CeTAmb

Universit degli Studi di Brescia

Facolt di Ingegneria

APPROPRIATE
TECHNOLOGIES FOR
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
FAUSTA PRANDINI
International Summer School - VI Refresher Course
Appropriate Technologies for Environmental Management in Developing Countries
20th 24th June 2011
Faculty of Engeneering University of Brescia

Structure of the presentation

Global assessment
Wastewater characteristics
Technologies
On-site
Off-site
Design parameters

SANITATION: GLOBAL ASSESMENT

Proportion of the population
using an improved, shared or
unimproved sanitation facility
or practicing open defecation

39% of global population does

not use improved sanitation
facilities
2.6 billion people in the world do
not use improved sanitation
facilities, 72% of whom live in
Asia

Source: WHO / UNICEF Joint

3 for
Monitoring Programme (JMP)
Water Supply and Sanitation (2010)

SANITATION: GLOBAL ASSESMENT

Worldwide use of improved sanitation facilities in 2008

Source: WHO / UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme
(JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation (2010)

OBJECTIVES OF SANITATION SYSTEMS

Prevent disease it should keep disease-carrying waste and insects
away from people, both at the site of the toilet and in nearby
homes
Protect the environment prevent pollution, return nutrients to
the soil, and conserve water
Be simple - operation of the system must be feasible using locally
available resources (human and material)
Be affordable total costs (incl. capital, operation, maintenance
costs) must be within the users ability to pay
Be culturally acceptable it should fit local customs, beliefs, and
desires
Work for everyone it should address the health needs of
children and adults, of women and men, disable and elderly people
...

WASTEWATER CLASSIFICATION
Black water
toilet wastewater
(faeces and urine)
Urine (Yellow water)
Faeces (Brown water)
Grey water
domestic wastewater form kitchen, bath, shower
(excluding faeces and urine)

Sludge
(from Latrines, Septic tanks, etc.)

WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS
Wastewater quantity depends on:
Water installations
Customs and habits
Population structures (age, gender)
Life style

Characteristics

1. Feaces

2. Urine

3. Grey
water

Contain almost all types of pathogens

Contain mainly undigested organic matter
Low nutrient content, but good characteristics as soil conditioner
Usually sterile (except for rare diseases and urinary tract infections)
Contains nitrogen, potassium
Can contains pharmaceutical residues (hormones, antibiotics)
Agriculture reuse
Contains pathogens
Big quantity
Contains: fats and oils, toxic substances
High Salinity: 2700 S/cm

Source: Fangyue Li et al. (2009). Review of the technological approaches for grey water treatment and reuses. Science7of
The Total Environment. Volume 407, Issue 11

WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS
Tot
Volume
[L/capy]

Nutrients
Nitrogen

25,000-100,000

2-4 kg/capy

Phosphorous 0.3-0.8 kg/capy

Potassium
COD
Faecal coliforms

1.4-2.0 kg/capy
30 kg/capy
-

Greywater
25,000-100,000

Urine

Feaces^

500

50

5%

85%

10%

10%**

60%

30%

34%

54%

12%

41%

12%

47%

104 -106 /100mL

0* 107-109/100mL

Note: * healthy people; ** can be as high as 50%, depending on

washing and dish-washing powder used
*** values representative for industrialized countries
^ Moisture content: 66-85% feaces; 93% feaces + urine
8

WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS

Source: Esnati James Chaggu (2003). Sustainable Environmental Protection Using Modified Pit-Latrines

WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS

Source:

10

TECHNOLOGIES
IN DEVELOPED
COUNTRIES

Wastewater treatment
plant

wastewater

Sewer

Water body

11

TECHNOLOGIES
IN DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES

Latrine
12

TECHNOLOGIES
Collection
/Storage

Conveyance

Treatment

Reuse/Disposal

On-site: System of sanitation where the means

of storage, treatment, are contained within
the plot occupied by the households and its
immediate surroundings decentralised options
Off-site: System of sanitation where excreta
are removed from the plot occupied by the
households and its immediate surroundings. Offsite sanitation consists of a sewer network and a
centralised wastewater treatment and disposal
plant
centralised options
Dry systems:
transportation

do

not

rely

on

water

for

Wet Systems: water is used for transportation

TECHNOLOGIES
Collection
and Storage
Dry options
-Single Pit latrine
-VIP latrine
-Alternating Dry
Double Pit
-Urine divertion
-Composting latrine
- etc.
Wet options
- Pour Flush Toilet
-Alternating Wet
Double Pit
Chamber
- etc.

Conveyance

Treatment

No sewers
-Manual Emptying
-Mechanical
Emptying
- Jerrycan/tank for
urine

Decentralised
- Septic tank
- Imhoff Tank
- Anaerobic
Baffled
Reactor
- Anaerobic Filter
- Trickling Filter
- etc.

Sewers
-Simplified Sewers
-Small-Bore Sewer
- Conventional
Gravity Sewer

Centralised
-Waste
Stabilization
Ponds
-Constructed
Wetland
-Co-composting
- etc.

Reuse
-Application of
Urine
-Application of
Dehydr. Faeces
-Compost
-Irrigation with
Wastewater
-Aquaculture

Disposal
-Soak Pit
-Leach Field
-Land application
-Surface Disposal

ON SITE TECHNOLOGIES
1. Simple pit latrine
2 m or more in depth
covered by latrine slab
with or without
superstructure
percolation of liquids into
soil
partial anaerobic
decomposition of solids
+ Cheap
+ Easily understood
+ No water is required

- Unstable soils ( lining)

- Not good with high water
table
- Hazardous and difficult
emptying
- Odor problems, fly
breathing

15

2. Vip latrine
Naturally induced
ventilation with screened
ventilation pipe
Removes odor
Prevents escape of flies
Pipe should extend at
least 0.5 m above
superstructure, should
have fly mesh of 1.2-1.5
mm mesh size and should
be of dark colour
+ Odors and flies reduced
- Difficult to construct
properly
- More expensive than
simple pit latrine
16

3. Double pit latrine

Permanent pits
Can be an option with urine separation
Filling - consolidation emptying - dehydration and hygienisation --> reuse
Retention time: 6-12 months
Addition of soil, ash, leaves, ... - pH increases

+ Treatment
+ More hygienic emptying
- More expensive
- O&M more complicated

17

3.1. Double pit systems with urine diversion

Urine is separated from
faeces
Faeces are dehydrated in
2 alternating chambers and
used as soil conditioner
Urine is collected in tanks
and is reused as liquid
fertilizer
+ No need for water
+ reduced odour problems
+ easier handling of dried
material
+ reduced chamber volume
+ fertilizer
- special squatting pan
- 2 separate fractions
Source: Water Research Commission Volume 4: TT275/06 - Guidelines
for the design, operation and maintenance of UD sanitation systems
EAWAG/SANDEC (2008): Sanitation Systems and Technologies.
Lecture Notes

18

4. Twin pits for pour-flush

Two alternating pits
connected to a pour flush
toilet
Infiltration into the
surrounding soil
The solids can be manually
removed with a shovel

+ Prevents odours
- 23 L of water are required
per flush, as the toilet will
not work without water
- Excreta requires manual
removal
- Clogging is frequent when
bulky cleansing materials are
used

19

DRY AND WET LATRINE: COMPARISON

OPTION Advantages

Disadvantages

Dry

+ No water is required
+ Low cost
+ Easy to build
+ Can be constructed by
community members
+ Can be made on site with
locally available materials

- often is not in hygienic

condition
- Groundwater
contamination risk

Wet

+ Prevents odours
+ Can be constructed by
community members with
local materials

- More expensive
- Groundwater
contamination risk
- Water is required (2-3
L)

20

ON SITE TECHNOLOGIES
6. Septic tank
Consists of 2 to 3 compartments
In the first chamber or separation chamber, most of the solids
accumulate; in the second or polishing chamber, the effluent is
further clarified.
Settled sludge is partially stabilized by anaerobic digestion
Sludge should be emptied every 2-5 years

Schiume
Zona di sedimentazione
Zona di digestione e
accumulo fango

21

6. Septic tank
Advantages
+ Low cost
+ Small land area required
+ No electrical energy required
+ Minimum amount of O&M
+ Can be built and repaired with locally available materials
+ No problem with flies or odour if used correctly
Disadvantages
- Low reduction in solid and organics (yield: 30-40% BOD; 50% SS)
- No reduction in pathogens
- Desludging is an added expense
Requires water for flushing

22

DESIGN PARAMETERS: septic tank

Basic septic tank design parameters:
Mainly rectangular (except if prefabricated)
Length to width: 3:1 (in order to increase the settable solid
removal performance)
Depth: 1 2.5 m
The first chamber volume is at least 50% of the total volume (in
case of two compartments 1 = 2/3; in case of three
compartments 1 = 1/2)
Free space above the sludge: about 30 cm
Manholes for inspection: one for inlet, one for outlet and one at
each partition wall
The compartment has to be stable and waterproof
Avoid rain water infiltration
Construction materials: reinforced concrete, steel (corrosion
problem), plastic, bricks (cheap)
23

DESIGN PARAMETERS: septic tank

Sludge emptying
n = interval between successive desludging operations
If n is high the tank emptying can be forgotten:
- it can cause that the effluent carries out the solids
- blockage of drainfield
Better if n

3 years

24

EXERCISE

SEPTIC TANK DESIGN

Different design methods
The tank is considered to be made up of four zones:
A. Sedimentation zone
B. Sludge digestion zone
C. Digested sludge storage zone
D. Scum storage zone

Source: Duncan Mara (1996). Low cost

urban sanitation. Wiley and sons

25

EXERCISE

SEPTIC TANK DESIGN

A. Sedimentation zone

Retention time required for settlement of settleable solids

decreases with the number of population served

Retention time: tsed = 1,5 0,3log10(P q) [d]

better tsed
water

1 d = 24 h only if WC; tsed

0.2 d = 4,8 h if WC + grey

Vsed = 103P q tsed [m3]

P = population [inh];

q = wastewater flow [L/(inh d)]

26

EXERCISE

SEPTIC TANK DESIGN

B. Sludge digestion zone

Retention time decreases with temperature

Fresh sludge production about 1 L/(inh d)

The sludge in digestion decreases in volume during a given digestion

time (from the digestion zone it goes to the digested sludge
storage zone)

Volume for fresh sludge digestion td is (Vd, m3)

Vd = 0.5 L/(inh d) 103 P td [m3]

Average volume of digesting
with td = digestion time [d]
sludge present during td

27

EXERCISE

SEPTIC TANK DESIGN

td decreases with increasing
temperature
Td is given by:
- Empiric equation (see Fig.):
td = 1853 (T)5/4

[d]

- Kinetic of a completely mixed

anaerobic reactor
td = 30 (1,035)35T

[d]

EXERCISE

SEPTIC TANK DESIGN

C. Digested sludge storage zone

Volume depends on the digested sludge storage rate (r, m3/(inh year))
and on the time passed between two emptying (n, years)

Digested sludge storage volume (Vs):

Vs = r P n [m3]

dove r = accumulation of digested sludge rate, m3/inh year

n = interval between successive desludging operations, years
r = 0.06 m3/inh year n < 5 years
r = 0.04 m3/inh year n > 5 years

D. Scum storage zone

Scum is 30-40% of stored sludge

Vsc 0.4 Vdigested sludge= 0.4 Vs [m3]
SEPTIC TANK TOTAL VOLUME
= Vsed + Vd + Vs + Vsc
= Vsed + Vd + 1.4Vs

29

EXERCISE

EXAMPLE: septic tank

Design a septic tank for 15 people whose sewage production is 100 L/(inh d).
Temperature is 25C.
Sedimentation zone
tsed = 1.5 0.3log (Pq) =1.5-0.3 log (15100) = 0.55 d
Vsed = P q tsed/1000 = 15 inh 100 L/(inh d) 0.55 d / 1000 = 0.8 m3
Sludge digestion zone
td = 1853 (T)-5/4 = 1853 (25)-1.25 = 33.15 d
Vd = 0,5 L/(inh d) P td/1000 = 0,5 L/(inh d) 15 inh 33.14 d/1000 = 0.25 m3
Digested sludge storage zone
Vs = r P n =
with r= 0.06 m3/(inh d) ;
n = 2 years
Vs = r P n = 0.06 m3/(inh d) 15 inh 2 years = 1.8 m3
Scum storage zone
Vsc = 0.4Vs = 0.4 1.8 m3 = 0.7 m3
TOTAL VOLUME
V = 0.8 + 0.3 + 1.8 + 0.7 = 3.6 m3 4 m3

30

EXERCISE

EXAMPLE: septic tank

Compartment dimensions
Height = h = 1.5 m
Area = 4 m3 /1.5 m = 2.7 m2
Length/Width = 3:1 length 3 m, width 1 m
Total compartment height = H = 1.5 m + 0.3 m (free space) = 1.8 m
Consider a septic tank with two chambers:
Chamber n.1 volume 2/3 total volume
L1 = 2 m

and

L2 = 1 m

Vchamber 1 = 2 m 1.5 m 1 m= 3 m3
Vchamber 2 = 1 m 1.5 m 1 m= 1.5 m3
Vtot = 4.5 m3

31

7. Imhoff tank
It consists of an upper chamber in which sedimentation takes place,
from which collected solids slide down inclined bottom slopes to an
entrance into a lower chamber in which the sludge is collected and
digested

32

8. Anaerobic filter

Sedimentation tank followed by a filter chamber

Hydrolic retention time: 0.5-1.5 d
Surface loadin rate: 2.8 m/d
Filter material sizes: 1255 mm
Removal yields: BOD e SS: 50-80%; N < 15%

Source: Sandec (2008). Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies

33

9. EFFLUENT DISPOSAL DRAINFIELDS

Trenches in
series or in
parallel

Source: Duncan Mara (1996). Low cost

urban sanitation. Wiley and sons.

9. EFFLUENT DISPOSAL DRAINFIELDS

Design aspects
Trench are shallow level excavation usually of 0.3 1.5 m deep and 0.3
0.9 wide
Trench are filled with crushed rock (20-50 mm grading) which is laid
a single line of perforated distribution pipe (100-150 mm of
diameter)
Sidewalls of the trenches are considered the infiltrative surfaces,
because the bottom of the trench becomes rapidly clogged
Length 30 m

Source: Duncan Mara (1996). Low cost urban sanitation. Wiley and sons.
EPA (1980). Design manual onsite wastewater treatment and disposal systems.
EPA 625/1-80-012. October 1980

35

10. EFFLUENT DISPOSAL SOAK PITS

Soak pits are deep excavations
Covered porous-walled chambers
are placed in the excavation and
surrounded by gravel or crushed
rock
Wastewater enters in the
chamber where it is stored until it
seeps out through the chamber
wall and infiltrates the sidewall of
the excavation
(IRC, 1979)

EPA (1980). Design manual onsite wastewater treatment and disposal

systems. EPA 625/1-80-012. October 1980

36

EXERCISE 2

EXAMPLE: DRAINFIELDS
Consider a soil with infiltration rate of 30 L/(m2 d) (= 0.03 m/d)
Trench sidewall infiltration area = effluent flow/ infiltration rate =
100 L/(inh d) 15 inh / 30 L/(m2 d) = 1500 L/d / 30 L/(m2 d) = 50 m2
Take the effective trench deep as 0.7 m
Trench width: 0.9 m
Total trench length is given by:

Trench has 2
sides

Trench length = L = 0.5 dispersing surface / depth

L = 0.5 50 m2 / 0.7 m = 35.7 m
Use 4 trenches in parallel, each 9 m in length
37

EXERCISE 2

EXAMPLE: DRAINFIELDS
Summary
Number of trenches = 4
Length = 9 m
Wide = 90 cm
Height = 70 cm
Slope = 0.2% - 0.5%

30 cm

70 cm

90 cm

38

Conveyance

Sludge

Wastewater

TECHNOLOGIES: CONVEYANCE SYSTEMS

AND OFF-SITE TREATMENT

39

OFF SITE TECHNOLOGIES

1. WSPs, waste stabilization ponds

2. CWs, Constructed Wetlands
3.
4.
5.

Activated sludge
UASB ,Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket

40

1. WASTE STABILIZATION PONDS

Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSPs) are large basins in which
wastewater is treated by natural processes involving both
algae and bacteria
The ponds can be used individually, or in series
Three types of ponds:
Anaerobic ponds
Facultative ponds
Maturation ponds
Each with different treatment and design characteristics

41

1. WASTE STABILIZATION PONDS

Process scheme

Rectangular ponds, in series and/or in parallel, each with a specific

function

SSS and BOD removal

Design
parameter

Removal
efficiency

H [m]
Retention time [d]

Pathogen removal
Anaerobic

Facultative

Maturation

3.0 5.0

1.5 - 2.0

0.8 1.2

3-6

15 - 45

BOD reduction

80 85%

SS reduction

73 83%

Coliform reduction
Helminth eggs reduction

3 6 log (99.9% - 99.9999%)

100%

Retention time in ponds in series: it depends on the climate (temperature), but in

42
general ~550 days (in conventional treatment 1 d)

1. STABILIZATION PONDS
Advantages
+ Low operating cost
+ High reduction in pathogens
+ Easy to manage specialized workers are not required
+ Good resistance against hydraulic shock, organic load, heavy metal
presence
Disadvantages
- Requires large land area
- Sludge removal and disposal
Pond must be desludged once every 10 to 20 years
The sludge reduces the available volume (about 30%) and it could be
caused bad smell
Desludged costs

Source: Von Sperling (2007). Waste stabilization pond. IWA publishing

43

2. CONSTRUCTED WETLAND

Constructed Wetlands (CWs) are specifically designed and built

areas which use the purifying ability of some plants (ITRC, 2003)
Constructed wetlands are an alternative for secondary and
tertiary municipal and industrial wastewater treatment
The pollutants removed by CWs include organic materials,
suspended solids, nutrients, pathogens, heavy metals and other toxic
or hazardous pollutants

44

2. CONSTRUCTED WETLAND
Classification
FWS systems - free water surface flow

They are ponds or canals not very deep (0,5 m) where floating or rooted
plants are let grow. These plants can emerge or be submerged
Fig. Surface system with
rooted emerging macrophytes

BSSF

systems - subsurface flow

They are pond or canals filled with gravel and sand that is planted with aquatic
vegetation
The wastewater crosses the system horizontally (HFBs, horizontal flow beds) or
vertically (VFBs, vertical flow beds)
SSF are designed to keep the water level totally below the surface
The filtrating system improves the purifying yields
It is necessary a pre-treatment (ex. septic tanks, UASB, ) in order to prevent
clogging
45

2. WETLAND

Fig. Horizontal subsurface

flow system
Fig. Vertical subsurface
flow system

Source: Greywater Management in Low and

Middle-Income Countries. Sandec Report
No. 14/06
Source: Sandec (2008). Compendium of
Sanitation Systems and Technologies

46

2. WETLAND
DESIGN OF A HORIZONTAL SUBSUPERFICIAL FLOW SYSTEM
(HFBs)

Area required: 3-10 m2/inh (f(T))

Hydraulic Load: about 40 L/m2d
Organic Load: 6-10 g BOD/m2d (f(T))
Bottom gradient: 0.5 - 1%
Depth: about 60 cm

Source: Sandec (2006). Greywater

Management in Low and MiddleIncome Countries
Sandec (2008). Compendium of Sanitation
Systems and Technologies

2. WETLAND
DESIGN OF A VERTICAL SUBSUPERFICIAL FLOW SYSTEM (VFBs)

Area required: 1 - 4 m2/inh (f(T))

Hydraulic Load: about 100-120 L/(m2d)
Organic Load: 10-20 gBOD/m2d (f(T))
Bottom gradient: 0.5 - 1%
Depth: about 90 cm

Source: Sandec (2006). Greywater

Management in Low and MiddleIncome Countries
Sandec (2008). Compendium of
Sanitation Systems and Technologies

2. CONSTRUCTED WETLAND
Advantages
+ Good removal efficiency
+ Easy to build and to manage
+ A subsuperficial system allows bed smell and insects reduction

Disadvantages
- This system is more expensive than the stabilization pond one
- Big areas are required
- Superficial systems: may facilitate mosquito breeding
Yields

Source: WSP (2008).

Constructed Wetlands: A
promising wastewater
treatment system for small
localities

Organic Material

80-90%

SS

80-90%

20-40 %

20%

Feacal Coliform

1-3 log (90-99,9%)

Helminth eggs

> 3 log (> 99,9%)

49

FEACAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT

The choice of an FS treatment option depends primarily on the
characteristics of the sludges generated in a particular town
or city and on the treatment objectives
Treatment options:
1. Settling/thickening tank
2. Constructed Wetlands
3. Drying bed
4. Co-composting
5. Anaerobic digestion
6.

Source: Sandec (2008). Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies

Kone and Strauss. Low-cost Options for Treating Faecal Sludges (FS) in Developing Countries Challenges and Performance.

THANK YOU FOR YOUR

ATTENTION!

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