Implementing cost effective techniques and components

Table of Contents
ABSTRACT.................................................................................3
1 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................4
2 PROBLEM DEFINITION............................................................5
2.1 INCONSISTENCY IN CONSTRUCTION COST ESTIMATES...................................5
2.2 REASONS COSTS VARY...........................................................................5
2.3 PROBLEMS ARISING WITH LACK OF FISNANCIAL CONTROL..............................5
2.4 CASH FLOW: A MAJOR ISSUE.............................................................6
2.5 EFFECTS OF CONSTRUCTION DELAYS........................................................6
2.6 DELAY CAUSES..................................................................................... 6
2.7 COSTS OF DELAYS................................................................................. 6
3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF PROJECT........................................7
3.1 OBJECTIVES:........................................................................................ 7
3.1.1 Identify and assess the impacts of the factors...........................7
3.1.2 Develop comprehensive guidelines............................................7
3.1.3 Assess how we can improve the project development............7
3.2 TYPES OF COST SAVING MATERIALS..........................................................8
4 LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................................9
4.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COST AND QUALITY.............................................9
4.1.1 Cost............................................................................................ 9
4.1.2 Quality........................................................................................ 9
4.2 FACTORS AFFECTING CONSTRUCTION COST ESTIMATION-.............................10
4.3 COST EFFECTIVE APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIES ARE-...................................10
4.3.1 Foundation costs-.....................................................................11
4.3.2 Arch foundation-.......................................................................12
4.3.3 Plinth........................................................................................ 12
4.3.4 Walls......................................................................................... 12
4.3.5 Brick jail.................................................................................... 13
4.3.6 Roofs........................................................................................ 15
4.3.7 Roofs/ intermediate slabs.........................................................15
4.3.8 Ferro cement channel/shell unit...............................................15
4.3.9 Jack arch roof/floor...................................................................16
4.3.10 Filler slab-technique................................................................16
4.3.11 The mechanism......................................................................17
4.4 BENEFITS-......................................................................................... 17
4.4.1 Saving on cost..........................................................................17
4.4.2 Thermal insulation-...................................................................17
4.4.3 Patterned ceilings-....................................................................18
4.4.4 Spanning elements for openings..............................................18
4.5 DOOR CUM WINDOW FRAMES................................................................18
4.6 DOORS AND WINDOWS
..19
4.7 LINTELS............................................................................................ 19
4.8 OPENING IN THE FORM OF ARCH WITH LOCAL MATERIAL-.............................19
4.9 DOOR PANELS.................................................................................... 19
4.10 FINISHING WORK-............................................................................. 20
5 METHODOLOGY...................................................................20
6 DATA COLLECTION...............................................................22
7 RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................23
7.1 ARCH FOOTING/FOUNDATION.................................................................23

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7.2 RAT TRAP BOND.................................................................................. 24
7.2.1 ADVANTAGES OF USING RAT TRAP BOND.................................24
7.3 FILLER SLAB ROOFING.........................................................................24
8 CONCLUSIONS.....................................................................25

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Abstract

Introduction

Cost effective housing is a relative concept and has more to do with budgeting and seeks to reduce
construction cost through better management, appropriate use of local materials, skills and
technology but without sacrificing the performance and structure life. It should be noted that low
cost housings are not houses which constructed by cheap building materials of substandard quality.
A low cost house is designed and constructed as any other house with regard to foundation,
structure and strength.
In this report several traditional cost of quality theories are applied, compared, and contrasted as
they relate to the construction industry; particularly conforming and nonconforming quality costs.
Failure to face quality cost issues is certainly not due to its lack of importance. The significance of
quality costs versus other costs incurred on a construction project is evident from various research
studies.
Low cost housing is a relative concept and has more to do with budgeting and seeks to reduces
construction cost trough better management, appropriate use of local materials, skills and
technology without sacrificing strength and life of structure. Furthermore, low cost housing can be
considered affordable for low- and moderate-income earners if household can acquire a housing
unit...Economy is also achieved by postponing finishing and implementing low cost housing
technologies in phases..

Figure 1 - Existing house to proposed stratery

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2.1

Problem Definition
Inconsistency in Construction Cost Estimates

A cost estimate approximates a projects probable cost. Cost estimates are prepared at concept stage,
refined throughout the project-preparation process, and updated during implementation . The cost
estimate should identify those principal cost components needed to support effective project
management.

2.2

Reasons Costs Vary

The availability and relative supply and demand of materials will affect their direct purchase price.
Over the years, shortages have occurred in structural steel, portland cement, precast concrete,
gypsum products, and glass and glazing. Some trades may be in short supply as well. The issue is to
be careful and aware of potential material and labor shortages. Availability may also affect the lead
time required for delivery and shipping and handling costs, especially in remote areas, and can
affect the cost of materials. A variety of sales taxes, import/export duties, and other special fees
indirectly affect the cost of material. Installation costs vary according to an even more complex
series of relationships. Direct labor wages can vary from location to location by 10 to 15 percent,
and sometimes as much as 50 percent.. Taxes and insurance affect labor costs. Certain trades, such
as demolition, carry very high insurance premiums because of the risks associated with the work

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and the relative safety record of the contractor. Conditions of the work, particularly with renovation,
affect productivity relative to access and egress, lay-down/staging areas, and dust, dirt, and general
job cleanup requirements, as well as the space available to conduct business. Moreover sometimes
the techniques used on site for construction may differ the costing of a project. For example the
types of foundation used or materials used.

2.3

Problems arising with Lack of Financial Control

During the execution of a project, procedures for project control and record keeping become
indispensable tools to managers and other participants in the construction process. These tools serve
the dual purpose of recording the financial transactions that occur as well as giving managers an
indication of the progress and problems associated with a project. Project management activities
and functional concerns are intimately linked, yet the techniques used in many instances do not
facilitate comprehensive or integrated consideration of project activities. For example, schedule
information and cost accounts are usually kept separately. Failure is undesirable and avoidable and
it can be prevented by good cash flow management. Indeed, company failure has been widely
researched. Knowledge about business failure can be useful in providing guidance to entrepreneurs
who want to start a business. It indicates the risk factors in their industry and provides the benefit of
experience in risk management

2.4

CASH FLOW: A MAJOR ISSUE

During the recent years around 250,000 new businesses have been created every year. Many are
destined to fail within the first two years. One key reason is the lack of a viable business plan for
their operation . Four main deficiencies that are characteristic of failed companies are cash flow
forecasts, costing system, budgetary control, and asset valuation. Cash flow problems and shortage
of working capital can, in extreme circumstances, push efficient and profitable firms into
insolvency. It is also possible that a firm is pulled into insolvency by the failure of another firm.
There is a Domino Theory that may apply if a client becomes insolvent owing large sums of money
to the contractor, or if a main contractor fails owing cash to one or more regular subcontractors.

2.5

Effects of Construction Delays

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Acceleration
Schedule Change - Inefficiency
Delayed project completion
Missed intermediate completion dates
Liquidated Damages
Frustration claims
Increased Costs

2.6

Delay Causes

Labor Strikes
Weather
Third Party
Plan Errors
Change Orders
Contractor Errors
Suspension of Work
Utilities
Differing Site Conditions
2.7

Costs of Delays

Delays in most cases always cause additional costs

Direct Costs
Indirect Costs
Impact Costs

Aims and Objectives of Project

This research focuses only on activities carried out in the phases of the project development process
that precedes construction and is limited to qualitative assessment. The goal of this research is to
compare and contrast traditional cost theories as they relate to the construction industry.
3.1

Objectives:

More specifically, the objectives supporting these research goals are:

1. Identify and assess the impacts of the factors that affect increases in costs of bid items and
the methods and strategies that can help reduce the cost.
2. Develop comprehensive guidelines on how to modify projects to reduce initial construction
costs while maintaining equal or better performance.
One of the most fundamental factors determining the prices of any products or services including
construction is the relationship between demand and supply in which the market prices are
determined by the equilibrium conditions. In construction market, such equilibrium is determined
by the demand/supply of materials and services in sectors such as residential, commercial,
industrial, and heavy construction.
Costs of materials and oil-based fuels significantly impact the overall price of bid items. With
demand for construction in both domestic and international markets increasing in past several years,
the prices of construction materials have also increased. This can be attributed to a number of
factors including limited capacity to produce materials, lack of competition, and price of energy.
As it can be noticed that the main aspect of this project is to determine whether the use of other
techniques and materials can save cost and also assure the quality of building projects.

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Literature Review

4.1

Relationship Between Cost And Quality

Time, cost and quality are the three factors that play a significant role in the planning and
controlling of construction projects. The Main barriers for their achievement are the changes
in the project environment necessitating cost, time and quality trades-offs.

4.1.1

Cost
Clients have been increasingly concerned with the overall profitability of projects and the
accountability of projects generally. Research to date has tended to focus on the technical
aspects of managing costs on construction projects in the attainment of client objectives.

4.1.2

Quality
To the client, quality may be defined as one of the components that contributes to the term
value for money. The goal is customer satisfaction. Furthermore, in order to achieve
successful project quality management three separate drivers to quality management must be
managed, namely:
1. Integration of the project team so as to have a single objective and a common culture
2. A customer focus for the team thereby facilitating the provision of products and services
that will meet the clients needs

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3. A process of continuous improvement in the management of the construction project.

When these three components are successfully integrated, the project will begin to realize
significant, measurable and observable improvements in the attainment of the clients.

4.2

Factors affecting construction cost estimation-

Building Cost-The building construction cost can be divided into two parts namely:
Building material cost : 65 to 70 % & Labor cost : 65 to 70 %
Size-The smaller the project in terms of scope or the number of square feet, the more it will cost per
square foot.
Type-Different types of project have different levels of complexity and detail
Special Construction -Complexity can greatly increase the cost of the project. Renovation,
especially if it requires altering or moving structural components, can be costly because it
necessitates demolition as well as building. Special construction may also be necessary to shield
surrounding spaces from noise, fire and other hazards.

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Project accessibility
Labor Rates
Material Costs
General Economic Pressures
Time of Year

4.3

Cost effective appropriate technologies areFoundation

Random rubble masonry in mud/cement mortar placed in excavation over thick sand bed.
Rubble pointing above ground level in stabilized cement mortar.

Use of lean cement concrete mix 1:8:16 for base with brick masonry in 1:6 cement mortar
footings.

Use of lean cement concrete mix as above for base and over burned bricks masonry in
cement lime mortar (1:2:12) footings.

Figure 2 - Foundation

Arch foundations in place of spread foundations

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Figure 3 - arc foundation

4.3.1

Foundation costs-

Normally the foundation cost comes to about 10 to 15% of the total building .

It is recommended to adopt a foundation depth of 2 ft.(0.6m) for normal soil like gravely
soil, red soils etc.

It is suggested to adopt arch foundation in ordinary soils.

In case of black cotton and other soft soils, it is recommend to use under ream pile
foundation which saves about 20 to 25% in cost over the conventional method of
construction.

4.3.2

Arch foundationThis type of foundation was used in olden times where in spread foundation is replaced by
inverted arch .

It reduces the construction cost up to 40%

Advantage of this is-In soft soils that the depth of foundation can be greatly reduced;
disadvantage is that the end piers have to be specially strengthened by buttresses so as to
avoid the thrust to arch action tending to rapture the piers junction.

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4.3.3

Plinth
It is recommended to adopt 1 ft. height above ground level for the plinth and may be
constructed with a cement mortar of 1:6.

The plinth slab of 4 to 6 which is normally adopted can be avoided and in its place brick on
edge can be used for reducing the cost.

4.3.4

By adopting this procedure the cost of plinth foundation can be reduced by about 35 to 50%.

Walls
Brick work in 1:6 cement mortar using bricks from black cotton and inferior soil stabilized
with fly-ash.

Rat-trap bond brick work in 1:2:12 cement lime mortar/1:1.5:3 cement sand mortar.

Hollow concrete block masonry in cement mortar.

Compressed mud blocks masonry in mud mortar.

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Stabilized mud blocks masonry (4% cement or lime) in stabilized mud mortar.

Sand lime brick walls in 1:6 cement mortar.

FAL-G sand block with 1:6 cement mortar.

While laying bricks, the manner in which they overlap is called the bond. The rat-trap bond is laid
by placing the bricks on their sides having a cavity of 100 mm, with alternate course of stretchers
and headers . The headers and stretchers are staggered in subsequent layers to give more strength to
the walls.

This technology has about 25% overall-saving on cost of a building of traditional 9"
construction. The structure has proven its strength to go up to three floors with the support
of brick columns. With this technique there is reduction in cost of the wall by 25% as with
conventional English bond (9thk wall) 350 bricks are required per cu. m whereas in Rattrap bond only 280 bricks are required and also the reduced number of joints reduces the
mortar consumption.

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4.3.5

Brick jail

The common burnt brick is one of mans great inventions. all over the world, with only a few
exceptions, nearly all bricks are roughly the same shape and size - that is about 9 x 4.5 x 3 inches.
In many of these situations listed above a JALI is just as effective. Far from being a lot more
costly than the basic wall, if made of brick it can be less costly than the house wall.

Instead of using regular walling system of lintel and window system ,jali work can help cost
estimation. Climate consideration and use of local materials helps maintaining economy than the
general rcc practice.

More methods

Soil

cement

block

technology

this method of construction of wall is by soil cement blocks in place of burnt bricks

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masonry. It is an energy efficient method of construction where soil mixed with 5% and
above cement and pressed in hand operated machine and cured well and then used in the
masonry. The overall economy that could be achieved with the soil cement technology is
about 15 to 20% compared to conventional method of construction.

Concrete

block

walling

In view of high energy consumption by burnt brick it is suggested to use concrete block
(block hollow and solid) which consumes about only 1/3 of the energy of the burnt bricks in
its production. Concrete block masonry saves mortar consumption, speedy construction of
wall resulting in higher output of labor, plastering can be avoided thereby an overall saving
of 10 to 25% can be achieved.

4.3.6

Roofs

Domes and vaults in brick or stabilized mud block with appropriate mortar.

Upgraded thatch roof on appropriate frame work.

Pre-cast RCC L panel

Precast RCC cored units in M15 concrete.

Precast RCC channel units in M15 concrete

Precast Waffle units in M15 concrete

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4.3.7

Burnt clay tube roofing in vault form.

Roofs/ intermediate slabs

Filler slabs

Partly precast RCC planks and joist in M15 concrete.

Partly precast RCC joist and brick panels

Partly precast RCC in hollow concrete blocks

Thin RCC ribbed slabs

Ferrocement channels

Brick funicular shell on edge beam

Bamboo reinforced concrete

Brick funicular shells with RCC edge beams

Brick jack arched over RCC joist

Precast RCC cored units in M15 concrete.

Precast RCC channel units in M15 concrete

4.3.8

Ferro cement channel/shell unit

Provide an economic solution to RCC slab by providing 30 to 40% cost reduction on floor/roof unit
over RCC slabs without compromising the strength. These being precast, construction is speedy,
economical due to avoidance of shuttering and facilitate quality control.

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4.3.9

Jack arch roof/floor

They are easy to construct, save on cement and steel, are more appropriate in hot climates.
These can be constructed using compressed earth blocks also as alternative to bricks for
further economy.

4.3.10 Filler slab-technique

The filler slab is based on the principle that for roofs which are simply supported, the upper
part of the slab is subjected to compressive forces and the lower part of the slab experience
tensile forces. Concrete is very good in withstanding compressive forces and steel bears the
load due to tensile forces. Thus the lower tensile region of the slab does not need any
concrete except for holding the steel reinforcements together.

Therefore in a conventional RCC slab lot of concrete is wasted and it needs extra
reinforcement due to added load of the concrete which can otherwise be replaced by lowcost and light weight filler materials, which will reduce the dead weight as well as the cost
of the slab to 25% (as 40% less steel is used and 30% less concrete)

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4.3.11 The mechanism

The filler slab is a mechanism to replace the concrete in the tension zone. The filler material, thus, is
not a structural part of the slab. By reducing the quantity and weight of material, the roof become
less expensive, yet retains the strength of the conventional slab. The most popular filler material is
the roofing tile. Mangalore tiles are placed between steel ribs and concrete is poured into the gap to
make a filler slab. The structure requires less steel and cement and it is also a good heat insulator.
Conventional tests by different institutions and laboratories has proved the load bearing capacity of
filler slab and found it no less in performance from the conventional R.C.C. slab. Since filler roof
tiles are firmly bonded to and covered by concrete, it does not collapse under the impact of say, a
coconut falling on the roof.
4.4

4.4.1

Benefits-

Saving on cost

The savings on cost can be from 15 per cent to 25 per cent. But designing a filler slab requires a
structural engineer to determine the spacing between the reinforcement bars.

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4.4.2

Thermal insulation-

The air pocket formed by the contours of the tiles makes an excellent thermal insulation layer. The
design integrity of a filler slab involves careful planning taking into account the negative zones and
reinforcement areas

4.4.3

Patterned ceilings-

Filler slabs provide aesthetically pleasing patterned ceilings. In most houses, the filler material is
left open without plastering to form aesthetic design symmetry but some residents prefer to cover
the space with Plaster of Paris coating.

4.4.4

Spanning elements for openings

Brick arches : Flat, semi circular and segmented

Precast thin lintel and lintel cum chajja

Brick arch with sand stone chajja

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4.5

Door cum window frames

Ferro cement chajjas

Precast RCC frames with wood insert

Resin bonded saw dust frame

Polyvinyl chloride frame

Fiber reinforced plastic frame

More methods4.6

Doors

and

windows

It is suggested not to use wood for doors and windows and in its place concrete or steel
section frames shall be used for achieving saving in cost up to 30 to 40%.Similiarly for
shutters commercially available block boards, fibre or wooden practical boards etc., shall be
used for reducing the cost by about 25.
4.7

Lintels
The traditional R.C.C. lintels which are costly can be replaced by brick arches for small spans
and save construction cost up to 30 to 40% over the traditional method of construction.

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4.8

Opening in the form of arch with local material

Arches are an economical and aesthetic means of spanning openings. Arches can be a cost
effective alternative to the lintels.

The traditional RCC lintels which are costly can be replaced by brick arches for small spans
and save construction cost up to 3040% over the traditional method of construction.

4.9

Door panels

Plantation timber styles with particle board inserts.

Medium density fiber board doors.

Cement bonded particle board

Plantation timber style with rice husk board inserts

Red mud polymer panel doors.

Ferrocement doors

Polyvinyl chloride doors panels.

High density fiberboard doors

4.10 Finishing Work[Type text]

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The cost of finishing items like sanitary, electricity, painting etc., varies depending upon the type
and quality of products used in the building and its cost reduction is left to the individual choice and
liking.

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Methodology

5.1

Conduct a face to face interview with a consultant in Mauritius

5.2

Comparison between traditional and cost effective construction methods

5.3

Identify different types of cost saving materials

5.4

Develop comprehensive guidelines on how to modify projects

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Data Collection

6.1

Information collected from interview

6.2

Request of cost effective materials prices from contractors

6.3

Assessing costs and construction methods of walling and roofing structures

The construction methods of walling and roofing are selected for the detail cost analysis based on
available resources from previous thesis.
Table 1 and Table 2 summarize the cost analysis of the traditional construction methods and the low
cost housing technologies in the case studies for walling and roofing respectively. It is found that
about 26.11% and 22.68% of the construction cost, including material and labour cost, can be saved
by using the low cost housing technologies in comparison with the traditional construction methods
for walling and roofing respectively.

Table 1: Cost Analysis of traditional Construction Methods and the low cost housing technologies
used in case studies for 1m3 of walling ( Works Department, 2002), when the US$ in changed in
Rupees it will give the same change

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Table 2: Cost Analysis of traditional Construction Methods and the low cost housing technologies
used in case studies for 1m3 of roofing ( Works Department, 2002), when the US$ in changed in
Rupees it will give the same change

DISCUSSION

7.1

Findings from interview

7.2

Traditional construction methods

1. Foundation: Foundation is the lowest part of the structure which is provided to distribute loads to
the soil thus providing base for the super-structure. Excavation work is first carried out, then earthwork is filled with available earth and ends with watering and compaction in a 6 thick layer.
Disadvantge.

2. Cement concrete: Plain cement concrete is used to form a leveled surface on the excavated soil.
The volumetric concrete mix proportion of 1:4:8 (cement: sand: aggregate), with a 6 thick layer for
masonry foundation and column footings is used. Plain cement concrete is finished on the
excavated soil strata and mixed by manual process.
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3. Wall construction: Size stone masonry for foundation is constructed for outer walls and burnt
brick masonry of a 9 thick layer for main walls and a 4 thick layer for all internal walls. Good
quality table-moulded bricks are used for the construction.
4. Reinforced cement concrete slab and beam: The normal procedure to cast reinforced cement
concrete slab is to make shuttering and provide reinforcement and concreting. Good steel or
plywood formwork is used, with proper cover blocks between bars. Both aggregate and sand used
are clean, with aggregate being graded. After the concrete is poured, it is properly consolidated.
5. Plastering: Plastering is used for the ceiling, inside and outside walls. Joints are raked before
plastering and proper curing is ensured.
6. Flooring: For the flooring purpose, the earth is properly filled and consolidated in the ratio of
1:4:8 (cement: sand: aggregate) concrete.
7. Plumbing: Good quality plumbing materials are used and passed hydraulic test before using it.
8. Painting and finishing: Before the painting process, surface is prepared with putty and primer and
a ready-made paint is used.

7.3 Cost Effective & Alternate construction methods

It is found that cost-effective and alternative construction technologies, which apart from reducing
construction cost by the reduction of quantity of building materials through improved and
innovative techniques, can play a great role in providing better housing methods and protecting the
environment. Below are the techniques and materials used in replacement of the used one for the
low cost effective project:

7.3.1 Foundation
Arch foundation is used in which walls are supported on the brick or stone masonry. For the
construction of the foundation, the use of available materials such as brick or concrete blocks can
be made to resist lateral forces buttresses at the corner.

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2. Walling
Rat trap bond technology is used in the case study. It is an alternative brick bonding system for
English and Flemish Bond. The reduced number of joints can reduce mortar consumption. No
plastering of the outside face is required and the wall usually is quite aesthetically pleasing and
air gaps created within the wall help making the house thermally comfortable. In summer, the
temperature inside the house is usually at least 5 degrees lower that the outside ambient temperature
and vice versa in winter
3. Roofing: A filler slab roofing system is used which based on the principle that for roofs which are
simply supported, the upper part of the slab is subjected to compressive forces and the lower part of
the slab experience tensile forces. Concrete is very good in withstanding compressive forces and
steel bears the load due to tensile forces. Thus the low tensile region of the slab does not need
any concrete except for holding steel reinforcements together.
4. Flooring: Flooring is generally made of terracotta tiles or color oxides. Bedding is made out of
broken brick bats. Various patterns and designs are used, depending on shape, size of tiles, span of
flooring, and clients personal preference.
5. Plastering: Plastering can be avoided on the walls, frequent expenditure on finishes and its
maintenance is avoided. Properly protected brick wall will never loose its color or finish.
6. Doors and windows: As door and window frames are responsible for almost half the cost of
timber used, avoiding frames can considerably reduce timber cost. Door planks are screwed
together with strap iron hinges to form doors, and this can be carried by holdfast carried into the
wall. The simplest and cost effective door can be made of vertical planks held together with
horizontal or diagonal battens. A simplest frameless window consists of a vertical plank of about 9
wide set into two holes, one at the top and one at the bottom. This forms a simple pivotal window.
Wide span windows can be easily framed and fixed to walls or can have rows of pivotal planks

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7.4

Types of Cost Saving Materials

Stabilized compressed earth blocks are made of mud stabilized with 5% cement/lime etc. and
compacted in block making machine with no burning. A good walling material as burnt bricks
and is economical, stronger, energy saving and simple to manufacture.
Fly ash gypsum stabilized mud blocks are much stronger with less water absorption and cheaper
than cement stabilized blocks. With 5 to 10% fly ash- G, 30% saving in cement could be
achieved in addition to utilization of the waste product like flyash.
Fly ash- lime gypsum products manufactured by blending fly ash lime and calcined gypsum for
making a useful product named Fal-G , and can be used a cementations material for
mortar/plaster and for masonry blocks of any desired strength. It can also be used for road
pavements and plain concrete in the form of Fal-G concrete.
Clay red mud burnt bricks produced from alumina red mud or bauxite, an industrial waste of
aluminium producing plants in combination with clay. Posses all the physical properties of
normal clay bricks and solves the problem of disposal of the waste product and environmental
pollution. In addition, they have good architectural value as facing bricks due to their pleasing
hues of color.

7.5

Precast Stone blocks

Precast stone blocks of larger size than normal bricks are manufactured by using waste stone
pieces of various sizes with lean cement concrete and enable a rationalized use of natural locally
available materials. Shaping stones in this manner, enables speedy construction saves on
cement, reduces thickness of stone walls and effects overall saving by eliminating plasters on
internal/external wall surfaces.

7.6

Precast Concrete
Precast concrete blocks made to similar dimension of stone blocks without large size stone
pieces, but using coarse and fine graded cement. They have excellent properties comparable to
other masonry blocks, are cheaper and facilitate speedy construction and especially suitable
where quality clay for bricks making is not available.

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Recommendations

8.1

Arch Footing/Foundation
It is used to be provided for multi-storeyed buildings in olden times. However, with the
advent of reinforced cement concrete construction practice, arch fooing is rarely done these
days. One of the drawbacks in this type of construction is that the end piles have to be
specially strengthened by buttresses to avoid the arch thrust tending to rapture the pier
junction. However, the advantage of inverted arch construction is that in soft soils the depth
of foundation is greatly reduced. Inverted arch footing has been illustrated below.
Advtages

8.2

Rat trap bond

is a brick masonry method of wall construction, in which bricks are placed in vertical position
instead of conventional horizontal position and thus creating a cavity (hollow space) within the
wall. The bricks are placed in vertical position, so that 110 mm face is seen from front elevation,
instead of the 75mm face (considering brick of standard size 230 X 110 X 75 mm). Since width of
wall remains 230mm, an internal cavity is created. This is where approximately 30% Material
(brick and mortar) is saved and thus overall construction cost is reduced.

8.2.1

ADVANTAGES OF USING RAT TRAP BOND

Requires approximately 25% less bricks and 40% less mortar than traditional masonry

Reduced material requirement results in considerable cost saving

Strength of wall is not compromised, it remains same as traditional masonry wall.

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Implementing cost effective techniques and components

Cavity induced in wall provides better thermal insulation, resulting in cooler interiors during

summer and warmer interiors during winter.

All vertical and horizontal reinforced bands, lintels (for standard size openings), electrical

conduits are hidden inside wall, resulting in better aesthetic appearance without plastering
(exposed brickwork).

8.3

Filler Slab Roofing

There is a lot of difference between cheap construction practices and cost effective ones. While
taking up construction, most fail to appreciate the difference and end up spending quite a bit of their
money. This against a possibility of cost - effective options that while ensuring good and efficient
construction also leaves you with a substantial saving. Filler slabs are one such cost - effective
roofing system which is based on the concrete portions and instead placing filler material there. The
material used as a replacement includes bricks, tiles, cellular concrete blocks. The filler slab is
based on the principle that for roofs which are simply supported, the upper part of the slab is
subjected to compressive forces and the lower part of the slab experience tensile forces. Concrete is
very good in withstanding compressive forces and steel bears the load due to tensile forces. Thus
the lower tensile region of the slab does not need any concrete except for holding the steel
reinforcements together.

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Conclusions

The dream of owning a house particularly for low-income and middle-income families is becoming
a difficult reality. It is necessary to adopt cost effective, innovative and environment-friendly
housing technologies for the construction. The goal of this paper was too compare and contrast
traditional cost theories as they relate to the construction industry. I did a lot of research for the
literature review from previous reports. After doing the interview and research on the cost effective
technologies, I selected one type of cost effective technology among the three. Why Cost
implications, time easy construction methods

This proves the benefits and the trends for implementing low cost housing technologies in the
industry.

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