critical
[ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4 OMITTED]. Usually, for a motor installation, there will be
four points of mounting- one at each corner of the mounting base. Then there will be mounting
requirements for the driven load. All mounting points must be on the exact same plane or the
equipment will not be level. This is why a thick, rigid steel baseplate is preferred over an
assembly of steel, or at least a steel baseplate should be used in conjunction with the steel
assembly.
Before pouring the concrete foundation, locate foundation bolts by use of a template and provide
secure anchorage (not rigid). It is recommended that a fabricated steel base be used between
motor feet and foundation. See certified drawings of motor, base, and driven unit for exact
location of foundation bolts.
Enclosures. Always try to locate the motor in the best possible environment: a clean, dry, cool
location. The type of environment in which the motor will operate, in turn, will determine the
type of enclosure. Available enclosures have been standardized by NEMA, simplifying selection.
An open-type motor is usually the best choice for installation in locations reasonably free of
moisture, dust, or lint. Be sure space is available for maintenance or replacement. Open motors
having commutators or collector rings must be located or protected so that sparks cannot reach
adjacent combustible material. This does not preclude the mounting of such motors on wooden
platforms or floors.

Dripproof motors are intended for use where the atmosphere is relatively clean, dry, and
noncorrosive. Keep windings clean with a soft brush, cloth, or vacuum. Totally enclosed motors
may be installed where dirt, moisture, and corrosion are present, or in outdoor locations. If a
drain plug is provided in the end bracket or bell, it should be removed periodically to drain any
accumulated condensation.
Problem locations. When extreme environments or unusual conditions exist (high temperatures,
excessive vibration, etc.), special enclosures or arrangements must be incorporated into the
installation.
Moisture problems require special consideration. Suitable guards or enclosures must be provided
to protect exposed current-carrying parts of motors and the insulation of motor leads where
dripping or spraying oil, water, or other injurious liquid may be present, unless the motor is
specially designed for the existing conditions.
For standby service or for damp-location operation, a low single-phase voltage (on the order of 5
to 10% of rated voltage) is sometimes applied to the motor windings to combat moisture. Some
larger motors are available with built-in strip heaters or tubular-type space heaters for preventing
condensation.
Installation techniques
Mounting. A motor can be mounted in many ways, depending on the size, weight, and use for
which it is intended. Small motors may incorporate a rigid mount; the frame being welded
directly to a steel plate formed to match the shape of the frame and incorporating mounting
holes. Most commonly, medium- and large-size motors have mounting feet cast integrally with
the frame. Vertical motors require an end bell specially machined to receive a mounting flange.
Where it is important to isolate vibration and noise or reduce the shock of starting and stopping,
various types of resilient mounts and cushion bases are available.
After alignment with the load, bolt the motor in place with maximum size bolts. It is advisable to
provide some variation in the location of the foundation bolts. This can be done by locating the
bolts in steel pipe embedded in the foundation [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 5 OMITTED].
It is recommended that a competent engineer, familiar with motor foundation designs, be called
on to design and supervise foundations and support assemblies for large motors.
Sliding bases and adapters are available for use with T-frame motors when they replace an old Uframe motor. Also, check whether other components or equipment, such as gears, special
couplings, and pumps, are to be mounted on the motor. If so, be sure space is available.
After the motor base is in place, but before it is fastened, shim as required to level. Use spirit
level (check two directions at 90 [degrees]) to ensure that motor feet will be in one plane (base
not warped) when base bolts are tightened. Set motor on the base, install nuts, and tighten. Do
not make a final tightening until after alignment. NEMA standards give dimensions for foot
mountings and some flange mountings.

Couplings. Direct coupling (rigid, flexible, or fluid) of the motor shaft to the driven load results
in a 1:1 speed ratio. Where application demands other than standard available speeds, gears or
pulleys/belts may be used. Variable speeds are possible by making available several gear ratios or
pulleys with variable diameters. Chain drives may also be used where shaft center-to-center
distance is too great for gears or too short for belting.
Direct-connected motors with ball or roller bearings may be coupled to the load through flexible
couplings. A coupling half should not be installed by hammering or pressing. Always heat the
coupling to install it on the shaft. Accurate mechanical lineup is essential for successful
operation. Mechanical vibration and roughness during the operation of the motor may be
indications of poor alignment. In general, using a straight edge across and a feeler gauge between
coupling halves is not sufficient. It is recommended that the lineup be checked with a dial
indicator and checking bars connected to the motor and loaded machine shafts.
With few exceptions, a flexible coupling is used to connect the motor to the load. This type of
coupling is designed to tolerate some misalignment; however, this misalignment can cause
vibration and/or stress on the motor bearings. Consequently, the shafts in all coupled applications
should be lined up with the same high degree of accuracy, regardless of the type of coupling or
type of bearing used.
Alignment. The following steps in attaining correcting alignment of direct-connected drives
should be implemented.
* The foundation for the motor and driven load should provide a permanent fixed relationship of
the motor with respect to the driven load. The foundation should provide a solid anchor that will
maintain this fixed relationship after alignment is completed.
* Position the motor on its foundation to obtain the correct spacing between the motor shaft and
the driven shaft. This distance is specified by the coupling manufacturers, but is usually in the
range of 1/8 to 3/8 in.
* In the case of sleeve-bearing motors, positioning should limit the axial movement of the
coupling to keep the motor bearing from floating off the thrust shoulders. These bearings will not
take continuous thrust. When positioning the shaft of motors with end play, the shaft should be
placed on the midpoint of the end play. (Ignore the magnetic center indication.)
* Adjust the position of the motor with jackscrews, shimming, etc., until misalignment between
the two shafts is within the following limits as measured with a dial indicator with the motor
bolted down.
When adjusting the position of the motor, care should be taken to assure that each foot of the
motor is shimmed before the motor is bolted down so that no more than a .002-in. feeler gauge
can be inserted in the shim pack.
Belt drives require that the motor be mounted on slide rails or a bedplate with provisions for
adjusting the belt tension. Align the pulleys so that the belts run true (perpendicular to the shaft)

and with uniform tension on all belts. The slide rails should be located so that the motor is near
the end of the slide rail closest to the driven machine. This permits maximum adjustment (travel)
for belt tensioning and readjustment later to compensate for belt wear or stretch.
Tighten the belts to prevent slippage at the rated horsepower. Excessive belt tension causes
unnecessary loads on the shaft and bearings. On high-inertia loads or equipment that could jam
or stall causing belts to squeal or slip during acceleration, or where torque approaches pull-out
torque during overload or stall, tightening to prevent this squeal or slippage will result in
overloading the bearings or shaft. Belt speeds are normally limited to 5000 ft/min for "ESection" belts and 6500 ft/min for "8-V Section" belts. Speeds in excess of these limits should
not be used without consulting the belt manufacturer.
Gear drives require accurate alignment and rigid mounting for a satisfactory drive. Pitch
diameter and width should not be outside recommended gear manufacturer's limits. Check the
factory for bearing thrust capacity before installing helical gears. In all cases, gear teeth must be
centered with each other, correct shaft center distance must be obtained, and gear faces must be
parallel. Gear teeth must fully engage to a depth giving approximately 0.002 in. minimum
backlash through one complete revolution. Test backlash and face parallelism again after
tightening mounting bolts.
Sleeve bearings are supplied with a babbitted face to restrain axial rotor movement during stamp
or while running disconnected from the load. The babbitted faces are not intended to withstand
continuous thrust loads and care must be exercised in the lineup to prevent this from occurring
during operation. Lineup should provide operation in approximately the mechanical center
between the extremes of the end play; this is very close to the magnetic center location. Standard
motors are supplied with more end play. It is necessary that a limited end-float flexible coupling
be used on sleeve bearing motors to limit the total axial movement to less than that shown in the
motor outline drawings. As noted in NEMA Standards MG1-14.38, sufficient thrust to damage
bearings may be transmitted to the motor bearing through a flexible coupling.
Ball bearings. Unlike motors with sleeve bearings, motors with ball bearings should be coupled
so that there is more end play in the coupling than in the motor. This is because ball bearings will
take enough thrust, without damage, to slip the coupling axially to accommodate thermal
expansion in the system. The end play of these motors may be as much as 50 to 150 mils, and the
coupling should have at least this much float. Correct axial positioning can be obtained by tilting
the motor toward the outboard end to move the rotor as far as it will go in that direction (the rotor
will not be easy to move axially since bearings must slide in the housing); or by barring the rotor
over to the outboard end, and then positioning the motor to give at least 150 mils between the
coupling halves or shaft ends. Or, the motor may be positioned without regard to rotor position
so that coupling will allow 100 mils travel in either direction.
Mechanical alignment
Experience has shown that any base-mounted assemblies of motor and driven load, no matter
how rugged or deep in section, may twist out of alignment during shipping or any moving, and
that alignment by eye is ineffective. Proper alignment of direct-coupled drives can be

accomplished by a dial-indicator ([ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 6 OMITTED], see page 39)

or computerized instrumentation.
Angular misalignment is the amount by which the faces of the two coupling halves are out of
parallel. Angular maize-alignment may be determined by mounting a dial indicator on one
coupling half with the indicator probe on the face of the other half, then rotating both shafts
together through 360 [degrees] to determine any variation in reading.
It is important, during this check, to keep the shaft of a motor with end play against its thrust
shoulder, and the shaft of a driven bad with end play against its thrust shoulder to prevent false
readings due to shaft movements in the axial direction.
Parallel misalignment is the offset between the centerline of the two shafts. Checking this is done
by mounting a dial indicator on one coupling half with the indicator probe bearing radially on the
other coupling half, then rotating both shafts together through 360 [degrees].
The motor and load must be correctly aligned under actual operating temperatures and
conditions. Machines that are correctly aligned at room temperature may become badly
misaligned, due to deformation or different thermal growth as they increase in temperature. The
alignment must be checked, and corrected if necessary, after the motor and driven machine have
reached their maximum temperature under load.
It is recommended that "floating shaft couplings" or "spacer couplings" be used on motors where
the coupling alignment cannot be accurately checked and/or maintained. Misalignments of
several thousandths of an inch will result when there are relatively small changes in the
temperature differences in larger motors and the equipment driven.
After the alignment procedure is completed, the equipment should be given a test run to verify
that the lineup gives satisfactory performance. Once satisfactory performance has been verified,
the machines should be dowelled to their bed-plates. Recommended dowelling is two dowels per
machines, one in each of the diagonally opposite feet, with the size of the dowels approximately
1/2 the diameter of the hold-down bolts.
Machines that are correctly aligned when they are first installed may subsequently become
misaligned due to wear, vibration, shifting of the base, settling of the foundations, thermal
expansion and contraction, corrosion, etc. Therefore, it is advisable to recheck the alignment
periodically to correct for any changes.

Effectively applying premium efficiency

motors.
Mar 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Cowern, Edward H.
0 Comments ShareThisNew

Major guidelines will help you understand, evaluate, select, apply, and properly load premium
efficiency motors.
Modern premium efficiency (PE) motors are improved versions of standard AC squirrel-cage
induction motors that, when properly applied and installed, will save energy and reduce your
electric bill. In recent years, manufacturers have designed PE motors that are better than ever.
These modern motors have lower losses, are built to closer tolerances, and have better steel
laminations, insulations, and slot designs. Also, they have more copper and more efficient
cooling.
Because of their reduced losses, PE motors run at lower temperatures than equivalent standard
motors, which results in longer insulation and lubricant life and less downtime. Inherent in their
design is the ability to tolerate wider voltage variations and, when necessary, higher ambient
temperatures. An additional benefit is that by generating less waste heat in the space around the
motor building, ventilation and/or air conditioning requirements are reduced. This can result in
additional savings.
When selecting a PE motor, you must consider numerous key characteristics such as horsepower,
speed, type and effect of bad, service factor, and efficiency.
Workhorse of industry
The AC induction motor is the workhorse of industry. It's estimated that about 60 to 65% of all
motors used by industry are integral horsepower AC induction motors. They are used extensively
wherever heating, cooling, refrigeration, pumping, conveyors, and similar applications are
needed.
In a typical commercial or institutional facility, squirrel-cage induction motors drive condensate
pumps, chilled water pumps, air-handling blowers, drive combustion air fans, compressors: the
list is endless.
Yet, it's these very motors that use well over haft of America's electric power; thus, they are the
devices most responsible for major portions of electric bills. As such, it's vital that you take a
serious look at the PE motors for your various motor applications.
Operating costs and savings
There are a great many ways to approach capital investment and to determine rates of return,
payback periods, etc. Most of these are good for large capital investments where there may be
risk involved if the project doesn't work out or if a product changes.
Electric motors and other conservation measures tend to be a simpler problem and usually don't
need the rigorous mathematical treatment found in a complicated investment analysis. Here is a
rule of thumb that will help you make intelligent decisions in regard to PE motors: At 5 cents per
kWh, it costs $1 per hp per day to operate a motor continuously at full load. (At 10 cents per

kWh, the cost doubles to $2 per day.) This value can be ratioed to reflect less than full load or
less than continuous operation, etc.
Consider a 100-hp motor operating continuously in a 10-cents-per-kWh area. The annual cost of
operation comes out to be approximately $70,000 ($2 per day times 350 days times 100-hp). This
can represent about 25 times the first cost of the motor. By spending an extra 30% ($750) to get a
PE motor (2.4% more efficient), the annual operating cost could be reduced by approximately
$1800.
In the case of a small 3-hp motor at 10 cents per kWh, the annual operating cost would be over
$2300 per year. An extra 40% spent on this motor could reduce the operating cost by $140 per
year.
In both cases mentioned, the extra cost of the PE motor would be paid off by energy savings in a
few months. When motors are running continuously at or near full load, the first cost of the
motor is usually of little consequence compared with the annual operating cost.
Additional savings are also available through utility incentive programs. There are many
customer incentive programs based on different concepts, including some where the utility
invests in the conservation project and the resulting savings are shared by the utility and the
customer over a period of time. Utility rebates, in whatever form they take, are a great incentive.
Ideal motor loading
While in the process of upgrading efficiency, you may ask what the ideal load conditions should
be for replacement motors. A motor that's overloaded will have short life. In the opposite
situation, a motor that is grossly oversized for the job is inefficient.
In many situations, the load is not changing as the motor is operating. This is especially true of
heating, ventilating, and air conditioning applications such as circulator pumps and air handling
equipment. On other types of machinery, such as air compressors and machine tools, the load
may cycle on and off, heavily loaded for some periods and lightly loaded at other times.
Obviously on cycling loads, it's important to size the motor so that it can handle the worst case
condition. However, on continuously loaded motors, it's desirable to load them at somewhere
between 50 and 100%, and more ideally in the range of 75 to 80%. By doing so, high efficiency
is available and motor life will be long. Also, by loading at somewhat less than 100%, motors
can more easily tolerate such things as low voltage and high ambient temperatures, which can
occur simultaneously in summer. This approach will result in optimum efficiency while
preserving motor life.
With varying load levels and intermittent loading, projected savings based on full load
efficiencies will be less or may not materialize.
PE motors, with their enhanced designs, result in lower operating costs at any level of loading,
including no load. For example, the no-load losses of a 5-hp PE motor might be 215W. The no-

load losses of a standard motor of the same type might be 330W. Fig. 1 shows a plot of watts loss
for various load levels on a conventional 25 hp motor versus that of a PE motor of the same type.
Curves of this type change dramatically with motor size, but trends are the same.
Efficiency curves can also be plotted for standard and PE motors, as shown in Fig. 2. These
curves are so shaped for many reasons. First, energy is being used by the motor to excite its
magnetic field. Second, energy is also being used to overcome the friction of the motor's
bearings and the so-called windage of its rotating portion, when the motor is running idle (no
load on the output shaft). Thus the efficiency at no load for both standard and PE motors is 0%.
Efficiency climbs as load is applied to the motor, up to the point where efficiency levels out and
starts to drop from its highest level. In most motors, the peak efficiency will occur somewhere
between 50 and 100 % of rated load. The point at which it peaks is determined by the specific
motor design.
Motor losses
Fig. 3 gives a general outline of the flow of power through a standard motor and shows where
losses occur. The flow is shown as 100% electrical power going to the motor (on the left side of
the diagram), with the various losses involved shown in converting the power until it ends up as
mechanical power at the motor's output shaft. In this case, the major losses are stator resistance
loss (stator [I.sup.2]R). This is the largest single loss in the motor. It is followed by rotor
resistance loss (rotor [I.sup.2]R).
Next come losses that are described as cog losses, which are losses resulting from the cycling
magnetic forces within the motor. More specific terms used for these losses are hysteresis and
eddy current losses.
Hysteresis loss is the result of the constant re-orientation of the magnetic field within the motor
steel laminations.
Eddy-current loss results from the same phenomenon, which produces small electrical currents in
the steel. These electric currents circulate on themselves and produce heat without contributing
to the output of the motor. Hysteresis and eddy current losses occur in both the stationary and
rotating portions of the motor; however, the largest share occurs in the stationary portion.
In addition there are friction and windage losses. Friction loss is the result of friction in the
rolling of ball bearings. While bearings are extremely efficient, some losses still are generated.
Windage loss is actually a combination of things. First, the rotor spinning in air creates some
drag. The faster it spins, the more drag it creates with the surrounding air. In addition, there has
to be air flow through or over the motor to carry away heat being generated by the various losses.
In most cases, a fan is either incorporated on the shaft of the motor or designed into the ends of
the motor's rotor to provide air for cooling. This requires energy and uses input without
developing output.

Finally, there is a category called stray load losses. These are losses that cannot be accounted for
in the previous categories. Generally, stray load losses are dependent on motor loading and
increase as load is applied.
Know efficiency terms
There are different terms used to compare efficiencies of motors. The two most often heard are
nominal and guaranteed minimum efficiency. It's easy to get confused as to what basis you
should use to determine potential savings from efficiency upgrades.
Nominal efficiency ratings can be explained in the following manner. If a large batch of identical
motors are made and tested, the nominal efficiency is the average efficiency of these motors. Due
to manufacturing tolerances, some units might be less efficient while others might be more.
However, the nominal is the average of the lot.
Guaranteed minimum efficiency ratings recognize the variations from one motor to the next and
set an arbitrary low limit. Such a rating says, in essence, that none of the motors in the batch
previously described will be less efficient than this.
With these two efficiency ratings, what should be the basis of comparison? If you had to stake
your life on the result and it involved a single motor, then guaranteed minimum efficiency would
be the one to use. However, if you're considering a number of motors in a range of sizes, and
you're not held precisely to what the final result must be, then nominal efficiency is the proper
basis of comparison. Nominal efficiency also makes comparison easier because nominal
efficiency is on the name-plate of all new 3-phase motors. In addition, nominal and minimum
guaranteed efficiencies are related to each other by an equation established by the National
Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). Thus, comparing different motors on the basis of
nominal efficiency is really equivalent to comparing on the basis of minimum guaranteed.
The efficiency of standard industrial 3-phase motors usually runs from a level of approximately
75% at I hp up to 94% at 200 hp. The curves shown in Fig. 4 illustrate the general trend of motor
efficiency versus motor size for standard and PE motors.
Efficiency testing standards
It's important that you know the standard by which the efficiency of a motor is determined. This
should always be IEEE 112-1991, IEEE Standard Test Procedure for Polyphase Induction
Motors and Generators, specifically Method B. Of all standards developed for determining
efficiency of motors, this is one of the most rigorous. This method also measures the efficiency
in a hot running condition, making it more accurate because a motor's efficiency falls slightly as
operating temperature rises.
Other standards that are used, particularly some international standards, do not demand such
rigorous testing. In some cases, efficiency is merely calculated rather than measured. In virtually
all cases, these standards will give efficiencies higher than the tougher IEEE 112 standard. The

right basis of comparison should be that all motors considered should be compared on the same
standard.
A few precautions
The use of PE motors is not necessarily without some pitfalls. For example, PE motors run
somewhat faster (have less slip) than their less efficient counterparts. APE motor might run at a
full load speed of 1760 rpm while the motor it is intended to replace might be running at 1740
rpm. This can help or hurt conservation efforts, depending on the type of load the motor is
driving. For example, if it's driving a conveyor handling bulk materials, the higher speed will
result in getting the job done faster. Also, if the conveyor has periods of light load, the reduced
losses of the motor will save energy even during that period of time. The same situation exists on
many pumping applications where a specific amount of fluid is going to be transferred. If the
motor runs faster, the work is completed sooner and the motor is shut down earlier. In these
cases, the consequences of the increased speed does limit energy use.
But there are applications such as chilled water circulating pumps where the extra speed can
reduce expected savings. The reason this happens is that centrifugal pumps, along with other
types of variable torque loads such as blowers and fans, require horsepower that is proportional
to speed cubed. Thus, a slight increase in speed can result in a sharp increase in horsepower and
energy used. A typical example might be where the original motor is directly connected to a
centrifugal pump. Suppose its full load speed is 1740 rpm. The replacement PE motor, driving
the same pump, has a higher speed of 1757 rpm. The resulting difference of 1% will increase the
horsepower required by the pump by 1.01 x 1.01 x 1.01 = 1.03. Thus, the horsepower required
by the load is increased by 3 % above what it would be if the pump speed had remained the
same. Even with increased speed there remains, in most cases, some improvement in efficiency
and resulting reduction in energy usage, although it may not be what you hoped to achieve.
The same thing would hold true on fans and blowers, if no changes take place to bring the
equipment speed b ark to the original value.
In addition to the challenge of evaluating the different efficiencies of different makes of motors,
there's also the matter of selecting properly sized equipment. For example, a pump oversized for
a job may be much less efficient than a pump properly sized. Similarly, an air compressor
oversized for the job may be much less efficient than one selected to more closely match actual
requirements.
Existing motor efficiency upgrades
In a commercial or large industrial situation, one question frequently comes up: Should motors
be replaced on a wholesale basis throughout a facility or selectively changed? There's probably
no hard rule for this, but here are some ideas.
The wholesale change-out of all motors in a facility generally cannot be justified on a cost basis
because some of these motors may be used only intermittently. Such applications as test
equipment, trash compactors, and other similar situations support the case for not changing

everything. There may be other complications such as specialized motors found on some types of
pumps and machine tools as well as old motors (where direct interchanges are not readily
available). These fall into a cloudy area where change-out may not be justified.
Motors having the greatest potential for savings are those that run on an extended basis with near
full load conditions. These are the logical candidates for any change-out program.
New equipment
When purchasing new equipment that will operate for substantial periods of time, ask for a PE
motor option as part of your invitation to bidders. When asking for quotes on air compressors,
pumps, HVAC equipment, process machinery, etc., a typical specification should read something
like this:
The bidder should quote with its choice of standard induction motors and as an alternative, quote
on the same machine equipped with premium efficiency motors. The bidder will separate the
incremental cost for the addition of the premium efficiency motor(s) and provide the nominal
efficiencies of both the standard and the premium efficiency motors offered.
By using a specification similar to this, the owner of the equipment will be in the position to
make logical decisions on new motors being installed in the facility. In most cases, the
incremental cost for a more energy efficient motor will be relatively small, especially when
compared with the cost of the equipment it drives.
Edward H. Cowern, P.E. is New England District Manager, Baldor Electric Co., Wallingford,
Conn.

Understanding Variable Speed Drives (Part

1)
Mar 1, 1999 12:00 PM, Turkel, Solomon S.
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Three basic types of variable frequency drives offer certain advantages as well as disadvantages
depending on your motor application. The new flux vector drive is also discussed.
While all variable frequency drives (VFDs) control the speed of an AC induction motor by
varying the motor's supplied voltage and frequency of power, they all do not use the same
designs in doing so. There are three major VFD designs commonly used today: pulse width
modulation (PWM), current source inverter (CSI), and voltage source inverter (VSI). Recently,
the flux vector drive also has become popular.
Let's compare these technologies.

PWM design
The PWM drive has become the most commonly used drive controller because it works well
with motors ranging in size from about 1/2 hp to 500 hp. A significant reason for its popularity is
that it's highly reliable, affordable and reflects the least amount of harmonics back into its power
source. Most units are rated either 230V or 460V, 3-phase, and provide output frequencies from
about 2 Hz to 400 Hz. Nearly 100 manufacturers market the PWM controller. A typical controller
is shown in the photo.
As shown in Fig. 1, an AC line supply voltage is brought into the input section. From here, the
AC voltage passes into a converter section that uses a diode bridge converter and large DC
capacitors to create and maintain a stable, fixed DC bus voltage. The DC voltage passes into the
inverter section usually furnished with insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), which regulate
both voltage and frequency to the motor to produce a near sine wave like output.
The term "pulse width modulation" explains how each transition of the alternating voltage output
is actually a series of short pulses of varying widths. By varying the width of the pulses in each
half cycle, the average power produced has a sine-like output. The number of transitions from
positive to negative per second determines the actual frequency to the motor.
Switching speeds of the IGBTs in a PWM drive can range from 2 KHz to 15 KHz. Today's newer
PWM designs use power IGBTs, which operate at these higher frequencies. By having more
pulses in every half cycle, the motor whine associated with VFD applications is reduced because
the motor windings are now oscillating at a frequency beyond the spectrum of human hearing.
Also, the current wave shape to the motor is smoothed out as current spikes are removed. Fig. 2
(on page 56) shows the voltage and current waveform outputs from a PWM drive.
PWMs have the following advantages.
* Excellent input power factor due to fixed DC bus voltage.
* No motor cogging normally found with six-step inverters.
* Highest efficiencies: 92% to 96%.
* Compatibility with multimotor applications.
* Ability to ride through a 3 to 5 Hz power loss.
* Lower initial cost.
The following are disadvantages, however, that you should also consider.
* Motor heating and insulation breakdown in some applications due to high frequency switching
of transistors.

* Non-regenerative operation.
* Line-side power harmonics (depending on the application and size of the drive).
CSI design
As shown in Fig. 3, the incoming power source to the CSI design is converted to DC voltage in
an SCR converter section, which regulates the incoming power and produces a variable DC bus
voltage. This voltage is regulated by the firing of the SCRs as needed to maintain the proper
volt/hertz ratio. SCRs are also used in the inverter section to produce the variable frequency
output to the motor. CSI drives are inherently current regulating and require a large internal
inductor to operate, as well as a motor load.
CSIs have the following advantages.
* Reliability due to inherent current limiting operation.
* Regenerative power capability.
* Simple circuitry.
The following are disadvantages, however, in the use of CSI technology.
* Large power harmonic generation back into power source.
* Cogging below 6 Hz due to square wave output.
* Use of large and costly inductor.
* HV spikes to motor windings.
* Load dependent; poor for multimotor applications.
* Poor input power factor due to SCR converter section.
VSI design
As shown in Fig. 4, the VSI drive is very similar to a CSI drive in that it also uses an SCR
converter section to regulate DC bus voltage. Its inverter section produces a six-step output, but
is not a current regulator like the CSI drive. This drive is considered a voltage regulator and uses
transistors, SCRs or gate turn off thyristors (GTOs) to generate an adjustable frequency output to
the motor.
VSIs have the following advantages.
TERMS TO KNOW

Cogging: Pulsating symptom of a motor while operating at a very low frequency, usually 2 to 6
Hz. Shaft of motor jerks in a rotational manner. The term "cogging" comes from gear cogs.
Non-regenerative: The inability of a drive to regenerate, or reverse, the power flow back from the
motor through the drive.
* Basic simplicity in design.
* Applicable to multimotor operations.
* Operation not load dependent.
As with the other types of drives, there are disadvantages.
* Large power harmonic generation back into the power source.
* Poor input power factor due to SCR converter section.
* Cogging below 6 Hz due to square wave output.
* Non-regenerative operation.
Flux vector PWM drives
PWM drive technology is still considered new and is continuously being refined with new power
switching devices and smart 32-bit microprocessors. AC drives have always been limited to
"normal torque" applications while high torque, low rpm applications have been the domain of
DC drives. This has changed recently with the introduction of a new breed of PWM drive, the
flux vector drive.
Flux vector drives use a method of controlling torque similar to that of DC drive systems,
including wide speed control range with quick response. Flux vector drives have the same power
section as all PWM drives, but use a sophisticated closed loop control from the motor to the
drive's microprocessor. The motor's rotor position and speed is monitored in real time via a
resolver or digital encoder to determine and control the motor's actual speed, torque, and power
produced.
By controlling the inverter section in response to actual load conditions at the motor in a real
time mode, superior torque control can be obtained. The personality of the motor must be
programmed into or learned by the drive in order for it to run the vector control algorithms. In
most cases, special motors are required due to the torque demands expected of the motor.
The following are advantages of this new drive technology.
* Excellent control of motor speed, torque, and power.

* Quick response to changes in load, speed, and torque commands.

* Ability to provide 100% rated torque at 0 speed.
* Lower maintenance cost as compared to DC motors and drives.
As usual, there are disadvantages.
* Higher initial cost as compared to standard PWM drives.
* Requires special motor in most cases.
* Drive setup parameters are complex.
While flux vector technology offers superior performance for certain special applications, it
would be considered "over-kill" for most applications well served by standard PWM drives.
Solomon S. Turkel is Senior Instructor and Course Author for ATMS (Advanced Technologies
Marketing and Service), Inc., Baltimore, Md.

Adding central A C to an existing dwelling

service.
Mar 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Stallcup, James G.
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Can a central air-conditioner be added to existing service conductors without upgrading the
elements of the service equipment?
Designers and installers always seem to use the standard or optional calculation procedure
pertaining to existing dwelling units to determine if special appliance loads can be added without
upgrading the elements of the service equipment (service entrance conductors and load center).
For many years, it's been permissible to add special appliance loads to existing dwelling units
without applying the more complicated standard calculation.
Existing dwelling units per Sec. 220-31 of the 1993 NEC may use the optional calculation
method to size the components for the service equipment to determine if additional loads can be
added to the service. To apply the optional procedure, a 120/240V or 208/120V, 3-wire system is
required to supply the service. Two columns are used in separating the loads in the dwelling unit.
General lighting and general purpose receptacle loads are computed at 3VA per sq ft per Sec.
220-31. All other loads a re computed at 100 % of their name-plate ratings. Heating and A/C
loads are calculated at 100% and the smaller load is dropped per Sec. 220-31.

Other loads: Column 1

For our first column, we'll use existing loads and generate this column by adding the 3VA per sq
ft lighting load to the small appliance loads figured at 1500VA for each 20A small appliance
branch circuit. We'll also add in the nameplate ratings of each appliance load that is permanently
connected or fastened in place, with the exception of space heating or A/C equipment. The
demand factors in Sec. 220-31 are used in reducing this VA rating for the existing load and this
value is then added to the second column, which contains the appliance load to be added.
Added air-conditioning load: Column 2
We'll use the added appliance loads for the second column. This column is determined by adding
the total VA rating of these loads at 100%. The added load usually consist of a heating unit, airconditioner, dryer, or some other type of special appliance load. The second column then is
added to the first to derive the total VA rating of the dwelling unit.
Calculation example
From the following loads in an existing dwelling unit, we can determine if an A/C unit, with a
VA rating of 5040, can be added to the service conductors. (The existing conductors are No. 3
THWN copper conductors rated at 100A per Table 310-16).
* 1800 sq ft dwelling unit
* Two small appliance circuits
* One laundry circuit
* 12kW range; 240V
* 5kW dryer; 240V
* 1000VA compactor; 120V
* 900VA disposal; 120V
* 1200VA dishwasher; 120V
Step 1. Column 1, existing load, Table 220-31.
* General lighting load:
1800 sq ft at 3VA/sqft = 5400VA
* Small appliance circuits:

1500VA at 3VA/sq ft = 4500VA

* Other loads:
Range load = 12,000VA Dryer load = 5000VA Disposal load = 900VA Compactor load =
1000VA Dishwasher load = 1200VA
Total load = 30,000VA
Step 2. Column 1, Table 220-31.
* Applying demand factor:
First 8000VA at 100% = 8000VA Remainder VA at 40% = 8800VA
Total load = 16,800VA
Step 3. Column 2, Table 220-31.
* Added appliance load:
A/C unit = 5040VA X 100% = 5040VA
Step 4. Total VA, Table 220-31.
Column 1 = 16,800VA Column 2 = 5040VA
Total load = 21,840VA
Step 5. Total amps, Table 220-31.
A = VA/V A = 21,840VA/240V A = 91A
Solution: The calculation verities that the A/C unit load can be added because the 91A computed
load is less than the 100A No. 3 THWN copper conductors utilized for the existing service.

Determining submersible pump cable sizes.

Mar 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Duhan, Jeff
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How are voltage drop calculations used in sizing submersible pump power cables?

What happens when the power source for a submersible pump is not located near the pump's
control box? For one thing, the pump's power cable must be sized to limit the resultant voltage
drop to less than 5%. After all, the pump must be supplied with adequate voltage to ensure
efficient operation and to prevent premature motor failure.
The first solution that comes to mind is the use of cable charts. Unfortunately, some cable charts
are based on the current to be carried by the respective cable while other charts list only standard
horsepowers and are based on the average current required for these horsepower rated motors.
Also, some charts are based on a particular make of electric motor, specifically on its current and
power factor (PF). The motor current and PF of another make of motor will differ because
efficiencies and designs differ. A low efficiency motor with a low PF will draw more current than
one with having high efficiency and high PF.
There is another approach, however, that is tailored to the specific situation at hand: voltage drop
calculations. Let's see how this approach works.
Basic voltage drop equations
There are different equations and different impedance values used in determining the allowable
conductor length for a specific situation. However, four equations can be used regardless of the
situation to determine voltage drop.
[V.sub.D] = (L x R x I) [divided by] 1000 (eq. 1)
[V.sub.D] = (L x R x PF x I) [divided by] 1000 (eq. 2)
[V.sub.D] = [(L x I) x (Rcos[Phi] + Xsin[Phi])] [divided by] 1000 (eq. 3)
[V.sub.D] = (L x Z x I) [divided by] 1000 (eq. 4)
where [V.sub.D] = voltage drop (volts)
L = one way length of conductor (ft)
R = resistance of conductor per 1000 ft (ohms)
I = current (amperes)
PF = power factor of motor
X = reactance of conductor per 1000 ft (ohms)
Z = impedance of conductor per 1000 ft (ohms)
[Phi] = angle that voltage leads current (electrical degrees)

You can use Equation 1 when dealing with DC circuits, or AC circuits having a PF of 1. This
equation, although frequently used, will not provide the correct voltage drop unless the PF is 1.
Equation 2, although sometimes used when the PF is less than 1, will not provide the correct
result when this is the case. The voltage drop across the cable will always be equal to or greater
than the current (I) times the resistance (R). Equation 2 will give a result equal to or less than I
times R.
Equation 3, which uses both resistance and reactance, is adequate for determining voltage drop in
cables providing power to motors with a PF of less than 1. This widely used equation will also
work with a PF of 1.
Equation 4 is the most accurate but is not widely used. It turns out to be the same as Equation 3 if
the impedance angle is equal to the PF angle. The impedance angle can be found by dividing the
cable reactance (X) by the cable resistance (R), and then, using trigonometric tables, finding the
inverse tangent (arctan) of this result. The cable's impedance (Z) is equal to the square root of the
quantity resistance squared ([R.sup.2]) plus reactance squared ([X.sup.2]). In mathematical
terms, this is shown by the following equation.
Z = [square root of([R.sup.2] + [X.sup.2])] (eq. 5.)
Impedance can also be found by using the following equation:
Z = Rcos[Phi] + Xsin[Phi] (eq. 6.)
If this equation is used to find impedance, then Equations 3 and 4 will provide the same answer.
Finding resistance
There are many ways in which you can obtain resistance values for Equations 1, 2, and 3.
Conductors have different DC resistance values based on their temperature, length, and diameter.
They also have different AC resistance values based on skin effect, proximity effect, the AC
frequency, and the DC resistance. Skin effect is a phenomenon whereby the current in a
conductor travels along its outer edge instead of uniformily through the conductor's entire cross
section. Proximity effect is a phenomenon caused by other conductors close by that are also
carrying current.
Determining maximum allowable voltage drop
Cable charts that provide allowable cable lengths are usually compiled through the use of the
equations previously discussed; in other words, they are based on calculations that verify a
maximum allowable voltage drop for a specific size of cable and make of motor. Regardless of
motor make, however, the total voltage drop in a conductor should not exceed 5 % of the circuit
voltage.

For 3-phase motors, the voltage reading is line-to-line, but the voltage drop is considered line-toneutral. Thus, the cable voltage drop for 3-phase motors should not exceed 5% of the line-toneutral voltage. To find this Voltage, you divide the line-to-line voltage by the square root of 3.
For single-phase motors, the voltage reading and the voltage drop are both considered line-toline. The previously discussed voltage drop equations should be multiplied by two for singlephase motors because voltage is dropped in the cable both going to and returning from the motor.
Finding the maximum length of a conductor requires knowledge of the cable's impedance,
current, and maximum allowable voltage drop. The maximum allowable voltage drop
([V.sub.Dmax]) for a 3-phase motor can be found by using the following equation.
[V.sub.Dmax] = (V [divided by] [square root of 3]) x 5% (eq. 7)
The maximum impedance ([Z.sub.max]) allowed can be found by using the following equation.
[Z.sub.max] = (V [divided by] I) x (0.05 [divided by] [square root of 3]) (eq. 8)
The maximum length allowed ([L.sub.max]) for a 3-phase motor's power cable can be found by
using the following equation.
[L.sub.max] = (V [divided by] I) x (0.05 [divided by] [square root of 3]) x (1000 [divided by] Z)
(eq. 9)
Looking at Equation 9, we can determine that 0.05 times 1000 divided the square root of 3
approximately equals 28.87. As such, Equation 9 can be simplified as follows.
[L.sub.max] = [V [divided by] (I x Z)] x 28.87 (eq. 10)
For power feeders to single-phase motors, the equation for finding [L.sub.max] is as follows.
[L.sub.max] = [V [divided by] (I x Z)] x [(0.05 x 1000) [divided by] 2] (eq. 11)
The impedance value (Z) of a specific size conductor can be found in the NEC, Chapter 9, Table
9. Various values are provided for both copper and aluminum wire, relative to the type of
raceway used (PVC duct, aluminum conduit, steel conduit).
Sample calculation
Suppose we have a 150 hp, 460V motor having a PF of .85 and drawing 191 A. If we decide to
use a 4/0 AWG copper cable having an impedance 0.078 ohms, what will the maximum length
be so that the 5% maximum allowable voltage drop is not exceeded?
Using Equation 10, we have the following.

[L.sub.max] = [V [divided by] (I x Z)] x 28.87 (eq. 10) = [460V [divided by] (191A x 0.078)] x
28.87 = 891 ft
This is the maximum length allowed for the conductor to maintain a 5% or less voltage drop.
Jeff Duhan is assistant electrical engineer, Sun-Star Electric, Inc., Lubbock, Tex.

Tying new MV feeders into an existing

system.
Mar 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Canham, James; Zec, Joseph; Pullizzi, Jack E.; Ciasulli, Mario
0 Comments ShareThisNew
Power feeders for a new cooling tower require special design and installation considerations to
be compatible with the existing power distribution system.
Tying a new 15kV feeder into an existing PILC (paper insulated, lead covered) cable system is
just one of the important factors in the design and installation of a new cooling tower at AT&T
Bell Labs in Holmdel, N.J. Other factors include the integrity of existing butyl rubber and PILC
feeder cables and proper phasing within the existing primary selective distribution system. The
design and installation details of this project provide some interesting perspectives.
Power distribution
As shown in Fig. 1, the incoming electrical service at the AT&T Bell Labs facility is 34.5kV,
powering two 15 MVA transformers. From here, the voltage is stepped down to 13.2kV. The
main switchgear is double-ended with a normally closed tie breaker and four feeder breakers on
each side of the tie breaker. The main building is served by six 13.2kV feeders.
There are 40 other substations at the facility, ranging in size from 500kVA to 2500kVA. All are
double-ended, primary selective.
Fig. 2 shows the existing 13.2kV site power distribution along with the new cooling tower power
feeders. Providing electric service for the new cooling tower's 1500kVA substation required
tapping existing HLC and butyl rubber feeders in an existing manhole. Specifically, existing
Feeders A1 and B1 were tapped with Y-splices in existing Manhole 6. All building feeders are
normally energized and pass through this manhole. No electrical shut-down was required for any
phase of this work.
Splicing new cables to PILC cables
Feeder Al, installed over 30 years ago, is a 3-conductor, 500kcmil, oil-impregnated, paper
insulated, lead-sheathed, PVC jacketed, 15kV power cable. Feeder Bl is newer and consists of

three single-conductor, 500kcmil butyl rubber cables. The new cooling tower power feeders are
single-conductor, 500kcmil, 15kV, 133% insulation level, EPR/PVC, shielded power cables.
([ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 3 OMITTED] on page 68.)
The making of Y-splices to Feeders Al and B1 without interruption of power required good
planning, skilled mechanics, partnering with AT&T's Plant Operations, and continuous effective
communication among all parties involved. Feeder Al was the first feeder to be spliced and all
substations affected were switched to Feeder B1.
The following is a step-by-step chronology of the splicing.
Step 1. With all loads transferred to B1, Feeder Al was taken out of service, locked out, and
tagged. All four other feeders (A2, B2, A3, and B3), were still energized in Manhole 6
throughout the course of work.
Step 2. To ensure that Feeder Al was actually deenergized, the lead covering over the existing
butt splice was melted off to reveal the singles so that a tic tracer would read any voltage. Once it
was verified that Feeder Al was actually deenergized, preparations were made to cut the feeder
and begin the splice.
Step 3. After Feeder Al was cut, each wire was identified to determine phasing at each ends.
Cables in Feeders Al and B1 had to be tapped and terminated in proper phase relationship to
permit momentary closure of both Al and B1 switches at the substations, as shown in Fig. 3.
Step 4. To make the required Y-splices, in-line transition splices from existing PILC singles to
new EPR/PVC singles first had to be made; then the Y-splices could be made on the new
EPR/PVC singles. As such, a loop of three EPR/PVC singles was added to the A1 Feeder.
The transition splices each required a butt joint. Because the copper conductors in the PILC were
triangular shaped sectors, a compression coupler could not be used. Instead, a split tinned-solder
coupler was used to couple the PILC sectors to the EPR/PVC round conductors.
After the inner portion of the splice was complete, a ground braid was attached with a spring
clamp to the metallic tape shield of each EPR/PVC single. These three ground braids then were
laid across the splice tubes and soldered to the lead sheath of the PILC cable. A shielding mesh
was half lapped over the braids. A nonconductive sealing breakout was applied to the ends of the
new singles and heat-shrinked in place. An overall wrap-around sleeve then was positioned and a
channel clip installed. Finally, the entire assembly was heat-shrinked.
Each of the 6 transition splices required 41 steps to complete, with each finished splice 48-in.
long. Since Manhole 6 is only 8-ft long by 8-ft wide, the transition splices had to be located one
over the other.
Step 5. With the three single conductor EPR loops in place, the Y-splices could now be made.
Half duplex solder connectors were used for the Y-joint. The Y-splices were completed,

connecting each phase of Feeder A1 to the run of new EPR/PVC cables going to the cooling
tower.
Little Silver Electric, Inc. was the electrical contractor, with Bud Flanagan foreman. Little Silver
brought in certified high voltage splicers Dusty Rhoades and Robert Cushman to do the splices
as well as the stress cone terminations.
Splicing new cables to existing Feeder B1
After the A1 circuit was proof-tested, it was put back in service. All loads were transferred to
Feeder A1 and Feeder B1 then was deenergized.
As was done with Feeder A1, Feeder B1 was tested to verify that it was deenergized. Its
conductors were cut, with each identified at all termination points to insure proper phasing.
Because Feeder B1 consisted of single conductor cables, the Y-splices were made directly on
them.
Hi-pot testing
Before hi-pot testing could begin, the cables had to be removed from the line side of switches in
three different locations, as shown in Fig. 4 (see page 70). This eliminated the possibility of
flashover across the switches since, with the load side energized at 13.2kV from Feeder B1, a
potential of 36kV would develop across the switch, as shown in Fig. 5 (see page 72).
Feeder A1. Once the Y-splices were made in Manhole 6, each assembly was hi-potted at 18kV
maximum for 15 min.
The existing PILC cable was hi-potted. before and after the making of the Y-splices. Hi-potting
the old cable required removing all terminated ends. (It's a good practice to remove cables from
an HV switch to ensure that hi-pot readings will not include bus work, instrument transformers,
etc.)
Feeder B1. After making the Y-splices on this feeder, it was then hi-potted at 18kV maximum for
15 min. After all ends were terminated, the feeder was energized. A phasing stick was used at all
locations where Feeders A1 and B1 terminate in adjoining switches to ensure proper phasing.
The cables were then fire-wrapped and neatly racked in Manholes 6, 6A, and 6B.
New EPR/PVC cable. The new cable was hi-pot tested while still on reels after delivery to the
site and was proof tested after installation between Manhole 6 and the cooling tower. This was
done at 80% of the factory test level, or 65kV maximum for 15 min.
Mystery sound during testing
During the hi-pot testing of the 13.2kV feeders, a faint buzzing sound was heard at the rear of the
main substation. An in-depth search for the origin of the sound was conducted, with cover plates

for the horizontal bus in the main substation removed to aid in location. The sound was so faint
that technicians weren't certain if it was real or imaginary.
The lights inside the main substation then were shut off, as a last test, to obtain a visual
indication to the problem, if possible. A faint blue glow was seen around one of the horizontal
busses, where it passed through an insulating barrier from the A1 circuit breaker to the A2 circuit
breaker. The combination of buzzing sound and blue glow indicated that a high voltage corona
condition existed and tracking was beginning to develop.
All loads then were transferred to the "B" feeders. The "A" side of the main substation was
isolated and corrective action was taken. All horizontal busses were cleaned and retaped and the
insulating barriers were replaced. As a precautionary measure, the same actions were taken on
the "B" side of the main substation, after it was deenergized.
The lesson we learned: Be alert to your surroundings, expect the unexpected, and take
appropriate action. The early detection of this problem and prompt response avoided a costly,
unscheduled, and possibly long, out-age of the entire facility. The corrective action was done
during normal working hours and transparent to the occupants of the facility.
Key interlocks
Key interlocks and other tamper-proof systems prevent the accidental closing or opening of
switches and switchgear out of sequence when used per system operating instructions. As with
any other fail-safe systems, there are ways to override the intended use, which is to prevent the
operation of the electrical system in the wrong sequence. This improper operating sequence
could damage equipment and might prove personally dangerous to the operator. On this project,
the normal sequence was not followed and the key interlock system was overridden to allow
switching without any loss of power to the building.
Note: Interlocks for electrical equipment may not be used as a substitute for lockout and tagging
procedures.
Lock out/tag out procedures
OSHA's lockout/ragout requirements are as follows.
* Locate and identify all sources of energy and control devices.
* Notify all affected employees of lockout.
* Isolate all energy sources, such as bleeding stored energy in hydraulic and pneumatic systems.
* Lockout and tag all switches in the OFF position.
* Test to ensure that equipment turned OFF are indeed deenergized.

* Perform the work required.

* After the work is complete, remove locks and tags from equipment. Be sure to notify all
affected employees that the equipment is to be reenergized. Special note: only the person who
installed the lock should remove the lock.
For this project, the switching procedures needed to be reviewed and revised by electricians from
Little Silver Electric and AT&T Bell Labs facilities management to ensure employee safety was
not compromised. This meant installing locks and tags on all of the 13.2kV switches that were
being deenergized as well as going to the main switchyard and racking-out, locking-out, and
tagging the feeder breaker in the main substation. This process was duplicated when splicing
occurred on the second feeder. When the 13.2kV lines were opened for splicing or testing, the
phasing was checked because the 13.2kV lines are sometimes paralleled to switch feeders
without disruption to the building.
Construction procedures at AT&T Bell Labs
Operations personnel perform all switching and tagging of the electrical system under the
direction of the operations supervisor. Formal procedures are followed to ensure safety and to
avoid inadvertent shutdown of critical loads.
When there is a request to shut down an MV feeder, operations personnel go to each primary
selective substation and switch the load from one feeder to the other paired feeder. The primary
switches are key interlocked to prevent the closing of two primary switches simultaneously;
however, procedures allow two of these switches to be closed together temporarily with
permission from the operations supervisor. This is necessary to avoid interrupting power to
critical loads during switching operations.
Project background information
The chilled water system has a capacity of 6000 tons and consists of five 1200-ton chillers. Until
recently, the source of condenser water for the chillers was from a 6-million-gallon pond located
at the front of the facility. Additional data processing and computer loads increased the demand
for chilled water; thus the capacity of the front pond to provide adequate condenser water
cooling for the chillers was eventually exceeded. The remedy to this problem was to construct a
cooling tower to provide condenser water cooling.
The installation consists of five 25 x 25-ft fiberglass shelled, tile filled, modular cooling towers.
Each tower has a 60-hp, 460V, 3-phase fan motor. The motors are powered from variable
frequency drives, with contactor bypass.
The cooling towers are placed in a linear arrangement on top of a concrete basin. Condenser
water is pumped via underground 30-in. diameter ductile-iron pipes from the cooling towers'
location to the chiller plant, approximately 2500 ft away. The remote site for the cooling towers
was chosen to eliminate noise and vapor in the vicinity of the main building.

Six 2-stage, vertical turbine condenser water pumps, driven by 200-hp, 460V, 3-phase, highefficiency motors, are installed in the basin to meet the pumping requirements. Motor controllers
for the pump motors are solid-state reduced voltage starters with bypass contactors.
The cooling tower is powered from a 1500kVA double-ended primary selective substation. The
incoming power for the substation is 13.2kV and is connected to the existing primary distribution
system. The tower itself is connected to the same feeders that feed the chilled water plant.
AT&T Bell Labs' facility electrical engineering group provided the conceptual design and acted
as construction managers for the project. Black & Veatch, Fishkill, N.Y., furnished the detailed
design services for the project. AT&T Bell Labs specified and prepurchased all major electrical
equipment (substations, motor control centers, panels, cable, conduit, etc.), resulting in
considerable savings.
At the AT&T Bell Labs facility in Holmdel, research is conducted primarily on data processing,
software development, and computer-based communication systems. Accommodating this
research requires a very large facility, which encompasses 2.5 million sq ft under one roof, with
many complex systems.
Safety concerns
This was a grass roots project, having minimal association with existing buildings and utilities,
except for tie-ins. All contractors were instructed in AT&T safety practices. These included the
use of hard hats for all personnel on the job site, ground fault protection of portable equipment,
and OSHA requirements for maintaining a safe working environment.
Two critical safety issues were working in a confined Space and lockout/tagout procedures. Both
of these issues were associated with the splicing of the 13.2kV feeders in Manhole 6.
Confined space according to OSHA's ruling is "a space in which an employee may enter and
perform work." It is not a space intended for continuous occupancy and a person's entrance and
exit is restricted. There are two basic types of these spaces, one being a permit required space in
which there are hazards present in the area under normal conditions. These may include, but are
not limited to, hazardous atmospheres containing methane gas or an oxygen deficient
atmosphere, or hazards because of the configuration of the space, where a person entering may
be trapped because of the shape of the space. This type of space must be considered permitrequired confined space, requiring that special precautions be taken before entering the area so
that a worker is protected.
The second type of space is the non-permit confined space. This area does not actually contain
hazards that could cause death or bodily harm; nevertheless it still is a confined space. An
example of an area like this could be a crawl space under a building. All employers were
required to have surveyed their facilities by April 15, 1993, and identified the permit-required,
confined areas, notifying all affected employees of their existence as well as those who would
enter such spaces. Also, the permit-required spaces must be effectively guarded and identified as
a restricted area to keep unauthorized personnel out. If the facility determined it has only non-

permit spaces, nothing else would need to be done. However, good practice is to monitor these
types of areas to assure that they remain a non-permit confined space.
The confined space issue requires contractors and owners to share information and work together
in permit-required, confined spaces as noted here.
* Notify contractor why the area is a permit-required, confined space.
* Inform the contractor of any past experience with the area. In turn, the contractor must inform
the owner of any hazards encountered while working in the permit area.
* Inform the contractor of the measures used to protect the employees who work near or in the
permit-required, confined space. In turn, the contractor will inform the owner of what
precautions that meet the standard will be used to protect the contractor's workers in or near the
confined space.
* If both the contractor's and the owner's employees will be working in the confined space
together, it is the owner's as well as the contractor's obligation to coordinate work operations to
provide a safe work environment for all employees working in the area.
* The owner shall conduct an end-of-job meeting with the contractor to discuss any hazards
found during work in the confined space.
This is a general industry standard and does not apply to construction, agriculture, or shipyard
employment. There are state-run OSHA programs that cover places of employment that are not
covered in the federal regulation. The states that run their own programs are California,
Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, and Virginia. In New Jersey, this is not the case. Most
electricians are not familiar with this standard because it does not apply to construction. The
conflict on a job like this one and others where there is a combination of new manholes (new
construction) and existing manholes (general industry) is this: Where does the standard apply and
what'S required? At this facility, we treat all manholes as permit-required, confined space areas
and eliminated any possible safety concerns by taking the most stringent applications of the
ruling. In our view, what's the difference if a hazard is on a new job or one already existing?
NONE. Therefore, taking extra precautions is a small price to pay for employee safety.
Specialized equipment which may be needed for confined space entry may include the following.
* Air sampling instruments that measure for oxygen content, combustibles, toxic gases and
vapors. A permit-required, confined space requires testing and monitoring to determine whether
it is safe to enter, and remains safe for the job.
* Protective gear, which could include hard hats, rubber goods, barriers, etc.
* Ventilators/blowers, which may be used in instances where only atmospheric hazards exist. A
simplified entry procedure may be used with continuously forced ventilation.

* Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA), which would be needed for rescue operations or
if the area could not be purged of the contaminant. This standard allows for rescue from the
confined space by an onsite team or by outside help. Outside help is sometimes a problem
because response time is critical in life saving efforts in a confined space. If an onsite team is
used, one of the training requirements is that rescue team members be trained in basic first aid
and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
* Communication Equipment. Entrants must be able to communicate with attendants.
* Tripod and Winch, Lifeline, and Body Harness. The standard requires that a non-entry retrieval
system, such as harness and rope, be used whenever an employee enters a permit-required,
confined space. If the employee is deeper than 5 ft, then a mechanical type lifting device shall be
available. The exception to the rule would be if these measures would not help in the rescue
attempts or increase the hazards in the confined space.
James Canham is Facilities Engineering Operations and Maintenance Manager, Joseph Zec is
Senior Facilities Engineer, and Jack E. Pullizzi is Assistant Facilities Engineer at AT&T Bell
Labs, Holmdel, N.J. Mario Ciasulli is a Consulting Engineer for MMC Engineering, Inc.

Applying arena lighting system guidelines.

Mar 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Meyers, Randy J.
2 Comments ShareThis5
Many lighting guidelines for large arenas can be applied to similar but smaller facilities.
While many of us are excited by the sights and sounds of sporting, entertainment, and theatrical
events held in an arena, we very rarely pay attention to an important part of the facility's
infrastructure: lighting. Yes, we'll probably never be involved in the design or installation of
lighting for such large facilities as the America West Arena in Phoenix, Ariz. (home of the
Phoenix Suns), the Rose Garden in Portland, Ore. (home of the Portland Trail Blazers), or the
Spokane Veterans Memorial Coliseum Arena in Spokane, Wash. However, many of the
guidelines used in these facilities can also be applied to similar but smaller projects.
Let's take a look at these lighting guidelines and see how and where they are applied.
Arena bowl lighting
Arena bowl lighting is comprised of several systems that create a lighting environment unique to
the event in progress. These systems are as follows.
* Event lighting system.
* Catwalk lighting.

* Temporary lighting systems.

* Portable spotlights.
* Theatrical effect lighting systems.
* Still camera strobes.
* House/emergency lighting.
* Suite/skybox lighting.
* Advertising/score boards.
* Aisle lighting.
* Exit signage.
Event lighting
The event lighting system is a fixed system that provides illumination for regularly scheduled
events, including sporting events, conventions, and floor exhibits. This system delivers specific
levels of horizontal and vertical illuminance in consideration of the numerous viewing angles of
players, performers, and spectators, while also addressing television broadcast criteria and
minimizing objectionable glare. Lighting uniformity criteria is explicitly specified and field
verified. The appropriate combination of horizontal and vertical illumination and uniformity
criteria defines the ability of the event lighting system to reveal the three dimensional image of
an object, e.g., a ball or a player. This lighting effect is know as the modelling effect of the
system.
As the event lighting system is required to illuminate differing event types from day to day, you
should ensure that the necessary flexibility is incorporated into the lighting equipment, fixture
layout, branch circuit zoning, and lighting control system. The event occupying the largest
playing area (width/length/height) and/or the highest illumination level determines the overall
extent of the system.
The event lighting system is used on a partial basis for events with smaller playing areas,
utilizing fixtures designated to meet each event type's specific lighting criteria.
Event lighting systems typically consist of 150 to 250 special purpose floodlight type lighting
fixtures.
Light sources. Metal halide (M-H) has become the lamp source of choice for arena event lighting
systems. This lamp source is significantly more efficient than incandescent sources and renders
colors more effectively than high pressure sodium (HPS) sources. M-H lamps have a flicker

factor of less than 0.1, reducing the undesirable stroboscopic effect, which is particularly
noticeable during slow motion replay television broadcast.
M-H lamps are available in color temperature ratings from 3200K to 5600K, and with color
rendering indexes as high as 70. M-H lamps may be operated with instant-restrike type systems;
however, evidence of superior field experience and a minimum five year warranty is
recommended in considering the use of this type of control.
Lighting fixtures. Lighting fixtures used for the arena event lighting system have a substantially
constructed housing, an optical reflector, a gasketed glass lens, a ballast, aiming angle marking
and locking devices, mounting accessories, and an SO cord with a twist lock plug. Optional
accessories include glare control devices, instant-restrike hardware, and motorized shutters.
There are two general classes of event lighting fixtures: heavy-duty floodlights and general
purpose floodlights. Heavy-duty floodlights have a substantial housing, usually die cast
aluminum, with a removable optical reflector.
General purpose floodlights are typically spun aluminum bowls, with the bowl used as the
reflector. General purpose floodlight systems are less expensive than heavy-duty systems;
however, the savings usually come in exchange for less precise optical control. This can result in
uniformity ratios that do not meet minimum criteria, which can cause problems for television
broadcasters. In general, heavy-duty fixtures with precise optical control should be used for
network television quality venues.
A typical event lighting systems consists of 150 to 250 M-H lighting fixtures rated at 1000W
each. Designing a specific quantity and type of lighting fixtures in a specific layout on catwalks
poses difficulties, as performance of different manufacturers' lighting fixtures varies widely.
Instead, it has become common practice to prequalify manufacturers who are asked to submit a
price based on the application of their fixtures to the illumination criteria dictated by the project
specifications. This would require each manufacturer to perform computer generated
illumination analyses to verify compliance with the specifications. The electrical drawings
indicate the perceived "worst case" design; that is, the system with the most lighting fixtures. It's
important to furnish each prequalified manufacturer with complete architectural and structural
drawings so that interference from obstructing structures, scoreboards, acoustical elements,
banners, etc., can be accounted for.
Instant-on control. You should give early consideration of the necessity for instant-on control in
the event lighting system. The need for this feature can increase the cost of the system by 50 to
100%.
M-H lamps take 5 to 10 min to reach full light output upon application of voltage from a cold
start. When the lamp is turned off, it takes 15 to 30 min for the lamp to cool, restrike, and return
to full brightness. Several NBA venues feature a black out of the event lighting system during
player introduction to highlight a theatrical effects display.

One way to achieve instant-on control is through the use of an instant-restrike type system. This
consists of a fixture-mounted control circuit and igniter that imposes a high voltage spike on the
lamp, causing the lamp to instantly produce light output. The less time the lamp is off, the less
time it takes to return to full light put. (See Table.) The actual performance of these systems
varies from poor to very good, and only systems with proven field experience should be
considered. This system requires a special lamp, which will have a shorter life than a
conventional M-H lamp (published data is difficult to find).
Another way to achieve instant-on control is through the use of a fixture mounted motorized
shutter system. One manufacturer's system uses a simple worm gear type motor mounted on a
box on the outside of the fixture housing to open and close a single piece, external shutter. The
shutter acts as a glare shield in the open position.
When the lights are signaled to go off, each shutter closes, creating a near black out condition (1
to 2% of the light leaks from the back of the fixture). If a shutter fails to close within 3 sec, that
fixture's lamp is automatically extinguished and will restrike upon restoration of voltage after the
cool down/restrike cycle.
Dimming systems, continuous or out-stepped type, are generally not used for event lighting
systems. Event lighting systems are designed to meet each event's illumination criteria with all
lamps at full brightness. Also, dimming M-H lamps produces an undesirable color shift that
affects the color rendering of the viewed objects.
Catwalk lighting
Because event lighting fixtures need to be readily accessible for aiming, adjusting, cleaning, and
relamping, catwalks are provided. Through analysis of the physical structure of the arena and the
dimensions of the viewing fields for each type of event, various catwalk layouts are prepared and
reviewed, with the one best satisfying the illumination, access, and economic parameters of the
project being selected. Lighting catwalks extend parallel to the long direction of the playing
court.
It's important that catwalks be far enough away from the court edge to reduce the potential of
objectionable direct glare to courtside spectators on the opposite side. Cross connector catwalks
are provided to enable access as well as providing for additional mounting positions. Smaller
arenas may have a single catwalk on either side of the court to provide a more economic lighting
solution.
Catwalks are provided with intermittently mounted linear or compact fluorescent type fixtures
for access and maintenance lighting. Fixtures are break resistant and are mounted 5 to 7 ft above
the catwalk, approximately every 30 linear ft. They should be connected to the emergency power
system as a separate lighting control zone.
Temporary lighting systems

Many events require the use of supplementary or temporary lighting systems that travel with, and
are installed by, the event staff. Major concert tours travel with scaffolding and rigging for
extensive lighting and theatrical dimming systems. A dedicated power transformer (typically
500-750kVA), with distribution and separately metered power connect/disconnect service points
is provided to support these systems.
A series of disconnect switches fitted with cable lug and modular theatrical plug-in fittings is
provided at selected locations. These are usually configured as two 400A and four 200A
connection points at both sides of the stage. Additional connections may be provided for side
stage, center stage, and exhibit floor booth temporary lighting connections. At the catwalk level,
a 100A connection for boxing lights (usually mounted on the underside of the scoreboard), and
two 200A spares at mid catwalk locations should be considered.
Portable spotlights
Platforms are located on the lighting catwalks for portable type spot lights. These lights are
plugged into special purpose power receptacles, and a connection for a spotlight portable headset
intercom system is provided. Spotlight platforms are typically provided at 8 to 12 locations on
the lighting catwalk. The house usually owns two to six spotlights, with unused platforms
available for temporary, event spotlight use.
Theatrical effect lighting systems
Theatrical effect lighting systems are often custom-designed for a specific team or venue. The
lighting instruments and controls are factory-fabricated and mount as a unit or units on the
lighting catwalk. The system is turned on from the control booth after the event lighting system
has been turned off. A minimum allowance of 200A, 208V, 3-phase, should be made in the
power distribution system for these systems.
Still camera strobes
Still camera photography requires a much higher illumination level than that provided by the
event lighting system. As this higher illumination level is only needed for the short period of
time while the camera's shutter is open, it's impractical to increase the event lighting system
illumination level for this purpose.
Instead, a series of high power strobe/control units is installed on the lighting catwalks for
remote activation from still cameras located on the event floor. A dedicated control wiring
system is provided to connect the strobe/control units from still camera connection locations on
the event floor.
Cleaning/maintenance/set up lighting
It's necessary to provide a reduced level of lighting (approximately 30 footcandles, horizontal)
for cleaning and event set up activities. As such, you may consider using the event lighting

system on a partial basis for this purpose. The event lighting system fixtures can be programmed
to rotate usage so that lamp life balance is preserved.
If the event lighting fixture zoning does not permit this, a separate system could be provided.
This is usually a general purpose high bay type M-H downlight fixture. You should avoid the
undesirable color rendering effects of HPS sources in this application.
House/emergency lighting
The house/emergency lighting system provides an instant-on source of general illumination (10
to 20 footcandles) in the arena bowl and is used extensively during spectator arrival, departure,
and event intermission periods. The lighting fixtures consist of 500W tungsten halogen, general
purpose floodlights mounted on the lighting catwalks. Illumination for the upper deck of seating
is provided with either tungsten halogen or M-H (with quartz restrike circuit for instant on
emergency lighting) sources. Down light type fixtures over the seat rakes should be avoided as
they are difficult to access for relamping and maintenance.
In the event of a power failure and the successful start up of the emergency power generator, the
house/emergency and aisle lighting systems are automatically turned on at full brightness. The
house/emergency lighting system should remain on until after normal power is restored, and the
event lighting fixtures have completed their cool down/restrike cycle and have returned to full
brightness.
Suite and skybox lighting
If the project in question has suites and/or skyboxes, their interior lighting systems normally will
be exposed to the view of the arena bowl. As such, you should be conscious of potentially
objectionable glare created by these systems.
These lighting systems should be capable of being remotely controlled so that during a bowl
black out condition (e.g. concert special effects), they can be turned off. Undercounter lights (at
the bar), restroom lighting, and back hallway lights should be unswitched for
courtesy/emergency lighting during purposes the black out period.
Aisle lighting
After the house lights are turned off and the event begins, it's necessary to maintain an
illuminated path along the exit paths leading from the seating decks. This usually consists of
aisle lights integrally mounted in the seats at every row, at alternating sides. Additional,
supplemental aisle lighting may be provided using projector type spotlights, which should be
mounted on the lighting catwalks and focused on aisle paths below.
Low wall-mounted compact fluorescent step lights are provided in the vomitories leading from
the bowl. Aisle lighting should be connected to the emergency power system and controlled as a
separate lighting control zone.

Exit signage
Exit signs are required at the vomitory egress points. Be careful not to specify a low light level
type sign as higher brightness provides an enhanced life safety function with little affect on arena
bowl lighting performance. In addition, exit signs should not be turned off during an event for
any reason.
Scoreboards and advertising boards
Lighting contributions from the main scoreboard, spectator scoreboards, video replay screens,
and advertising boards can be a significant source of feature and supplemental fill lighting. Arena
bowl lighting systems should be designed to avoid washing out or creating objectionable glare
that would diminish the ability to see scoreboards and advertising boards installed within the
arena.
Power system considerations
Arena bowl lighting systems are typically supplied at 480/277V, 3-phase, 4-wire, from
panelboard clusters located in the quadrants of the catwalk level for the event lighting system
fixtures. Panelboards can be mounted either in dedicated electrical closets or directly on the
catwalks (if adequate clearance is available).
Dedicated transformers and panelboards, connected to the emergency power system, supply
120/208V power to house/emergency and aisle lighting systems.
Prewired connector wireways are provided on the catwalks beneath the event lighting fixtures,
with an individual twist lock receptacle for each lighting fixture.
Twist lock receptacles are provided to connect aisle lights in the retractable seating decks to the
building power supply and lighting control system.
Lighting control system
Arena bowl lighting control is effectively accomplished utilizing a programmable lighting
control system. The system consists of lighting relay cabinets (LRCs), a personal computer (PC)
interface, and manual and automatic control devices. Most systems use mechanically held relays,
although reliable systems that use electrically held relays are available. You may consider
integrating lighting control into the building management system. However, if the arena is
sufficiently large, it will benefit from full feature software applications available with dedicated
purpose systems. In addition to the arena bowl lighting systems, this system controls all other
arena interior and exterior lighting systems.
The PC interface, located in the engineer's control center or control booth, provides the primary
point of access to the system. LRCs are connected to the PC interface using twisted pair type
data cabling. Programming information is down loaded to the LRCs, allowing each LRC to
operate as an independent system in the event of the failure of the data connection. Basic

software allows the programming of each relay or group of relays to respond to either a time of
day schedule or a manual or automatic control device.
Optional software applications that enhance arena operation are available at reasonable cost.
System monitoring software applications may be used to record lighting use patterns, which may
be summarized and presented to assess lighting energy use by specific operating entities such as
food service or retail tenants.
Lighting relay cabinets are provided at the catwalk level, adjacent to lighting circuit breaker
panelboards, for control of event lighting systems. A separate relay should be provided for each
event lighting fixture to gain the maximum flexibility of control.
Supplementary lighting contactors should be provided for control of house/emergency and aisle
lighting systems and connected to the emergency power system.
The arena bowl lighting systems are controlled to match varying arena operational scenarios.
Each operational scenario has an associated combination of lighting relays in a predetermined
position (ON or OFF) during a specific period of time.
Basic operational scenarios include event set up, spectator arrival, event in progress, event break
down, cleaning, power failure, and arena closed.
Manual and automatic control devices are wired to the LRCs and programmed as switch inputs.
Switch inputs may be readily reassigned to other lighting system zones or schedules through the
PC interface, enhancing flexibility. Modular switch banks are provided to allow finger tip control
of event lighting system preset scenes such as basketball lights, hockey lights, etc. Additional
switches are provide for house/emergency, catwalk, suite/skybox, advertising boards, and aisle
lighting systems. Switch banks are strategically located at the security control center and the
lighting and sound control booth.
Summary
The individual components of an arena bowl lighting system combine to create a whole that is
greater than the sum of the parts. The end result is a lighting system that becomes a part of the
performance, contributing significantly to the success of the event. Early planning and
participation by the architect, lighting designer, electrical engineer, contractor, owner, and
operating personnel is critical to the outcome of the project.
The design team must be creative and flexible in reaching the overall final solution. For example,
before selecting the event lighting systems for the Rose Garden, four sports lighting fixture
manufacturers were invited to provide a mock up of their proposed lighting system.
Representative lighting fixtures were installed on the catwalk of the existing arena for a side by
side comparison. Members of the design and construction team were present to evaluate each
presentation. Final proposals were submitted and the system best satisfying the lighting
performance, operational, and cost requirements of the project was selected as the fixture of
choice.

RELATED ARTICLE: WHAT IS AN ARENA BOWL?

The term "arena bowl" is defined as the volume of space encompassing an event floor and aerial
space, spectator seating decks, vomitories, access aisles and circulation paths, spectator and press
suites, skyboxes, and catwalk levels. Seating for up to 20,000 is provided for NBA/NHL
facilities (such as the America West Arena and Rose Garden) and from 7000 to 12,000 for
municipal style buildings such as the Spokane Arena.
Randy J. Meyers, P.E. is Principal with Flack + Kurtz, Consulting Engineers, San Francisco,
Calif.

Specifying power conditioning equipment.

Apr 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Waggoner, Ray
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There are critical questions that must be asked before a specification can be put together for
conditioning equipment purchase.
How does power conditioning fit into our power quality picture? Well, in order for these devices
to work well, we certainly need to know how they "fit in" with our facility's condition. In other
words, we need to know the way in which our load devices draw current, what signal system
protection is needed for proper operation, and what the conditioning equipment will do to the rest
of our electrical distribution. This understanding will help us prepare specs for any required
power conditioning apparatus.
Armed with this knowledge and capability, we can be certain that our proposed solution will
actually do the job intended. And, we should be able to perform an acceptance test verifying this.
Remembering past lessons
Before we look at the critical parts of specifying and selecting equipment, let's remind ourselves
of some of the lessons we've learned about the behavior of sensitive electrical/electronic loads
and expected interactions from different combinations.
Any power apparatus placed into a circuit between the utility' source and the load device
becomes a "soft" or small source. In other words, it takes the place of the larger, stiffer utility
source. This means that we have decreased the stiffness and lowered the capacity of the original
system while, at the same time, increased the impedance in the direction of the new "source."
This doesn't depend on the type of power product used.
This leads to interaction as the currents of the load device now flow into the higher impedance
source, possibly creating problems with the very device intended to "solve" the problems.

One way to avoid this impedance interaction is to use the low impedance, two winding, isolation
transformer (approximately 4 % to 4.5 % impedance). Now, the source looks toward the load and
doesn't "see" a high impedance; the same is true for the load looking upstream toward the smaller
source. This application works well with line conditioners, regulators, motor-generators, and
UPSs.
This type of transformer, having an electrostatic shield and used with secondary dedicated
wiring, helps turn electrical noise back into the building, keeping it from interfering with the
load's sensitive digital logic signal circuit. To do so, we place the power device in the primary
and the sensitive load circuits in the secondary.
Before we specify this transformer, we first should be certain of what disturbances we are trying
to prevent. By using a shielded transformer, we should be able to mitigate the "mystery"
disturbances, or those that come and go at random times and circulate in the ground system.
Remaining should be line-to-line problems. Here, a voltage stabilizing, or "buffering" product,
such as a motor-generator or even a stored energy device such as a UPS, may do the job.
In the Federal Information Processing Standards Publication (FIPS Pub 94), a section on
electrical disturbances warns us of stability problems in series-connected voltage regulators.
Looking at Fig. 1, we have an external voltage regulator's output (that of Regulator No. 1)
connected to an internal voltage regulator's input (that of Regulator No. 2). This is not
uncommon as many automatic data processing (ADP) units have their own internal voltage
regulators fed from external regulators. But, there may be a stability problem.
If both regulators have similar time constants and high gain and phase shift characteristics, the
resulting interaction can create a phenomenon called "oscillatory response." This phenomenon
can range from damped oscillation, at a minimum, to a disastrous "flip-flop" of the wave-shape,
at the most severe case.
Other spec points
Certainly voltage, current, and kVA/kW ratings are important parameters in selecting the proper
device. But, there are other questions that must be answered.
* What is the voltage range required on the input of the device? Are we dealing with a modest
12% to 15% adjustment or are there much wider swings of voltage?
* Can we count on the voltage regulation in the load device to handle the narrow band of voltage
while we supply the wider swings with external voltage stabilization? (Sometimes, an adjustment
of the power transformer primary voltage taps can help keep incoming power closer to the center
of the required range, thus eliminating the need and expense of an additional device.)
* Does the device work only on linear or inductive loads, or can we count on handling nonlinear
currents?

* Will we need to oversize the product so that it can adequately serve our load? (Not too large for
high energy losses; not too small such that the device goes into "current limit" if a step load or
inrush is seen.)
These same questions also can be asked (and expanded upon) in specifying any power
conditioning device.
There are other valuable spec characteristics we should consider.
Dynamic parameters. We should know the amounts of inrush currents or periodic step changes in
the load current. One such group of devices that come to mind here are X-ray and imaging
equipment.
We should also consider what levels or changes in system impedance occur when this special
equipment is served.
Power factor. We must consider the total power factor (PF) of our system. After all, we should be
energy conscious and a PF in the low to middle 90's is our best assurance that we're properly
utilizing our transformer and wiring capacity. While adding the required capacitance, however,
we must consider those loads demanding a high content of frequencies other than the
fundamental (60 Hz).
The following questions should be asked here.
* What's the displacement PF?
* What's the contribution to total PF made by the distortion content and crest factor (CF) of the
load current? (Available now are conditioning devices designed for a CF of 3.0, instead of the
1.414 associated with a pure, undistorted sine wave.)
* Does our conditioning device produce distortion at its input side, causing problems for our
distribution system? As shown in Fig. 2, an engine generator is being asked by a UPS for a
distorted wave-shape; when the power source is small, as is this case here, it can't supply the
demands of the rectifier, in this case, a phase-angle fired circuit. The end result is a refusal to
accept the UPS, and failed backup protection.
Conclusions
Remember to seek out high efficiency products. Don't get trapped by standard load levels of 75
% and 100% load efficiencies; remember, we don't normally operate in those ranges. You'll find
that most of our applications end up running at only 40% to 65% of the nameplate rating of the
conditioning device. Thus, you should ask suppliers to maximize the efficiencies in the 40%-to65% range, and that they make the high efficiency stable across the load range.
One final word to those who must use battery-supported power conditioning services: whatever
your choice, solid-state or rotary, be sure to specify at least two strings of batteries. In this way,

you'll be able to avoid loss of your "lifeline" in a UPS system. In a single string, you won't be
able to easily exam inc each cell periodically to take action before a single cell failure. Many
UPS users report that this oversight causes a "surprise" shutdown at a time when the system is
most needed.
SUGGESTED READING
EC&M Books:
Practical Guide to Quality Power for Sensitive Equipment. Practical Guide to Power Distribution
Systems for Computers. For ordering information, call 800-654-6776.
Standards:
Federal Information Processing Standards Publication (FIPS) 94.
To order, write to the National Technical Services, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Springfield, VA
22161.
RELATED ARTICLE: TERMS TO KNOW
Crest factor. The ratio of the peak value of a waveform to its rms value. The crest factor of a
pure, undistorted, sinusoidal waveform will always be 1.414 (1 divided by .707). The crest factor
of a complex waveform, however, maybe 1.414, or it may be some other value. For triplen
waveforms, this value will vary from 2.0 to 3.0, and has been recorded as high as 4.0.
Harmonics. The distortion of the main 60 Hz current (or voltage) sine wave whereby additional
currents or voltages (harmonics) that are multiplies of the fundamental 60 Hz current (or voltage)
are introduced into an electrical system.
Nonlinear load. Also referred to as nonlinear impedance. Any type of electrical equipment that
changes or modifies the voltage or current waveform to one that is not sinusoidal. The result is a
complex waveform, consisting of a fundamental (60 Hz) component plus any harmonic
components.
This type of load consist of a solid-state device that switches the 60 Hz fundamental current
instantaneously at various points on the sine wave to obtain the required modified current. The
portion of the current in given sine wave that is not passed through the device to the equipment is
reflected back into the AC system, creating harmonics. Examples include solid-state devices such
as inverters, rectifiers, electronic ballasts, PCs, UPS systems, variable speed drives, etc.
Power factor (PF). The degree to which current is out of phase with the voltage. There are
various ways to determine PF, one being the ratio of the circuit or active power (watts) to the
total apparent power (volt-amperes).