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deflection. The ultimate strength refers to the point on the engineering stressstrain curve corresponding to the stress that produces
fracture.
The following are basic definitions and equations used to calculate the strength of materials.
Stress (normal)
Stress is the ratio of applied load to the crosssectional area of an element in tension and isexpressed in pounds per square inch psi or
kg/mm2.
Load
Stress, =
L
=
Area
Strain (normal)
A measure of the deformation of the material that is dimensionless.
change in length
Strain, =
L
=
original length
Proportional limit is the point on a stressstrain curve at which it begins to deviate from the straightline relationship between stress
and strain. See accompanying figure at 1 & 2.
Elastic limit is the maximum stress to which a specimen may be subjected and still return to its original length upon release of the load.
A material is said to be stressed within the elastic region when the working stress does not exceed the elastic limit, and to be stressed in
the plastic region when the working stress does exceed the elastic limit. The elastic limit for steel is for all practical purposes the same as
its proportional limit. See accompanying figure at 1, 2.
Yield point is a point on the stressstrain curve at which there is a sudden increase in strain without a corresponding increase in stress.
Not all materials have a yield point. See accompanying figure at 1.
Yield strength, Sy, is the maximum stress that can be applied without permanent deformation of the test specimen. This is the value of
the stress at the elastic limit for materials for which there is an elastic limit. Because of the difficulty in determining the elastic limit, and
because many materials do not have an elastic region, yield strength is often determined by the offset method as illustrated by the
accompanying figure at 3. Yield strength in such a case is the stress value on the stressstrain curve corresponding to a definite amount
of permanent set or strain, usually 0.1 or 0.2 per cent of the original dimension.
Modulus of elasticity
Metal deformation is proportional to the imposed loads over a range of loads.
Since stress is proportional to load and strain is proportional to deformation, this implies that stress is proportional to strain. Hooke's
Law is the statement of that proportionality.
Stress
Strain
=E
The constant, E, is the modulus of elasticity, Young's modulus or the tensile modulus and is the material's stiffness. Young's modulus is
in terms of 106 psi or 103 kg/mm2. If a material obeys Hooke's Law it is elastic. The modulus is insensitive to a material's temper. Normal
force is directly dependent upon the elastic modulus.
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Proportional limit
The greatest stress at which a material is capable of sustaining the applied load without deviating from the proportionality of stress to
strain. Expressed in psi kg/mm2.
Elastic limit
The point on the stressstrain curve beyond which the material permanently deforms after removing the load .
Yield strength
Point at which material exceeds the elastic limit and will not return to its origin shape or length if the stress is removed. This value is
determined by evaluating a stressstrain diagram produced during a tensile test.
Poisson's ratio
The ratio of the lateral to longitudinal strain is Poisson's ratio for a given material.
lateral strain
=
longitudinal strain
Poisson's ratio is a dimensionless constant used for stress and deflection analysis of structures such as beams, plates, shells and rotating
discs.
Aluminum
Beryllium copper
Brass
Cast iron, gray
0.334
0.285
0.340
0.211
Nickel silver
Phosphor bronze
Rubber
Steel, cast
0.322
0.349
0.500
0.265
Copper
Inconel
Lead
0.340
0.290
0.431
high carbon
mild
nickel
0.295
0.303
0.291
Magnesium
0.350
Wrought iron
0.278
Monel metal
0.320
Zinc
0.331
Bending stress
When bending a piece of metal, one surface of the material stretches in tension while the opposite surface compresses. It follows that
there is a line or region of zero stress between the two surfaces, called the neutral axis. Make the following assumptions in simple
bending theory:
1. The beam is initially straight, unstressed and symmetric
2. The material of the beam is linearly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic.
3. The proportional limit is not exceeded.
4. Young's modulus for the material is the same in tension and compression
5. All deflections are small, so that planar crosssections remain planar before and after bending.
Using classical beam formulas and section properties, the following relationship can be derived:
3PL
Bending stress, b =
2wt2
PL3
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M
=
Where:
M = bending moment
c
= distance from neutral axis to outer surface where max stress occurs
= moment of inertia
For a rectangular cantilever beam with a concentrated load at one end, the maximum surface stress is given by:
3dEt
max =
2l2
the methods to reduce maximum stress is to keep the strain energy in the beam constant while changing the beam profile. Additional
beam profiles are trapezoidal, tapered and torsion.
Where: d = deflection of the beam at the load
E = Modulus of Elasticity
t = beam thickness
l = beam length
Yielding
Yielding occurs when the design stress exceeds the material yield strength. Design stress is typically maximum surface stress simple
loading or Von Mises stress complex loading conditions. The Von Mises yield criterion states that yielding occurs when the Von Mises
stress,
exceeds the yield strength in tension. Often, Finite Element Analysis stress results use Von Mises stresses. Von Mises stress is:
1 2 2+ 2 3 2+ 1 3 2
v=
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See our Material Terms and Links page for additional information.
Related:
Beam Stress Deflection and Structural Analysis
Section Area moment Inertia Equations Calculators
Tolerances, Engineering Design Limits and Fits
Area Moment Methos to Calculate Deflection in Beams
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