AGLOSSARYOFENVIRONMENTALTERMS

PaulDonahue
March2006
INTRODUCTION
ThisglossaryistheoutgrowthoftheguidetrainingworkshopatSandovalLake
LodgeandtheHeathRiverWildlifeCenterinJanuaryandFebruary2006.Itincludes
the list of approximately 300 vocabulary words and terms generated during the
workshopaswellasanadditional415newwordsandterms.
Thisversionoftheglossaryshouldonlybeconsideredadraft.Ithasbeencompiled
frommanybooksandonlinesources.Infutureversionsthedefinitionswillbeedited
down,butinthis version,intheinterestoftime, foralarge numberoftheentries
severaldefinitionsfrommultiplesourceshavebeenincluded.
Throughouttheglossary,wordsandtermsinboldfacetypeindicateotherentriesin
theglossary.
GLOSSARY
AberrantDepartingfromthenormalorusual.
AbioticNonlivingcomponentsoftheenvironment.Theoppositeofbiotic.
Activepursuit Amethod ofhunting practiced bybirds such as BatFalcons that
activelychasetheirprey.
Adaptation1)Ageneticallydeterminedcharacteristicthatenhancestheabilityofan
individualtocopewithits environment. 2)Theprocess(es)whereby populations,
species, or individuals (or parts of individuals), change in structure, form, and/or
functioninsuchawayastobettersurviveundergivenenvironmentalconditions. 3)
Evolutionary process by which an organism becomes fitted to its environment..
Changesinanorganism'sstructureorhabitsthathelpitadjusttoitssurroundings.
Adaptive radiation The evolution of a single ancestor species into several new
species withinarelativelyshortperiodoftimeandinacertaingeographicarea.The
plantsandanimalsoftheGalpagosIslandsarearesultofadaptiveradiation,whereone
plantoroneanimalspeciesdiversifiedintomanyspeciesthatfillavarietyofecological
roles. For example, more than a dozen species of finches evolved from a single
foundingspeciesthatcolonizedtheislandsfromthemainlandofSouthAmerica.The
relativelyrecentevolutionofmanyspeciesfromacommonancestor,witheachspecies
occupyingauniqueecologicalniche.

AdventitiousrootsArootthatgrowsfromsomewhereotherthantheprimaryroot,for
example,rootsthatarisefromstemsorleaves.Inthetropicstreeswillsendadventitious
rootsintothematsorcarpetsofmossesandotherepiphytesontheirbranchesforthe
purposeofobtainingnutrientsfromtheseepiphytemats.
aerialsally(aerialsallying)Atypeofhuntingforinsectspracticedbymanyspecies
offlycatchersaswellasanumberofotherbirdssuchasjacamarsandSwallowwing
Puffbirds.Birdsthathuntinthismannerusuallysitonanexposedperchfromwhich
theywatchforpassinginsects,andthenflyupfromtheirperchinaerialpursuitof
insectprey.
AirplantSeeepiphyte.
AlienspeciesA species thatisnotnativetothe ecosystem;alsoknownas invader
species,introducedspeciesorexoticspecies.Aspeciesthatisnotindigenoustoa
region.Allspeciesofplantsandanimalsnotnativetoanareaornaturallyoccurring
historically inany ecosystem. a species that does notnaturally occurinanarea.
Theseinvaderscancausemajorproblemsfornativeplantsandanimals..Established
plantsandanimalsnotnativetotheecosystem,region,orcountry.(See:naturalized)
AlkaloidsSeesecondarycompounds
AlleleOneoftwoormorealternativeformsofagene,occupyingthesameposition
(locus)onpairedchromosomesandcontrollingthesameinheritedcharacteristic.
AllelochemicAtypeofchemicalsynthesizedbyplantsthatconferssomeprotection
againstherbivoresorpredators.Commonexamplesareterpenoidsandphenolics.See
defensecompound.
AllopathicReferringtoasituationwherethegeographicaldistributionsoftwotaxa
donotoverlap(e.g.theydonotbreedinthesameplaceatthesametime) Term
describing two populations (or species) that are geographically separated and thus
cannotpotentiallyinterbreed.Relatingtoorinvolvingtwopopulationsofthesame
species whichcannot interbreed becausetheyareseparatedbya geographic barrier,
suchasamountainrangeorwideriver.(See:sympatricandparapatric)
AlluvialRelatingtomudand/orsanddepositedbyflowingwater.
AlluvialsoilAgeneraltermforthosesoilsdevelopedonafairlyrecentalluvium.
alluviumAgeneraltermforallsedimentdepositsresultingdirectlyorindirectlyfrom
sedimenttransportwithinstreamsdepositedinriverbeds,floodplains,lakes,fansand
estuaries..Asedimentdepositedbystreamsandvaryingwidelyinparticlesize.The
stonesandboulderswhenpresentareroundorsubrounded.Someofthemostfertile
soilsarederivedfromalluviumofmediumorfinetexture.

AlternateleavesOneleafateachnode,alternatingfromonesidetotheotherofthe
stem.(See: oppositeleaves)Whetheraplanthasalternateoroppositeleavescanbe
importantinitsidentification.
AltiplanoHighelevationflatplainbetweentheeasternandwesternAndeanridges.
AmensalismAninteractioninwhichoneorganismorpopulationadverselyaffectsa
secondorganismorpopulation,butthesecondhasnoeffectonthefirst.
AnastomoseTojointogether,asintheaerialrootsofastranglerfig.
Angiosperm/AngiospermaeThebotanicalnameforthegroupofvascularflowering
plantsthatproduceseedsenclosedinanovary;includestrees,bamboos,andpalms,but
notmosses,lichens,ferns,fungi.Agroupofplantsthatproduceseedsenclosedwithin
anovary,whichmaymatureintoafruit;floweringplants.Anyclassofflowering
plantscharacterizedbyseedsthatarefullyenclosedbyfruits.
AnthropogenicOfhumanoriginorinfluence,asintheanthropogenicburningofthe
pampas.
Anthocyanin Anthocyaninsarewatersoluble pigments thatreflectthe red to blue
rangeofthevisiblespectrum.Theyareresponsibleforthered,purple,andbluecolors
of many fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, and flowers. They belong to a class of
compounds called flavonoids. They have long been the subject of investigation by
botanistsandplantphysiologistsbecauseoftheirrolesaspollinationattractants and
phytoprotectiveagents.Amajorfunctionofanthocyaninsistoprovidecolortomost
flowersandfruits.Thecolorscanhelpattractpollinatinganimalstoflowersandanimals
that will help disperse seeds. Anthocyanins act as powerful antioxidants. They are
thought to help protect leaves from ultraviolet radiation by absorbing certain
wavelengths.However,somebotaniststhinkthatmaynotbetrueforallplantspecies.
Anthocyaninsarealsothoughttodeterherbivoresinsomespecies.
antlerOneofapairofhornlike,bony,growths,usuallyelongatedandbranched,on
theheadofadeer,moose,elk,caribou,orothermemberofthedeerfamily.Inmost
species,onlymalesbearantlers.Incontrastwiththehornsofcattle,antlersareshed
afterthematingseasonandareregrowneachyear.Antlersaremadeofbonewhereas
thehornsofcattlearemadeofkeratinandotherproteins.(See:horn)
ApicalmeristemGroupofcellsatthegrowingtipofabranchorroot.Itscellsdivide
tocreatenewtissues.
Aposematiccoloration Conspicuous,usuallybrightanimalcolorationthattypically
signalsthattheanimalisaggressiveortoxicObviousnessofappearanceassociated
withunpalatabilityortoxicity.Alsocalledwarningcoloration.

Aquifer Anundergroundgeologicalformation,orgroupofformations,containing
usableamountsofgroundwaterthatcansupplywellsandsprings..Porous,water
saturatedlayersofsandgravelorbedrockthroughwhichgroundwaterflows.Alarge
concentration of underground water. A subterranean geologic basin composed of
unconsolidated materials such as sand and gravel, or consolidated rock such as
sandstoneandfracturedlimestone.Aquifersarepermeableenoughtostore,transmit,
andyieldgroundwaterinusablequantities.
ArborealLivingpredominantlyorentirelyintreesinhabitantofthecanopyandsub
canopylivingintreesandshrubs.
Arid Usedtodescribearegioninwhichannualrainfall is less than25cms.(10
inches).
ArilAfleshy,oftenbrightlycoloredseedcoveringinsomeplants.
ArrestedlitterLitterthatbecomestrappedinepiphytesandthecrownsoftreessuch
asunderstorypalms,andthusdoesnotfalltotheforestfloor.
ArthropodAmemberofthephylumArthropodawhichisthelargestphyluminthe
animalkingdom.Itincludesinsects,spiders,centipedes,crabs,etc.
ArumsAgroupofplantstowhichPhilodendronsbelong.Florescenceorganizedinan
arrangementwherealeafypetalcalledaspathesurroundsacentralspikeofflowers
calledaspadix.
AsexualreproductionAtypeofreproductioninvolvingonlyoneparentthatusually
producesgeneticallyidenticaloffspring.Asexualreproductionoccurswithoutmeiosis
orsyngamy,andmayhappenthoughbudding,bythedivisionofasinglecell,orthe
breakupofanentireorganismintotwoormoreparts.
AsynchronoushatchingHatchingthatdoesnotoccuratthesametimebutthatmay
takeplaceovertwotothreecalendardays.
Antiracial Altricial birds are either naked or have very sparse downat hatching.
Usuallytheyhavetheireyesclosedathatching,arefedbytheirparentsforsomeperiod
oftime,andmaystayinthenestforanextendedperiodafterhatching.Theoppositeof
precocial.
Autotroph / autotrophic organism Autotrophic organisms can manufacture their
ownfoodusingsunlight.Theseorganismsarethegreenplantsthat,throughaprocessof
photosynthesis, convert light energy to chemical energy (food). The autotrophic
organismsaretheprimaryproducersofanecosystem. Anyorganismthatisableto
manufacture its own food. Most plants are autotrophs, as are many protists and
bacteria.Autotrophsmaybephotoautotrophic,usinglightenergytomanufacturefood,
or chemoautotrophic, using chemical energy. (See: consumer, heterotrophic
organism).

BaselineAmeasurement,calculation,orlocationusedasabasisforcomparisonthe
data used as a reference with which to compare future observations or resultsa
standardorvaluetowhichothersimilarthingsarecompared.
Bask(basking)Tolieinorexposeoneselftowarmth,especiallyfromthesun.
BatesianmimicryAsituationinwhichapalatableanimalspeciescomestoresemble
anunpalatablespecies,thusgainingsomeprotectionfrompredation.
bioaccumulationTheprocessbywhichsubstancesincreaseinconcentrationinliving
organismsastheytakeincontaminatedair,water,orfoodbecausethesubstancesare
veryslowlymetabolizedorexcreted.
BioconcentrationTheaccumulationofachemicalintissuesofanorganism(suchasa
fish)tolevelsgreaterthaninthesurroundingmediuminwhichtheorganismlives.
BiodegradableCapableofdecomposingrapidlyundernaturalconditions.
Biodiversity 1) The biological richness of an area or geographic region, usually
definedasthenumberofspeciespresent.2)Thevarietyoflife.2)Anindexofrichness
in acommunity, ecosystem, landscape and the relative abundance ofthese species.
NOTE:Therearecommonlyfivelevelsofbiodiversity:a)geneticdiversityreferringto
thegeneticvariationwithina species;b) species diversityreferringtothevarietyof
species inanarea; c) community orecosystem diversity referring tothe variety of
communitiesorecosystemsinanarea;d)landscapediversityreferringtothevarietyof
ecosystems across a landscape; and e) regional diversity referring to the variety of
species, communities,ecosystems,orlandscapes withaspecific geographic region.
Eachlevelofbiodiversityhasthreedifferentcomponents:1)compositionaldiversityor
thenumberofpartsorelementswithinasystemandisindicatedbymeasuressuchas
thenumberofspecies,genes,communities,orecosystems;ii)structuraldiversityorthe
variety of patterns or organizations within a system, such as habitat structure,
populationstructure,orspeciesmorphology;andc)functionaldiversityorthenumber
ofecological processeswithinasystem,suchasdisturbanceregimes,rolesplayedby
specieswithinacommunity,andnutrientcyclingwithinaforest.Cf.diversity..the
varietyoflifeonEarthandtheinterconnectionsamonglivingthings. Referstothe
varietyandvariabilityamonglivingorganismsandtheecologicalcomplexesinwhich
theyoccur.Diversitycanbedefinedasthenumberofdifferentitemsandtheirrelative
frequencies.Forbiologicaldiversity,theseitemsareorganizedatmanylevels,ranging
fromcompleteecosystemstothebiochemicalstructuresthatarethemolecularbasisof
heredity.Thus,thetermencompassesdifferentecosystem, species,andgenes.(See:
biologicaldiversity)
Biogeography the studyofliving systems andtheir distribution. Biogeography is
importanttothestudyoftheEarthsbiodiversitybecauseithelpswithunderstanding
whereanimalsandplantslive,wheretheydont,andwhy.

Bioindicator Abiologicalindicatorofthewellbeingorabundanceofanorganism,
whichisthenusedtodescribethequalityoftheecosystem;also,anorganismusedas
suchanindicator(See:ecologicalindicator,environmentalindicator)
BiologicaldiversityThevarietyandcomplexityofspeciesthatarepresentandthat
interactinanecosystem,plustherelativeabundanceofeach.(See:biodiversity)
Biologicalmagnification Referstotheprocesswherebycertainsubstancessuchas
pesticidesorheavymetalsmoveupthefoodchain,worktheirwayintoriversorlakes,
andareeatenbyaquaticorganismssuchasfish,whichinturnareeatenbylargebirds,
animalsorhumans.Thesubstancesbecomeconcentratedintissuesorinternalorgansas
theymoveupthechain.(See:bioaccumulation,biomagnifications.)
Bioluminescence Emission of visible light by living organisms such as fireflies,
variousfish,fungi,andbacteria.
biomagnifications The increasing concentration of a compound in the tissues of
organisms as the compound moves from lower to higher trophic levels. (See
bioaccumulation,biologicalmagnification)
Biomass1)Thetotalweightoflivingmaterial,plantsandanimals,inanecosystem.
2)Thetotalmass,atagiventime,oflivingorganismsofoneormorespeciesperunitof
area(speciesbiomass)orofallthespeciesinthecommunity(communitybiomass).3)
Thelivingordeadweightoforganicmatterinmaterialunitssuchaslivingordead
weight,wetordryweight,ashfreeweight,etc.4)Theweightoforganismsinagiven
areaorvolume.
BiomeEntirecommunityoflivingorganismsinasinglemajorecologicalarea.(See:
bioticcommunity)
Biomes The world's major communities classified according to the predominant
vegetation and characterized by adaptations of organisms to that particular
environment.
BiosphereTheportionofEarthanditsatmospherethatcansupportlife..thepartof
theEarthanditsatmosphereinwhichlivingthingsexist....ThatpartoftheEarth's
envelope, comprising the lower atmosphere (aero plankton), the seas and the land
surface(mantlerock)inwhichlivingorganismsexistintheirnaturalstate.
Biota1)Theanimalandplantlifeofagivenregion.2)Alllivinganimalsandplants
Biotic referstothelivingcomponentsofthe environment (suchasplants,animals,
andfungi)thataffectecologicalfunctions.Oflivingorganismsandtheirecological
andphysiologicalrelations.Theoppositeofabiotic.

BioticcommunityAnaturallyoccurringassemblageofplantsandanimalsthatlivein
thesameenvironmentandaremutuallysustainingandinterdependent.(See:biome.)
BivouacTemporarylivingquarters.Thetermisusedespeciallyfortheencampments
ofsoldiersandarmies,andisusedtodescribethenightlyshelterof Ecitonburchelli
armyantsduringtheirnomadicphase.
BlackWaterRiver Aclearriverthatcarrieslittleornosedimentbutistypically
staineddarkbyphenolics,tannins,andotherplantcompounds.Alsoseeigap.
Boreal Describes the northern biotic area that is dominated by tundra, taiga, and
coniferousforests.pertainingtothenorthornorthernlatitudes.
BrachiateTomovebyswingingwiththearmsfromoneholdtoanother,ascertain
primates(SpiderMonkeys,gibbons)do.
Breedingcycle Thetimeperiodbeginningatnestbuildingthroughegglayingand
raisingyoungtothepointofindependence.
breedingplumageThetermusuallyreferringtothecolorfulplumagewhichthemales
ofmany species ofbirdsacquireforthebreedingseason,usuallyforthepurposesof
attractingafemalemate.Inafewspecies,itisthefemaleswhichmaybemorecolorful
duringthebreedingseason.
BroadleafevergreenforestAkindofforestwherethetreesareevergreenbutwith
broad leaves, not needlelike leaves (such as in pines). Tropical moist forests are
examples.
broadleaftreeAtreeintheAngiospermaehavingrelativelybroadleaves,incontrast
totheratherneedlelikeorscalelikeleavesofpines,spruceandotherconiferoustrees
intheGymnospermae.
BromeliadAtypeofepiphytecharacterizedbyabasalclusterofspikelikeleavesand
anelongatedflowerstalk.
brood(noun)Theyoungofabirdthatarehatchedorcaredforatonetime(verb)
tositonandkeepwarm(chicks).
BroodparasitesBirdsorinsectsthatlaytheireggsinthenestsofotherspeciestobe
raisedbythehost.
Bryophyte Embryophyte plants (land plants) that are nevertheless nonvascular
plants:theyhavetissuesandenclosedreproductive systems,buttheylack vascular
tissue thatcirculatesliquids.Theyneither flower norproduce seeds,reproducingvia
spores. There are three groups of Bryophytes, the Marchantiophyta (liverworts),
Anthocerotophyta(hornworts),andBryophyte(mosses).

ButtressrootAtreerootthatextendsoutfromthetrunkasaflangelikestructure.
CaatingaABraziliantermforhighlyseasonal(withprolongeddryseason)deciduous
forestdominatedbyspinytreesandshrubs.FoundextensivelyineasternBrazil.
CamouflageConcealmentbydisguiseorprotectivecoloring.
CamposABrazilianterm(meaningfields)foranyofseveraltypesoflowandmid
elevationalgrasslandthatareusuallyseasonallywet.
Canine AnanimalofthedogfamilyCanidae.Oneofthepointed,conicalteeth
locatedbetweentheincisorsandthefirstbicuspids.
Canopy1)Theuppermostlayeroffoliageinaforest.2)Theoverheadordominant
treesinaforest. 3)Theoverheadbranchesandleavesofstreamsidevegetation.The
forestcoverofleaves,branches,andfoliageformedbytree crowns. Theremaybe
severalcanopylayers.Layerofvegetationelevatedabovetheground,usuallyoftree
brachesandepiphytes.Intropicalforests,thecanopymaybemorethan100feetabove
theground.
CarnivoreAnorganismthateatsmeat.Mostcarnivoresareanimals,butafewfungi,
plants,andprotistsareaswell. Carnivoresoftenfeedon herbivores butcanfeedon
othercarnivores.
CarnivorousFeedingmainlyonthefleshortissueofanimals.
Carryingcapacity Themaximumnumberofanimalsanareacansupportduringa
givenperiod.. Themaximumnumberor biomass oforganismsofagiven species
thatcanbesustainedorsurviveonalongtermbasiswithinan ecosystem,duringa
specifictimeperiod.
Caste Aspecializedlevelina colony ofsocialinsects,suchasants,inwhichthe
members,suchasworkersorsoldiers,carryoutaspecificfunction.
CauliflorousReferringtocauliflory.
Cauliflory Thecharacteristicofhavingflowers(andthusfruits)growdirectlyfrom
thebranchesormaintrunkofatree.
CavityAholeoropeninginatreetrunkorlimb.
CelluloseThemainconstituentofthecellwallsofallplants.
CentersofendemismAreaswithaproportionallylargenumberofendemicspecies.

Cerrado ABrazilian term (meaning closed) foradense,drywoodlandofsmall

staturetreesandshrubsamidstsavanna.
Chaco Anextensiveflatlandofdryshrubbywoodlands,marshes,galleryforestand
palmsavannafoundmostlyinBolivia,ParaguayandArgentina.
Chiropterophilous Batpollinatedplantswithcharacteristicsadaptedtoattractbats
andtoaidbatsinaccessingnectar.
chlorophyll Anyofagroupofrelatedgreenpigmentsfoundinphotosyntheticcells
thatconvertslightenergyintoATPandotherformsofenergyneededforbiochemical
processes;itisfoundingreenplants, brownandredalgae,andcertainaerobicand
anaerobicbacteria.(See:photosynthesis)
ChorusingAgroup(morethantwo)ofbirdssinginginunison,aswithBlackfronted
andWhitefrontedNunbirds.
ChrysalisThepupaofamothorbutterflyenclosedinacocoon.
Class A taxonomic categorybetween phylum and order.Aclasscontainsoneor
moreorders,andbelongstoaparticularphylum.(Example:PhylumVertebrata,Class
Aves,OrderPasseriformes)
Classification The grouping of similar types of animals and plants according to
criteriawhichareconsideredsignificantforthispurpose
ClawAsharp,curved,hornystructureattheendofatoeofamammal,reptile,orbird.
Clear water river A river with a low sediment load and moderate amounts of
phenolics andrelated compounds. Intermediate between a black waterriver anda
whitewaterriver.
ClimatechangeSeeglobalwarming.
Climaxforest Aforest community thatrepresentsthefinalstageofnaturalforest
successionforitslocality,i.e.foritsenvironment.Acommunitythatrepresentsthe
culminatingstageofanaturalforestsuccessionforitslocality,i.e.foritsenvironment.

ClimaxvegetationAfullydevelopedplantcommunitythatisinequilibriumwithits
environment.
ClinalReferringtoacline.
Cline In populationgenetics,a cline isagradualchangeofacharacterorfeature
(phenotype)ina species overageographicalarea,oftenasaresultofenvironmental
heterogeneity.Thechangeinphenotypedoesnotresultindifferentspeciesaslongas

thegeographicallyspreadpopulationscaninterbreedwithoneanotherandgeneflowis
maintained.howthefrequencyofatraitchangesalongageographicgradient.
CloudforestAmountainforestthatexistsinperpetualmist,characterizedbystunted
treeswithanabundanceofepiphyticgrowth.
ClutchTotalnumberofeggslaidbyafemalebirdinonenestingattempt.
Coarse Rough,especiallytothetouchConsistingoflargeparticles;notfinein
texture:coarsesand.
Cocoon Aprotectivecaseofsilkorsimilarfibrousmaterialspunbythelarvaeof
mothsandotherinsectsthatservesasacoveringfortheirpupastage.
CoevolutionTheevolutionaryinteractionoftwoormorespeciesactingasselection
pressuresuponeachother.
ColdbloodedHavingabodytemperaturenotinternallyregulatedbutapproximating
thatoftheenvironment.Theoppositeofwarmblooded.
Colonize ToformorestablishacolonyorcoloniesTomigrate toand settlein;
occupyasacolony.tobecomeestablishedinanewecosystem.Cecropiatreeswill
colonizeopenareasAztecaantswillcolonizeanewCecropiatree.
Colonizerplantspecies Species withrapiddispersalcapability,rapidgrowthrate,
highreproductiveoutput,andgeneralphysiologicalhardiness;effectiveatestablishing
innewlycreatedgaps.Speciestypicalofearlyecologicalsuccession.
colonyAgroupofanimalsofthesamekindthatarelivingtogetherandaredependent
oneachother,oragroupofplants growinginthesameplace. agroupofbirds
nestingtogetherincloseassociation,suchasacaciqueorterncolony.
ColorphaseSee:discretepolymorphism.
ColormorphSee:discretepolymorphism.
Column A formation, as of troops or vehicles, in which all elements follow one
behindtheother.Example:acolumnofarmyants.
CommensallyAnorganisminarelationshipinvolvingcommensalisms.
CommensalismsAtypeofsymbiosis(symbioticrelationship)inwhichonemember
(thecommensally) benefits whiletheotherdoesnotbenefit,butisnotharmed.An
organism in this type of relationship is known as a commensally. As an example,
epiphytesdependontreesforsupport.Thehosttreedoesnotreceiveanyrealbenefit
fromtheepiphyteandtheepiphytedoesnotobtainitsnutrientsfromthetree...An

ecologicalrelationshipinwhichonespeciesbenefitsfromassociationwithanotherbut
theotherisneitherharmednoraidedbytheassociation.Arelationshipbetweentwo
kindsoflivingorganismswherebyone(thecommensally)benefitsandtheother(the
host) remains relatively or absolutely unaffected, and which is obligatory for the
commensally.(See:symbiosis,parasitism,andmutualism)
CommunalRelatingtocommunitiesortolivingincommunities.Example:Yellow
rumpedCaciquesnestincoloniesandarethereforecommunalnesters.
CommunalnesterBirds,suchasYellowrumpedCaciques,thatliveincolonies.
Community (plural: communities) A number of populations in a given area
represent a community. a group of interacting populations in time and space.
Sometimes,aparticularsubgroupingmaybespecified,suchasthefishcommunityina
lakeorthesoil arthropod communityinaforestThetotalassemblageofplants,
animals, and microbial organisms that interact within a given ecosystem.. .An
assemblageofplantsandanimalslivingtogetherandoccupyingagivenarea.NOTE:
Withplants,aclosedcommunity(antonym:opencommunity)isconsideredonewhose
componentsaresocompletelyutilizingthesiteasto"exclude"(orgivetheappearance
ofexcluding)furtherentrants.Itisalsoimportanttonotethatclassifyingacommunity
as "closed" is subjective and usually based on onetime measurements or
observations.acharacteristicgroupofplantsandanimalslivingandinteractingwith
one another in a specific region under similar environmental conditions All
organismsinaparticular habitat thatareboundtogetherby foodchains andother
interrelationships.
CompetitionTheeffortofeachorganismtomaximizefitnessbybothappropriating
contestedresourcesfromapoolnotsufficientforall,andadaptingtotheenvironment
altered byall participants.NOTE: Competition betweenthesame species istermed
intraspecific competition; competition between different species interspecific
competition.
Competitiveexclusion Theeliminationfroma habitat ofone species byanother
speciesthroughinterspecificcompetition.
CompoundInchemistry,apure,macroscopicallyhomogeneoussubstanceconsisting
ofatomsorionsoftwoormoredifferentelementsindefiniteproportionsthatcannotbe
separatedbyphysicalmeans.Acompoundusuallyhaspropertiesunlikethoseofits
constituentelements.
CompoundleafAleafwhosebladeisdividedintotwomoredistinctleaflets.
CongenericBelongingtothesamegenus.
Conifer A pine, spruce, cedar, fir, redwood, or other coniferous tree in the
Gymnospermae.(Seeconiferous)

coniferous Conebearingseed plants with vascular tissue;allknownliving conifers

arewoodyplants,thegreatmajoritybeingtreeswithjustafewbeingshrubs.
Conservation 1)Protectionofplantandanimal habitat. 2)Themanagementofa
renewablenaturalresourcewiththeobjectiveofsustainingitsproductivityinperpetuity
whileprovidingforhumanuse,compatiblewithsustainabilityoftheresource.Fora
forestthismayincludeperiodiccuttingandremovaloftrees,followedbymanagement
forregrowthofsomeformoftheforest.Thesustainableuseofforestresourcesina
mannerthatdoesnotdegradethecollectiveresourcevaluesofaregionoverthelong
termPreservingandrenewing,whenpossible,humanandnaturalresources.Theuse,
protection,andimprovementofnaturalresources.
Conspecific.Belongingtothesamespecies(as"congeneric"referstobelongingtothe
samegenera).
ConsumerThesameasaheterotrophicorganism.Heterotrophicorganismsarethe
animals, which must take in energy (food) from an outside source. Heterotrophic
organisms are the consumers of an ecosystem, consuming (=feeding upon) other
organismstosustainlife.Anyorganismwhichmustconsumeotherorganisms(living
ordead)tosatisfyitsenergyneeds.Heterotrophicorganismsorconsumersaredivided
intofourecologicalgroupsbasedonwhattheyconsume.Herbivoresfeeddirectlyon
greenplantsandarecalledprimaryconsumers.Carnivoresoftenfeedonherbivoresbut
can feed on other carnivores. Omnivores feed on both plants and other animals.
Detritivores feed on the dead remains of plants and animals. This last group is
representedbybacteriaandfungiandplays averyimportant ecological roleinthe
recyclingofnutrients.Contrastwithautotroph.
convergentevolution theevolvingofsimilar bodyplansorbodypartsbydistantly
relatedorganismsbecausetheysharesimilarmodesoflifeoraredesignedtodothe
samejobs(example:HeliconiaceaeandMarantaceae)
CorticolousAnorganisminhabitingorgrowingonthebarkoftrees.
Counteracttomakeineffectiveorrestrainorneutralizetheusuallyilleffectsofan
oppositeforce.
CourtshipSpecializedbehaviorinanimalsthatleadstoorinitiatesmating.
CourtshipdancingUsuallyelaboratedisplaysofbirds,mostoftenperformedbythe
malesofcertainspecies,inanattempttoattractafemalemate.Somemanikinsarean
exampleofbirdsthatengageincourtshipdancing.
Crepuscular Becomingactiveattwilightorbeforesunrise,asdobatsandcertain
insectsandbirds.activeattwilight,dawn,anddusk.

CrestAtuftofelongatedfeathersontheheadofsomespeciesofbirds,suchasthe
Hoatzin, RingedKingfisher,andLineatedWoodpecker.Thefeathers areeitherheld
erectbythebirdmostofthetimeorarecapableofbeingerected.
CrownThetopoftheheadofabirdormammal.Thefrontofthecrowniscalledthe
forecrown,andthebackofthecrowniscalledthehindcrown.
CrypticcolorationCamouflagedappearancerenderingtheanimallessvisible.
Cumulonimbus A dark cloud of great vertical extent charged with electricity;
associatedwiththunderstorms.Alsoknownasathunderhead.
DawnThetimeeachmorningatwhichdaylightfirstbegins.
DawnchorusThechorusofmanyspeciesofbirdssingingatdawneachday.
Dawnsong Aspecialtypeofsonggivenbymanyflycatchers species atforavery
shortperiodoftimeatfirstlight.Thedawnsongthengiveswaytothemoretypical
songheardthroughouttheremainderoftheday.
Deciduous The characteristic of dropping leaves during periods of stress due to
dryness..
..Term applied to trees (commonly broadleaf trees), that usually shed their leaves
annually.Itisanadaptationtopreventexcessivewaterlossbytranspirationwhenwater
isscarce. Hasaleafthatfallofforshedeitherseasonallyoratacertainstageof
developmentinthelifecycle.
DeciduousforestAforestcomposedoftreesthatshedtheirleavesatsomeseasonof
theyear.Intropicalareasthetreeslosetheirleavesduringthedryseasoninorderto
conserve moisture. Deciduous trees of the cool areas shed their leaves during the
autumntoprotectthemselvesagainstthecoldandfrostofwinter.
Decomposerorganismthatdigestsdeadorganismstosustainlife.Anorganismthat
breaksdownthetissueand/orstructuresofdeadorganisms.
Decomposer food web Thediverse community ofmostly microorganisms (fungi,
bacteria, protozoan, and tiny animals) that rely on dead material as their principal
energysource;alsotheminuteanimalsthatpreyuponthem.
Decompositionconversionoforganicmatterasaresultofmicrobialand/orenzymatic
interactions;initialstageinthedegradationofanorganicsubstrate,characterizedby
processes of destabilization of the preexisting structure. The breakdown of dead
organic material by detritivores or saprophytes. A large number of interrelated
processesbywhichorganicmatterisbrokendowntosmallerparticlesandsolubleform
availableforplantuptake.Thebreakdownofmatterbybacteriaandfungi,changing
thechemicalmakeupandphysicalappearanceofmaterials.

DecoySomethingusedtolurevictimsintodanger.
DefendTomakeorkeepsafefromdanger,attack,orharm.
Defensecompound Atypeofchemicalsynthesizedbyplantsor,insomecases,by
animals that confers some protection against herbivores or predators. Common
examplesareterpenoidsandphenolicsinplants,andbatrachotoxinsinfrogs.
Deforestation thelargescaleremovaloftreesfromahabitatdominatedbyforest.
Demography Thestatisticalsciencedealingwiththebirthanddeathprocessesofa
population.
DesertificationThechangeofarablelandintoadeserteitherfromnaturalcausesor
humanactivity.
DensityNumberoforganismsperunitofspace.
Deposit Material placed in a new position by the activity of humans or natural
processessuchaswind,watericeorgravity.
DesiccationDehydratingordryingup.Mummification.
DetoxifyTocounteractordestroythetoxicpropertiesofasubstance.
Toremovetheeffectsofpoisonfromsomething,suchastheblood.
DetritivoreAnyorganismwhichobtainsmostofitsnutrientsfromthedetritusinan
ecosystem.Detritivoresfeedonthedeadremainsofplantsandanimals.Thisgroupis
representedbybacteriaandfungiandplays averyimportant ecological roleinthe
recyclingofnutrients.
Detritus1)Smallpiecesofdeadanddecomposingplantsandanimals.2)Detached
andbrokendownorganicfragmentsofstructure.3)Pertainstosmallorganicparticles
likeleaves,twigs,etc. Accumulatedorganicdebrisfromdeadorganisms,oftenan
importantsourceofnutrientsinafoodweb.
DewlapAfoldoflooseskinhangingfromtheneckofcertainanimals.
Apendulouspartsimilartothis,suchasthewattleofabird.
DiffusecompetitionThecumulativeeffectofslightcompetitionbymanyspeciesona
singlespecies.
DimorphismExistingintwoforms,twocolorforms,twosexes,andthelike.
Discretepolymorphismthesituationwhereindividualsofaspecies(ofsameageand
sex)canoccurintwoormoredifferentformsinthesameplaceatthesametime,with

no intermediates between them (example: Crested Eagle, Hookbilled Kite, and

CollaredForestFalcon).Thesedifferentlycoloredformsarecalledcolormorphs.
DispersalThespread,onanytimescale,ofplantsoranimalsfromanypointoforigin
orfromoneplacetoanother(migration)Thescatteringoforganismsofa species,
oftenfollowingamajorreproductiveevent.Sporesandlarvaearecommonlydispersed
intothe environment.Pollenorgametesmayalsobedispersed,butinthiscasethe
intentistotargetanotherindividualsothatreproductionmayoccur.Organismsmay
disperseasspores,seeds,eggs,larvae,oradults.themovementofayoungbirdfrom
thesitewhereithatchestothesitewhereitbreeds(juveniledispersal);theyeartoyear
movementofanadultbirdfromonenestsitetoanother(breedingdispersal).
DisruptivecolorationColorationdesignedtodisrupttheoutlineofananimalsoasto
protectitfrompredators.atypeofcamouflage.
DissolveTopassintosolution.(See:solution)
Disturbance Any relatively discrete event in time that disrupts ecosystem,
community,orpopulationstructureandchangesresources,substrateavailability,orthe
physicalenvironment.
DiurnalOccurringoractiveduringthedaytimeratherthanatnight.Theoppositeof
nocturnal.
Diversity 1)The variety ofplant andanimal taxa,including genes,amino acids,
flowers, species,or populations. 2)Thevarietyofplantandanimal communities,
forest types, stand conditions, age classes, and landscape components. (See:
biodiversity).
Dominant1)Thatcomponentofacommunity,typicallyaspecies,whichexertsthe
greatestinfluenceonitscharacterbecauseofitslifeformand/orgreatabundance.2)
Generally,anindividualorspeciesoftheupperlayerofthecanopy.
DormancyAperiodofsuspendedgrowthandmetabolicactivity.Manyplants,seeds,
spores,andsomeinvertebratesbecomedormantduringunfavorableconditions.
Downdraft A strong downward current of air. Cumulonimbus clouds or
thunderheadsproducecooldowndraftsthatcanbefeltasathunderstormapproaches.
DownyplumageReferstotheplumageofachickuponhatching.Maybethickand
softasinducklings,orverysparseorabsentasinthenestlings ofmanypasserine
species.Downyplumageisfollowedbythedevelopmentoffeathers.
drainagebasinAregionoflandwherewaterfromrainorsnowmeltdrainsdownhill
intoabodyofwater,suchasariver,lake,estuary,orocean.Itincludesboththestreams
andriversthatconveythewateraswellasthelandsurfacesthatfeedthosechannels.

The combined streams and rivers that drain the area are collectively the drainage
system. Drainage basins are separated from one another by peaks, ridges, or other
topographicallyhighpointsonthelandscape.Thetopographicregionfromwhicha
stream receives runoff, through flow, and groundwater flow. The area of land that
drainswater,sediment,anddissolvedmaterialstoacommonoutletatsomepointalong
astreamchannelAlsoknownasawatershedorriverbasin.
DriptipThesharplypointedtipofatypicaltropicalleaf,namedforitstendencyto
driprainwater.
DryforestAforestofshortstaturetreesthattendtodropleavesduringdryseason.
(Example:northwesternPeru.See:tropicaldryforest)
DuetTwoperformersorsingerswhoperformtogether.Manytropicalbirdsduet,such
as Moustaches, Buffbreasted Wrens and Thrushlike Wrens, and Blackcapped
Donacobius.
DuskThetimeofdayimmediatelyfollowingsunset.
DwellerAnorganismthatexistsinagivenplace.Example:RedHowlerMonkeyisa
forestcanopydweller.
DynamicCharacterizedbycontinuouschange,activity,orprogress.
EcholocationThesonarlikeabilityusedbybats,dolphins,andotheranimalstodetect
objects.Usingecholocation,theanimalemitshighpitchedsoundsthatreflectoffofan
objectandreturntotheearsorothersensoryreceptors.
EcologicalReferringtothestudyofinterrelationshipsbetweenindividualorganisms,
andbetweenorganismsandtheirenvironments.
Ecological impact The effect that a manmade or natural activity has on living
organismsandtheirnonliving(abiotic)environment.
Ecological indicator A characteristic of the environment that, when measured,
quantifiesmagnitudeofstress,habitatcharacteristics,degreeofexposuretoastressor,
orecologicalresponsetoexposure.Thetermisacollectivetermforresponse,exposure,
habitat,andstressorindicators.(See:bioindicator,environmentalindicator)
Ecological niche The ecological role of a species in a community; includes
consideration of physiological tolerances as well as interactions, both positive and
negative,withotherspecies.
Ecological or ecosystem services valuable services provided by natural systems.
Examples of ecological services include flood control, air purification, and climate
control.

Ecologicalsuccession Thechanges,overtime,inthestructureandfunctionofan
ecosystem.Whennopreviousvegetationexistsonasite,theprocessiscalledprimary
succession.Whenasitesupportedvegetationpreviouslybutwasdisturbed,theprocess
is called secondary succession. The orderly sequence of communities that
eventuallyleadtoaclimaxcommunityAnecologicalprocessinwhichgroupsoffast
growing species colonize a disturbed area, eventually to be replaced by groups of
slowergrowing species that are good competitors and that occupy the site
indefinitely.Thereplacementofoneplantand/oranimalspeciesovertimebyanother
inprogressivedevelopmenttowardclimaxvegetation.Thegradualsupplantingof
onecommunityofplantsbyanother,thesequenceofcommunitiesbeingtermedasere
andeachcommunityaseralstage.Successionisconsideredprimary(bypioneers)on
sitesthathavenotpreviouslybornevegetation,andisconsideredsecondaryafterthe
wholeorpartoftheoriginalvegetationhasbeensupplanted.Successionisconsidered
allogenic when the causes of succession are external to and independent of the
community(e.g. accretionofsoilbywindorwater,orachangeofclimate)andis
considered autogenic when the developing vegetation is itself the cause of the
succession.
Ecology The study of ecosystems. The study of the interrelationships between
plantsandanimalsandtheirphysicalenvironment,andhowtheseorganismsadaptto
their environment. The relationship of living things to one another and their
environment, or the study of such relationships..The study of interrelationships
betweenindividualorganisms,andbetweenorganismsandtheirenvironments.
Ecoregionageographicallydistinctareaoflandthatischaracterizedbyadistinctive
climate,ecologicalfeatures,andplantandanimalcommunities.
Ecosystem1)Alltheinteractingpartsofthephysicalandbiologicalworldsintime
and space. 2) A community of different organisms interdependent on each other
togetherwiththeirnonlivingenvironment,whichisrelativelyselfcontainedinterms
ofenergyflow,andisdistinctfromneighboringcommunities..Agroupoforganisms
interactingamongthemselvesandwiththeirenvironment.Theinteractingsystemofa
biologicalcommunityanditsnonlivingenvironmentalsurroundings.Acommunity
ofplants,animals,andmicroorganismsthatarelinkedbyenergyandnutrientflowsand
thatinteractwitheachotherandwiththephysicalenvironment.Rainforests,deserts,
coralreefs, grasslands,andarottinglogareallexamplesof ecosystems.Anatural
systemwhichfunctionsasaunit.Itcanbeanythingfromarottinglogtotheentire
planet.Itisassemblageoflivingorganismstogetherwiththeirnonlivingenvironment
inaparticulararea.Alltheorganismsinaparticularregionandtheenvironmentin
whichtheylive.Theelementsofanecosysteminteractwitheachotherinsomeway,
andsodependoneachothereitherdirectlyorindirectly.Thetotalinteractingliving
(biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components of a given area. The structure of any
ecologicalsystemconsistsofpopulations,whicharethemembersofthesamespecies

thatinhabitaparticulararea.Anumberof populations inagivenarearepresenta

community.Andacommunityanditsphysicalenvironmentdefinetheecosystem.
Ecotone 1)Thetransition zonebetweentwoadjoining communities.2)Anedge
habitat.3)Ahabitatcreatedbythejuxtapositionofdistinctlydifferenthabitats.4)an
ecologicalzoneorboundarywheretwoormoreecosystemsmeet.
EctoparasiteAparasitethatlivesontheexteriorofitshost.(See:endoparasite)
Edaphic1)Oforpertainingtothesoil.2)Influencedbysoilfactors.
Edge effect An edge effect is the effect of the juxtaposition of contrasting
environmentsonan ecosystem.Thistermiscommonlyusedinconjunctionwiththe
boundarybetweennaturalhabitats,especiallyforests,anddisturbedordevelopedland.
Edgeeffects areespecially pronouncedinsmall habitat

fragments wherethey may

extendthroughoutthepatch.
Whenanedgeiscreatedtoanynaturalecosystem,andtheareaoutsidetheboundary
isadisturbedorunnaturalsystem,thenaturalecosystemisseriouslyaffectedforsome
distanceinfromtheedge.Inthecaseofaforestwheretheadjacentlandhasbeencut,
creatinganopenland/forestboundary, sunlight and wind penetratetoamuchgreater
extent,dryingouttheinterioroftheforestclosetotheedgeandencouragingrampant
growthofopportunisticspeciesattheedge.Airtemperature,vaporpressuredeficit,soil
moisture,lightintensityandlevels of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)all
changeatedges.
ElNio Aperiodic(rangeof27yearintervals),shorttermclimatechangedueto
warmercurrents(ashighas14C.warmer)inthePacificOceancreatingsignificant
changesorreversalsinbarometricpressuresinthePacificandIndianOceans(Southern
Oscillation). Together these warmer currents and changed barometric pressures are
referred to as ENSO. The effects of ENSO are global, producing heavy rainfall or
snowfallinsomeareaswhiledroughtinotherareasandthereforesignificantlyaffecting
plantandanimallife.
Embryophyte Theembryophytes arethemostfamiliar groupof plants,including
trees, flowers, ferns, mosses, and various others. All are complex multicellular
organismswithspecializedreproductive organsand,withveryfewexceptions; they
obtaintheirenergythroughphotosynthesis,i.e.byabsorbinglight,andsynthesizefood
from carbondioxide.Theymaybedistinguishedfrommulticellular algae byhaving
sterile tissue within the reproductive organs. Further, embryophytes are primarily
adaptedforlifeonland,althoughsomearesecondarilyaquatic.Accordinglytheyare
oftencalledlandplants.
EmergentAtreewhoseheightwellexceedsthatoftheaveragecanopytree,andthus
whosecrownisconspicuousabovethecanopy.

Endangered species a species threatened with extinction. The Giant Otter is an

exampleofanendangeredspecies.Speciesthatarelikelytobecomeextinct.Animals,
birds,fish,plants,orotherlivingorganismsthreatenedwithextinctionbymanmadeor
naturalchangesintheirenvironment.
Endemic Naturally occurring inonlyoneareaorregion. Native toandfound
exclusively inoneregionor habitat type. Forexample,theBlackfaced Cotinga is
endemictotheDepartmentofMadredeDiosandimmediatelyadjoiningBraziland
Bolivia,theAndeanCondorisendemictotheAndes,theGiantOtterisendemicto
northernSouthAmerica,andtheMountainLionisendemictothewesternhemisphere.
EndemismThepercentageofendemicspeciesthatoccurinagivenhabitattype.
EndoparasiteAparasitethatliveswithinitshost.(See:ectoparasite)
Endotherm Ananimalthatisabletomaintainaconstantbodytemperaturedespite
changesinthetemperatureofitsenvironment.
Entomophilous Seed plants which are pollinated by insects are said to be
entomophilous.
environmentThesumofallexternalconditionsandinfluences,livingandnonliving,
thateffectthedevelopmentand,ultimately,thesurvival ofanorganismorgroupof
organisms..Allthebioticandabioticfactorsofasite(togethertermedlocalityfactors
=environmentalfactors,sitefactors).Thesumofallexternalconditionsaffectingthe
life,developmentandsurvivalofanorganism..Theplaceinwhichanorganismlives,
and the circumstances under which it lives. Environment includes measures like
moistureandtemperature,asmuchasitreferstotheactualphysicalplacewherean
organismisfound.
EnvironmentalindicatorAmeasurement,statisticorvaluethatprovidesaproximate
gauge or evidence of the state or condition of the environment. (See: ecological
indicator,bioindicator).
Enzymes Any of numerous proteins or conjugated proteins produced by living
organismsandfunctioningasspecializedcatalystsforbiochemicalreactions.
EphemeralLastingforaveryshorttimeShortlivedortransitory.
Epiphyll A type of epiphyte that grows on living leaves. These epiphytes are
representedbysomemosses,liverworts,fungi,andlichens.Oncewellestablishedona
leaf,theymayimpedethevascularplant'sphotosyntheticprocess,whichmayresultin
theearlydeathoftheleaf.
EpiphyllousOfanorganismgrowingonlivingleaves.

Epiphyllouscommunity Thesmalltominutefloraandfaunathatcolonizetropical
leaves:lichens,mosses,liverworts,bacteria,fungi,protozoans,slimemolds,others.
EpiphyteAplantthatlivesonanotherplantbutdoesnotparasitizeit.Examplesare
lichens, bromeliads, and orchids. Same as air plantA plant growing on, but not
nourishedby,anotherplant..Aplantwhichgrowsuponanotherplant.Theepiphyte
doesnotgetnourishmentfromtheplantonwhichitgrows,butmerelyusestheplantfor
structuralsupportorasawaytogetoffthegroundandintothecanopyenvironment.A
plantthatbeginslifeasanepiphytebutlatersendsrootsintothesoilistermedahemi
epiphyte.Anexampleofahemiepiphyteisthestranglerfig.(See:parasite)
EpiphyticReferringtoepiphytes.
Equilibrium plant species Species characterized by moderate to poor dispersal
abilities,andrelativelyslowgrowth,butgenerallyshadetolerantandagoodcompetitor.
Speciestypicaloflateecologicalsuccession.
erosion Thewearingawayoflandsurfacebywindorwater,intensified byland
clearing practices related to farming, residential or industrial development, road
building, or logging..The removal of material from the surface of the land by
weathering,runningwater,movingice,windandmassmovement.
Eutrophication 1)Thenaturalprocessofmaturing(aging)ofalake.. Theslow
agingprocessduringwhichalake,estuary,orbayevolvesintoabogormarshand
eventually disappears. During the later stages of eutrophication the water body is
choked byabundant plant life due to higher levels of nutritive compounds such as
nitrogenandphosphorus.Humanactivitiescanacceleratetheprocess.2)Theprocessof
enrichment with nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, leading to increased
productionoforganicmatter.
EvapotranspirationThetotallossofwaterbyevaporationfromsoilandfromwater
bodiesandtranspirationfromvegetation....Thecombinedprocessesofevaporationand
transpiration.Thelossofwaterfromthesoilbothbyevaporationandbytranspiration
fromtheplantsgrowinginthesoil.
EvergreenRetaininggreenfoliageformorethanoneseason.
Evolution The process of gradual change in the attributes of organisms through
successive generations. Generally, evolution refers to development but also to
degeneration.Genetictheoryseekstoexplainevolutionintermsofchangesinthegene
frequencies of populations brought about by variation in reproductive habits,
mutation, recombination, natural selection, migration, and genetic drift. The
process of change in the traits of organisms or populations over time. Evolution,
throughtheprocessofnaturalselection,canleadtotheformationofnewspecies.(For
information on the formation of species see: speciation, species, evolution,
population, reproductive isolation, geographic isolation, isolated populations,

geneticdrift,foundereffect,secondarycontact,refugia,naturalselection,selection
pressure,PleistocenePeriod)
EvolveTochangethroughtheprocessofevolution.
Exoskeleton Anexternal,oftenhard,coveringorintegumentthatprovidessupport
andprotectiontothebody,asinArthropods.
ExoticspeciesAspeciesthatisnotnativetotheecosystem;alsoknownasinvader
species,introducedspecies or alienspecies. A species thatisnotindigenoustoa
region.Allspeciesofplantsandanimalsnotnativetoanareaornaturallyoccurring
historicallyinany ecosystem. a species thatdoesnotnaturallyoccurinanarea.
Theseinvaderscancausemajorproblemsfornativeplantsandanimals..Established
plantsandanimalsnotnativetotheecosystem,region,orcountry.(See:naturalized)
ExtinctReferstoaspeciesthatnolongerexists.
Extinction1)thedeathofthelastsurvivingindividualofaspecies,group,orgene,
globallyorlocally.2)Thepositionatwhichacrystalgoesblackincrossedpolarized
light. Local extinction or extirpation occurs when every member of a particular
population hasdied.Global extinction occurswheneverymemberofa species has
died.Thepassengerpigeonandthedodoareexamplesofgloballyextinctbirds.
Justasnewspeciesformthroughnaturalselection,speciesalsodieofforbecome
extinct.Whatcausesextinction?Foraspeciestocontinuetoexist,somemembersmust
havetraitsthatallowthemtosurviveandpasstheirgenesontothenextgeneration.If
the environment changes,forinstance,the species willbecomeextinctunlesssome
membershaveadaptationsthatallowthemtosurviveandreproducesuccessfullyunder
thenewenvironmentalconditions.Changesinclimateandcompetitionamongspecies
areexamplesofenvironmentalchangestowhichspeciesmustadaptinordertosurvive.
Environmentalchangescausedbyhumanbeingshaveledtotheextinctionofhundreds
oforganismsinthepastfewcenturies.Mostofthesechangesinvolvethedestructionof
habitats.Forexample,theconversionoftheprairiesofcentralNorthAmericainto
farmlandandgrazingrangescausedadeclineinthelargepopulationofprairiedogsin
theregion.InturntheBlackfootedFerret,whichpreyssolelyontheprairiedog,has
alsogreatlydeclinedinnumbers.Thisweasellikeanimalmaysoonbecome extinct,
because members of the species do not have variations that result in reproductive
successinthischanging environment.Theexampleoftheferretshowshow species
dependonothersforsurvival.
Thedeclineinpopulationofonespecieshasledtothenearextinctionofanother.
Extinctionisanaturalprocess.However,therapidrateatwhichspeciesarebecoming
extinctasaresultofthedestructionof habitats byhumanbeingsmayendangerthe
survival of many life forms. Over the billions of years of evolution, species of
organismshaveevolvedwithunique adaptations toproblemspresentedbyadiverse
andchangingenvironment.Onceaspecieshasbecomeextinct,theuniquesolutionto
lifewecallaspecieswillbelostforever.

Extirpation (extirpate) Extinction orelimination ofa species fromalocal area.

(Example:TheGiantOtterhasbeenextirpatedovermuchofitsformerrange.)
ExtrafloralnectaryNectarrichbodiespresentonmanytropicalplantsthatarefed
uponbyantsandwaspsbutarenotflowers.
EyeringAringofcoloraroundtheeyeofabird.Alsocalledanorbitalring.
Family A taxonomic categorybetween order and genus andcomprisedofoneor
moregenera.Thenamesofbirdfamiliesallhavetheendingidae.
FangsHolloworgroovedteethofavenomoussnakewithwhichitinjectsitspoison
canineteethofacarnivorousanimal,suchasadogorwolf,withwhichitseizesand
tearsitsprey.
FaunaTheanimalsthatliveinaparticulararea
FecundityThenumberofeggs,orseeds,orgenerallyoffspringinthefirststageofthe
lifecycle,producedbyanindividual.
FieldmarkAprominentcharacteristicusefulinidentifyinganorganism.Usuallythe
confirmation of a combination of field marks is needed to positively identify an
organismtospecies.
FlagshipspeciesAflagshipspeciesisaspecieschosentorepresentanenvironmental
cause,suchasanecosysteminneedofconservation.Thesespeciesarechosenfortheir
vulnerability,attractiveness ordistinctiveness inorder tobestengender supportand
acknowledgementfromthepublicatlarge.Thus,theconceptofaflagshipspeciesholds
thatbygivingpublicitytoafewkey species,thesupportgiventothose species will
successfully leverage conservation of entire ecosystems and all species contained
therein.ExamplesofflagshipspeciesinAmazoniaareJaguar,HarpyEagle,GiantOtter
andlargemacaws.
Flashcolors Brightareasofcoloration,normallyconcealed,oncertaintreefrogs,
Lepidopterans(butterfliesandmoths),andotheranimalsthat,whensuddenlyrevealed,
mayacttemporarilytoconfuseapotentialpredator.
FledgeTogrowtheplumage(feathers)necessaryforflight.theactofleavingthe
nestornestcavityafterreachingacertainstageofmaturity.
FledglingAyoungbirdthathasrecentlyacquireditsflightfeathers.
Flood plain / floodplain 1) Area adjoining a body of water that may become
inundated during periods of maximum water levels. 2) That land outside a stream
channeldescribedbytheperimeterofthemaximumprobabilityflood.3)Astripof

relativelysmoothlandborderingastream,builtofsedimentcarriedbythestreamand
droppedintheslackwaterbeyondtheinfluenceoftheswiftestcurrent...Theland
adjacenttoastream,builtofalluviumandsubjecttorepeatedflooding.Theflator
nearlyflatlandalongariverorstreamorinatidalareathatiscoveredbywaterduring
aflood.
FloraTheplantsthatliveinaparticulararea.
FluvialPertainingtostreamsorproducedbystreamaction.
FlycatchingSameasaerialsallying.
Foam A mass of bubbles of air or gas in a matrix of liquid film, especially an
accumulationoffine,frothybubblesformedinoronthesurfaceofaliquid,asfrom
agitationorfermentation.Thetermcanbeusedtodescribethemassesofbrownish
bubblesseenfloatingdownWhitewaterRivers.
FoodchainSeefoodweb.
FoodwebThetransferoffoodenergyfromorganismsinonenutritionalleveltothose
inanother.Asequenceoforganisms,eachofwhichusesthenext,lowermemberof
thesequenceasafoodsource.Alltheinteractionsof predator and prey,included
alongwiththeexchangeofnutrientsintoandoutofthesoil.Theseinteractionsconnect
the various members of an ecosystem, and describe how energy passes from one
organism to another The interlocking pattern of feeding relationships in a
community.Sometimesknownasthefoodchain.
ForageTosearchforfood.
ForecrownSeecrown.
Foreshortening Foreshortening is whenan object appears compressed when seen
from a particular viewpoint, and the effect of perspective causes distortion. For
example,whenlookingupataperchedbirdwithareasonablylongtail,itcanstill
appeartohaveashorttail.
ForestgapAgapintheforestcausedbyatreefall.
Forestry Theart,science,andpracticeofmanagingforestlandscapesto providea
sustainedproductionofavarietyofgoodsandservicesforsociety.
FormationAcombinationofsynusia.
Formic acid A colorless pungent, vesicatory (blistercausing) liquid acid. CH 2O2
,foundnaturallyinantsandmanyplants.

FossilfuelFuelderivedfromancientorganicremains,e.g.,peat,coal,crudeoil,and
naturalgas.
Foundereffect Thefoundereffectisan evolutionary phenomenon.Foundereffects
arisewhenanisolated environment isinvadedbyonlyafewmembersofa species,
whichthenmultiplyrapidly.Intheextremecase,asinglefertilizedfemalemightarrive
inanewenvironment.Itisatypeofpopulation

bottleneck.
Theresultofthesmallnumberoffoundersisthatthereisasharplossof genetic
variationor geneticdiversity comparedwiththeparent population.Asaresult,the
new population maybedistinctivelydifferent, genetically and phenotypically,tothe
parent population it derived from. In addition, there is a raised probability of
inbreeding,resultinginanunusualnumberofdefectsduetorecessivegenes.
Founder effects are common in island ecology, but the isolation need not be
geographical.
Fragmentation The breaking up of large habitats into smaller, isolated chunks.
Fragmentationisoneofthemainformsof habitat destruction,whichistheprimary
reasonbiodiversityisindecline.
FrondTheleafofafern.Alargecompoundleafofapalm.
FrugivoreAnanimalthateatsprimarilyfruit.
FrugivorousFeedingmainlyonfruit.
Fungi(singular:fungus)Molds,mildews,yeasts,mushrooms,andpuffballs,agroup
oforganismslackinginchlorophyll(i.e.,arenotphotosynthetic)andwhichareusually
nonmobile,filamentous,andmulticellular.Somegrowinsoil,othersattachthemselves
todecayingtreesandotherplantswhencetheyobtainnutrients.Somearepathogens;
othersstabilizesewageanddigestcompostedwaste.Simpleplantlikeorganismsthat
lack chlorophyll. Theyobtain theirnutritionfromlivingonorinotherorganisms
(parasitically), fromliving withotherorganisms symbiotically (asinlichens,orthe
microscopicmycorrhizaewhichliveoffthetree,whilefixingnitrogenforthetree),or
bybreakingdowndeadorganicmaterials(saprophytically)..Simpleplantsthatlack
chlorophyllandarecomposedofcellularfilamentousgrowthknownashyphae.
Gall Anabnormalswellingofplanttissuecausedbyinsects, microorganisms,or
externalinjury.
GapAnopening,largeorsmall,naturaloranthropogenic,inthecanopycreatinghigh
lightintensity.
Gapdynamics Thechangeinspaceandtimeinthepattern,frequency,size,and
successionalprocessesofforestcanopygapscausedbythefallordeathofoneormore
canopytrees.

GapspecialistAnanimalorplantspeciallyadaptedtogrowingorlivinginforestgaps
ortreefallclearings.
GapeTheareaonabirdwherethebaseofthebilljoinsthefeatheredface.
GalleryforestAgenerallylushforestthatgrowsalongariverbankandfloodplain.
GeneflowThetransferormovementofgenesfromonepopulationtoanother.There
areanumberoffactorsthataffecttherateofgeneflowbetweendifferentpopulations.
Oneofthemostsignificantfactorsismobility,andanimalstendtobemoremobilethan
plants.Physicalbarrierstogeneflowareusually,butnotalways,natural.Theymay
includeimpassablemountainrangesorvastdeserts,orwiderivers..Theconsequence
ofcrossfertilizationbetweenmembersofa species whichresultsinthespreadgenes
acrossandbetween populations.termforwhathappenswhentwodifferent taxa
interbreedsuchthattheirgenesstarttogetmixedup.
Generalist Anorganismwhichcansurviveunderawidevarietyofconditions,and
doesnotspecializetoliveunderanyparticularsetofcircumstances.
geneticdiversity A characteristicof ecosystem

s and genepools thatdescribesan

attributewhichiscommonlyheldtobeadvantageousforsurvivalthattherearemany
differentversionsofotherwisesimilarorganisms.Thegreaterthegeneticdiversityofa
population oforganisms,themoreeasilythe population canadapttochangesinthe
environment.
GeneticdriftGenefrequencychangesinapopulationovertimedueonlytochance.
Driftisobservedmoststronglyin small

populations

andresultsinchangesthatneed
notbeadaptive.
Geneticengineering Aprocessofinsertingnewgenetic informationintoexisting
cells in order to modify any organism for the purpose of changing one of its
characteristics.
GeneticmutationAchangeoftheDNAsequencewithinageneorchromosomeofan
organismresultinginthecreationofanewcharacterortraitnotfoundintheparental
type.Mutationscanbecausedbycopyingerrorsinthegeneticmaterialduring cell
division andbyexposureto radiation,chemicals,orviruses,orcanoccurdeliberately
undercellularcontrolduringprocessessuchasmeiosis.(See:geneticdrift)
GenomeTermusedforthecompleteDNAofanorganism.
Genotype The genetic makeup of an organism, as opposed to its physical
characteristicsAllmembersofaspeciessharingthesamegeneticconstitution.(See:
phenotype)

Genus (plural: genera) A taxonomic category between family and species, and
includingoneormorespecies.Familiesaredividedintogenera.
GeographicInformationSystem(GIS) Acomputer systemdesignedforstoring,
manipulating,analyzing,anddisplayingdatainageographiccontext.
GeographicisolationGeographicisolationisthephysicalseparationofmembersofa
population. Populations may be physically separated when their original habitat
becomesdivided,as,forexample,whennewlandorwaterbarriersform.Also,when
partofa population colonizes anew,remoteareasuchasanisland,thecolonizers
geographicallyisolatedfromother populations ofthe species.Forexample,whena
group of American finches colonized the Hawaiian Islands, the group became
geographicallyisolatedfromotherpopulationsofthespecies.Thesefincheseventually
gave rise to the 23 species of Hawaiian honeycreepers. Geographic isolation of a
populationmayoccurasaresultofphysicalchangesinanenvironment.Whenariver
changes course or even when a highway is built across a field, populations may
becomegeographicallyisolated.Anexampleinwhichgeographicisolationmayhave
ledto speciation.ThedesertofDeathValley,California, has anumberofisolated
pondsaformedbysprings.Eachpondcontainsaspeciesoffishthatlivesonlyinthat
pond.Scientistssuggestthatthesespeciesarosethroughgeographicisolation.Geologic
evidencefromastudyofwavepatternsinsedimentaryrocksindicatesthatmostof
DeathValleyinCaliforniawascoveredbyahugelakeduringthelastIceAge.When
the ice age ended, the region became dry. Only small, spring fed ponds remained.
Membersofafishspeciesthatpreviouslyformedasinglepopulationinthelakemay
have become isolated in different ponds. The environments of the isolated ponds
differedenoughthatnaturalselectionandperhapsgeneticdriftactedontheseparate
populations.Eventuallythefishinthedifferentpondsmayhavedivergedsomuch
geneticallythattheycouldnolongerinterbreedevenifbroughttogether.Inthisway
geographicisolationoffishesinDeathValleyprobablyledtotheformationofnew
species.Geographicisolation,plusreproductiveisolation,probablyistheusualcause
oftheformation ofnew species. (Forinformation ontheformation of species see:
speciation, species, evolution, population, reproductive isolation, geographic
isolation, isolated populations, genetic drift, founder effect, secondary contact,
refugia,naturalselection,selectionpressure,PleistocenePeriod)
Genus (plural: genera) A taxonomic categoryrankingbelowafamilyandabovea
speciesandgenerallyconsistingofoneormorespecies.Ifthegenushasmorethanone
species,theywillexhibitsimilarcharacteristicsandarelikelytobe morphologically
moresimilarthanspeciesbelongingtodifferentgenera.Intaxonomicnomenclaturethe
genusnameisused,eitheraloneorfollowedbyaLatinadjectiveorepithet,toformthe
nameofaspecies.
GerminationTheprocessbywhichaseedlingemergesanddevelopsfromaseed,or
bywhichasporelingemergesanddevelopsfromaspore.

GlacierAlargemassoficethatmovesslowlyoverthesurfaceofthegroundordown
avalley.Theyoriginateinsnowfieldsandterminateatlowerelevationsinawarmer
environmentwheretheymelt.
GlobalwarmingAlsoknownasclimatechange.TheprocessbywhichtheEarths
atmosphereiswarmingbecauseofthereleaseofgreenhousegases,suchascarbon
dioxide.Thesegasesarereleasedintotheairfromburninggas,oil,coal,wood,and
otherresourcesandtrapheatinanactionsimilartothatofthewallsofagreenhouse.
(See:greenhouseeffect)
GorgetAbandorpatchofdistinctivecoloronthethroatofabirdorotheranimal.Itis
usedinparticularwithhummingbirds.
GPSTheGlobalPositioningSystem,usuallycalledGPS,istheonlyfullyfunctional
satellitenavigationsystem. A constellation of more than two dozen GPS satellites
broadcastsprecisetimingsignalsbyradiotoelectronicGPSreceiverswhichallowthem
toaccuratelydeterminetheirlocation(longitude,latitude,andaltitude)inrealtime,day
ornight,inanyweather,anywhereonEarth.
GranivorousFeedingonseedsorgrain.
GrasslandsAreasofabundantgrassesandshrubswithveryfewtrees,likeprairiesor
meadows.Grasslandscanbefoundinmanyplaces.Largetemperategrasslandsoccur
naturallyincentralNorthAmerica(prairies),southernSouthAmerica(pampas),central
Asia (steppes), southern Africa (savannas), and Australia. . Region in which the
climateisdryforlongperiodsofthesummer,andfreezesinthewinter.Grasslandsare
characterized by grasses and other erect herbs, usually without trees or shrubs.
Grasslands generally occur in the dry temperate interiors of continents, and first
appearedintheMiocene.
Greenhouseeffect ThetrappingofheatintheEarthsatmospherebycertaingases
suchascarbondioxide,methane,andnitrousoxide.Somescientistspredictthatthe
temperatureandsealevelriseassociatedwithglobalwarmingcouldadverselyaffect
biodiversity...ThewarmingoftheEarth'satmosphereattributedtoabuildupofcarbon
dioxideorothergases;somescientiststhinkthatthisbuildupallowsthesun'sraysto
heat the Earth, while infrared radiation makes the atmosphere opaque to a
counterbalancinglossofheat.(See:globalwarming)
GroundcoverHerbaceousplants(includinggrassesandferns)andthelowestshrubs
occupyinganarea.
Groundwater/groundwater ThesupplyoffreshwaterfoundbeneaththeEarth's
surface,usuallyinaquifers,whichsupplywellsandsprings.Becausegroundwaterisa
major source of drinking water, there is growing concern over contamination from
leaching agriculturalorindustrialpollutantsorleakingundergroundstoragetanks..
Thatportionofwaterbeneaththesurfaceoftheearththatcanbecollectedthrough
wells,tunnels,ordrainagegalleries,orthatflowsnaturallytotheearthssurfacevia

seepsandsprings..Precipitationwhichinfiltratesthegroundandfillsthe poresin
rocks and soil. Water located in interstitial areas below the Earth's surface.
Groundwater is recharged by infiltration, and enters streams through seepage and
springs. Water found underground as a result of rainfall, ice and snow melt,
submergedrivers,lakes,andsprings.Thiswateroftencarriesminerals.Theseminerals
canaccumulateintheremainsofburiedorganismsandeventuallycausefossilization.
GrubThethickwormlikelarvaofcertainbeetlesandotherinsects.
GularpouchSeegularsac.
Gular sac A skin pouch of the throat found in some species of birds, and most
obviousinthepelicans.Pelicansandsomeotherbirdsuseitforpanting,asameansof
coolingorloweringtheirbodytemperature,aswellastoholdpartiallydigestedfish
while the young feed from the pouch. Less conspicuous gular sacs are found in
cormorants,owls,pheasants,pigeonsandsomeothergroupsofbirds.Alsoknownasa
gular

pouch.
Gymnosperm/Gymnospermae Thebotanical nameforagroupof seedbearing
plants(andthusvascularplants).Thetermgymnospermcomesfromthe Greek word
gumnospermos,literallymeaning"nakedseed".Thisisbecausetheseedsoftheseplants
are not formed in an ovule that is enclosed (and developing into a fruit, in the
angiosperms),butnakedonthescalesofa cone orconelikestructure. Conifers and
cycadsaremembersoftheGymnospermae.Aplantthatproducesseeds,whicharenot
enclosed;includes anyseedplant thatdoesnotproduceflowers.Anyclass ofseed
plants,mostlytreessuchasconifers,thatproducenakedseedsnotenclosedinfruit.
habitatTheplaceorenvironmentwhereaplantoranimalnaturallyornormallylives
andgrows Theareathatprovidesanorganismwithadequatefood,water, shelter,
and living space, and/or the conditions of that environment including the soil,
vegetation,water,andfood..Theplaceandconditionsinwhichanorganismlives.
The place where a plant and/or animal population lives and its surroundings, both
living and nonliving; includes the provision of life requirements such as food and
shelter. The environment whereaplantoranimal willnaturally befound.The
placewherea population (e.g.,human,animal, plant,microorganism) lives andits
surroundings, both living and nonliving. the area in which an animal, plant, or
microorganismlivesandfindsthenutrients,water,sunlight,shelter,livingspace,and
other essentials it needs to survive. Habitat loss, which includes the destruction,
degradation,andfragmentationofhabitats,istheprimarycauseofbiodiversityloss.
HabitatindicatorAphysicalattributeoftheenvironmentmeasuredtocharacterize
conditionsnecessarytosupportanorganism,population,orcommunityintheabsence
ofpollutants,e.g.,salinityofestuarinewatersorsubstratetypeinstreamsorlakes.
HardwoodAdeciduousorbroadleaftree;alsoappliestothewoodfromsuchtrees.
Aconventionaltermforthetimberofbroadleavedtrees,andthetreesthemselves,

belongingtothebotanicalgroupAngiospermae.Incountrieswhereconiferousspecies
areoflittlecommercialsignificance,thetermshardwoodandsoftwoodarecommonly
usedintheirliteralsignificance,i.e.hardwood,softwood.

Hatch ToemergefromorbreakoutofaneggToemergefromanegg, pupa,or

chrysalis.
HatchingThemomentanorganismemergesfromanegg,pupa,orchrysalis.
HeadwatersTheuppertributariesofadrainagebasin.
HeliotropismAbotanicaltermsforasessileorganism'sresponsetolight(alsoknown
asphototropism.Inthecaseofheliotropism,specificallythelightfromthesun).These
are one of the many plant tropisms or movements in response to external stimuli.
Growthtowardalightsourceisapositivephototropism,whilethereverseiscalled
negative phototropism (if growth or orientation is toward darkness, as with some
membersoftheAraceaewhentheyfirstgerminate).Leavesandotherpartsoftheplant
thatrequirelightforphotosynthesisexhibitpositivephototropism,whilerootsusually
exhibitnegativephototropism,although gravitropism (growthinresponsetogravity)
mayplayalargerroleintheirbehaviorandgrowth.
Hemiepiphyte These epiphytes developlongaerialrootsthateventuallyreachthe
ground and become rooted. Once this occurs, hemiepiphytes are able to more
efficientlyobtainwaterandnutrients.Thisgroupincludesmembersoftheherbaceous
Araceae,stranglerfigs,andvariousshrubbyplants.
HemiparasiteApartialorfacultative(optionalratherthanobligatory)parasitethat
cansurvivewithoutits host.Therearewellovera1000speciesofhemiparasitesthat
liveinthetropics.IntheAmazonianrainforest,hemiparasitestypicallyliveinthetree
crowns,andproducetubularred,green,oryellowflowersthatarepollinatedbybirds.
They often develop specialized roots that penetrate the bark of its host to obtain
nutrients.ThefamilyofplantsmostrepresentedbyhemiparasitesistheLoranthaceae
(Mistletoe family).MembersoftheLoranthaceaemayalsobe hyperepiphytes an
epiphytegrowingonanotherepiphyte.
HerbGenerallyanyplantwhichdoesnotproducewood,andisthereforenotaslarge
asatreeorshrub,isconsideredtobeanherb. Nonwoodyvascularplantssuchas
grasses,grasslikeplants,andforbs.
Herbaceous Used to describe flowering plants or plant parts that are fleshy, as
opposedtoplantssuchastreesandshrubsthatgrowwoodystems.
Herbivore(herbivorous)Ananimalthateatsonlyplantmaterial,suchasacaterpillar
or a fungusgarden ant. Herbivores feed directly on plants and are called primary
consumers.
HerbivoryTheconsumptionoflivingplantmaterial.

HerdAnumberofmammalsofonespeciesthatremaintogetherasagroup.Theterm
isgenerallyusedforhoofedmammals,suchascattle,deer,andllamas.
Heterogeneity The diverse nature of something. The quality or state of being
heterogeneous.
HeterogeneousConsistingofpartsorindividualelementsthatareunrelatedorunlike
eachother.Theoppositeofhomogeneous.
HeterotrophicObtainingnourishmentbydigestingplantoranimalmatterasopposed
tophotosynthesizingfood.
HeterotrophicorganismsThesameasaconsumerTheanimals,whichmusttake
inenergy(food)fromanoutsidesource.Heterotrophicorganismsaretheconsumersof
an ecosystem,consuming(=feedingupon) otherorganismstosustainlife. Species
thataredependentonorganicmatterforfood .Anyorganismwhichmustconsume
otherorganisms(livingordead)tosatisfyitsenergyneeds.Heterotrophicorganismsor
consumers are divided into four ecological groups based on what they consume.
Herbivoresfeeddirectlyongreenplantsandarecalledprimaryconsumers.Carnivores
oftenfeedonherbivoresbutcanfeedonothercarnivores. Omnivores feedonboth
plantsandotheranimals.Detritivoresfeedonthedeadremainsofplantsandanimals.
This last group is represented by bacteria and fungi and plays a very important
ecologicalroleintherecyclingofnutrients.Contrastwithautotroph.
Hibernation Winter dormancy in animals characterized by a great decrease in
metabolism.
HierarchyAformofsocialorganizationinanimalsinwhichdifferentmembersofa
grouppossessdifferentlevelsofstatus,affectingtheirfeedingandmatingbehavior.
HindcrownSeecrown.
Holoparasite An obligateparasite that cannot survivewithouta host.Theseare
representedbyonlyafewplantfamiliesinthelowlandrainforest.Oneplantfamily,the
Balanophoraceae,isacommonrootparasiteoftheAmazonianrainforest,withsome
membersmimickingafungi.Itisthoughtthatthesefungi mimics maybepollinated
andhavetheirseedsdispersedbysmallmammalssuchasrodents.
HomeothermicAnorganism,suchasamammalorbird,havingabodytemperature
that is constant and largely independent of the temperature of its surroundings; an
endotherm.(See:thermoregulation,warmblooded)
homogeneity The quality of having a uniform appearance or composition.The
quality of being of the same or a similar natureThe quality or state of being
homogeneous.

Homogeneous Having a uniform composition or structure. The opposite of

heterogeneous.
HornApermanentprojectionontheheadofananimal,asonacow,aRhinoceros,or
aRhinocerosBeetle.Withmammals,thehornishollowandconsistsmainlyofkeratin
aswellasotherproteins.TruehornsarefoundonlyamongtheruminantArtiodactyls,in
the families Antilocapridae (pronghorn) and Bovidae (cows, buffaloes, yaks, goats,
antelope etc.). The "horns" of the Rhinoceros are made of keratin but are actually
compactedhair,nottruehorn.(See:antler)
HostInmedicine,ananimalinfectedorparasitizedbyanotherorganismOrganism
whichservesasthe habitat fora parasite,orpossiblyfora symbiont.A host may
providenutritiontotheparasiteorsymbiont,orsimplyaplaceinwhichtolive.
HumusThecomplexorganicmaterialresultingfromthedecompositionofforestleaf
andbranchlitter.. Thedarkorganicpart ofsoilformedfromdecayingplant and
animalmatter,oftencalledtopsoil.Blackorganicmaterialofcomplexcomposition
whichistheendproductofmicrobialbreakdownofplantandanimalresiduesatthesoil
surface..Thewelldecomposed,relativelystablepartoftheorganicmatterfoundin
aerobic soils. A complex aggregate of amorphous substances, formed during the
microbial decomposition or alteration of plant and animal residues and products
synthesizedbysoilorganisms;principalconstituentsarederivativesoflignins,proteins
andcellulose.
HuntTopursueorsearchforpreyforfood.
Husk Materialconsistingofseedcoveringsandsmallpiecesofstemorleavesthat
havebeenseparatedfromtheseedsoutermembranouscoveringofsomefruitsor
seeds.Example:cornhusks.
hybrid The offspring of genetically dissimilar parents or stock, especially the
offspringproducedbythebreedingplantsoranimalsofdifferentvarieties,species,or
races.Offspringoforganismsofdissimilargenotype,oftentheoffspringofacross
betweendifferentspecies.Anycrossbredanimalorplant.
Hybridization Theactofmixing,eithernaturallyorbyman,different species or
varietiesofanimalsorplants,andthustoproducehybrids.Alsoknownasinterbreeding
orcrossbreeding.
Hydrologiccycle Movementorexchangeofwaterbetweentheatmosphereandthe
earth..Disposalofprecipitationfromthetimeitreachesthesoilsurfaceuntilitre
enters the atmosphere by evapotranspiration to serve again as a source of
precipitation.

HyoidboneAUshapedboneorcomplexofbonessituatedatthebaseofthetongue
andsupportingthetongueanditsmuscles.InmaleRedHowlerMonkeysthehyoid
boneactsasaresonatingchamber,allowingthemonkeystomaketheirloudroar.
HyperepiphyteAnepiphytegrowingonanotherepiphyte.
Hypha (plural hyphae)Threadlike filaments that formthe mycelium (body)ofa
fungus.
igap Seasonallyflooded galleryforest along blackwaterrivers suchastheRio
NegroinBrazil.
Iceage AnyoftheperiodsintheEarthshistorywhentemperaturesfellworldwide
andlargeareasoftheEarthssurfacewerecoveredwithglaciers. Duringthelastfew
millionyears,therehavebeenmanyglacialperiods,occurringinitiallyat40,000year
frequencybutmorerecentlyat100,000yearfrequencies. UsuallythetermIceAges
referstothemostrecentperiodsofglaciationduringthePleistocenePeriod.
InbredSeeinbreeding.
Inbreeding The continued mating of closely related individuals.the mating of
closelyrelatedindividualsofaspecies,especiallyovermanygenerations.Apopulation
thathasinexperiencedinbreedingoveralongperiodissaidtobe inbred.Overtime,
inbreedingcanhaveaseverenegativeimpactonthehealthofapopulation.
IncubationTheactofrearingandhatchingeggsbythewarmthofthebody.
Indeterminate growth Refers to growth that is not terminated, in contrast to
determinate growth that stops once a genetically predetermined structure has
completelyformed.Organismswithindeterminategrowthcontinuetogrowthroughout
their lives. Examples of organisms with indeterminate growth are trees, snakes,
caimans,andturtles.
IndicatorInbiology,anorganism,species,orcommunitywhosecharacteristicsshow
thepresenceofspecificenvironmentalconditions.
Indicatorplant Anyplantthat,byitspresence,itsfrequencyoritsvigor,indicates
anyparticularpropertyofthesite,particularly,butbynomeansexclusively,ofthesoil.
Indigenous Pertainingtoplantsoranimalsthatarenativetoaparticularregionor
country. Native to a specified area orregion, not introduced. Native; naturally
occurring.
InflorescenceAfloweringstructurethatconsistofmorethanoneflowerandusually
comprisesdistinctindividualflowers.Aclusterofflowers.

inorganic Composed of matter that is not animal or vegetable; not having the
organizedstructureoflivingthings.substanceinwhichcarbontocarbonbondsare
absent; mineral matter. Not containing carbon. Not from living things. Example:
minerals,water,oxygen,etc.
Insectivore(insectivorous)Ananimalthateatsprimarilyinsects.
InterglacialPeriodArelativelymildperiodoccurringbetweentwoglacialperiods.
IntroduceTheverbusedwhenhumansrelease,eitherintentionallyornot,aninvader
species,exoticspecies,introducedspeciesoralienspeciesintotheenvironment.
IntroducedspeciesAspeciesthatisnotnativetotheecosystem;alsoknownasalien
species,introducedspecies, nonnative species or alienspecies. A species thatis
notindigenoustoaregion.Allspeciesofplantsandanimalsnotnativetoanareaor
naturallyoccurringhistoricallyinany ecosystem.a species thatdoesnotnaturally
occur in an area. These invaders can cause major problems for native plants and
animals..Established plants and animals not native to the ecosystem, region, or
country.(See:naturalized)
InvadeWhataninvaderspecies,exoticspecies,introducedspeciesoralienspecies
does.
InvaderspeciesAspeciesthatisnotnativetotheecosystem;alsoknownasexotic
species,introducedspecies or alienspecies. A species thatisnotindigenoustoa
region.Allspeciesofplantsandanimalsnotnativetoanareaornaturallyoccurring
historicallyinany ecosystem. a species thatdoesnotnaturallyoccurinanarea.
Theseinvaderscancausemajorproblemsfornativeplantsandanimals..Established
plantsandanimalsnotnativetotheecosystem,region,orcountry.(See:naturalized)
InvasiveAninvaderspeciesissaidtobeinvasive
InvertebratesOrganismslackingabackbone.
IridescentMarkedbyorshowingrainbowcolorsthatappeartomoveandchangeas
theangleatwhichtheyareseenchanges.Havingalustrousorbrilliantappearanceor
quality.Manyhummingbirdshaveiridescentplumage.Otherexamplesofbirdswith
iridescentplumageareGreaterAniandBluishfrontedJacamar.
IrritatinghairsHairs,asonacaterpillarorstingingnettle,thatwhentouchedcausea
burningorstingingsensationontheskin.
IrruptToundergoasuddenupsurgeinnumbers,especiallywhennaturalecological
balancesandchecksaredisturbed.

Islandbiogeography Thestudyoftheoriesrelatingtotheratesofcolonizationand
extinctiononecological"islands"andhowtheratesvarywithislandsizeanddistance
fromthesourceofcolonists.
IsolatedpopulationsSpeciesisdefinedasagroupoforganismsthatlooksimilarand
havetheabilitytointerbreedandproducefertileoffspringinthenaturalenvironment.
Foranew species toarise,eitherinterbreedingortheproductionoffertileoffspring
mustsomehowceaseamongmembersofaformerlysuccessfulbreeding population.
Forthistooccur, populations orsegmentsofa population mustsomehowbecome
isolated. Two forms of isolation prevent interbreeding or cause infertility among
membersofthesame species.Theseformsofisolationaregeographicisolationand
reproductiveisolation.(Forinformationontheformationof species see: speciation,
species,evolution,population,reproductiveisolation,geographicisolation,isolated
populations, genetic drift, founder effect, secondary contact, refugia, natural
selection,selectionpressure,PleistocenePeriod)
Jungle Acolloquialtermlackingaprecisebiologicalorecologicaldefinition.Itis
oftenusedtodescribeatangled,densesuccessionalecosystemconsistingofmanyfast
growing,lightlovingspecies,butisalsoattimesusedtorefertorainforestortropical
rainforest.
Keystone species Species that play roles affecting many other organisms in the
ecosystem.Aspeciesthatincreasesordecreasesthediversityofasystem.Generally
these species are competitively superior species..A species that increases the
diversityofasystembyselectivepredationisconsideredakeystonepredator.
Keystonepredator A species thatincreasesthediversityofasystembyselective
predation.
KStrategistSpeciesthatproduceafew,oftenlargeoffspring,butinvestagreatdeal
oftimeandenergytoensurethatmostoftheoffspringwillreachreproductiveage.
A Kstrategist is characterized by: 1) large parental investment in their young. K
strategistsreproduceslowly,withlonggestationperiods,topermittheyoungtodevelop
more in the womb. After birth, the young are tended until they can be reasonably
expected to care for themselves and 2) the ability to exploit stable environmental
situations.OncethepopulationofaKstrategisthasreachedthecarryingcapacityofits
environment,thepopulationsizestaysrelativelyconstant.
LacustrineRelatingtolakesandstandingbodiesofwater.Pertainingtolakes.
Landscape ecology The study of the distribution patterns of communities and
ecosystems,the ecological processesthataffectthosepatternsandchangesinpattern
andprocessovertime.
Larva(plural:larvae)Amonginvertebrates,animmaturestageinthelifecyclewhich
usuallyismuchsmallerthan,andmorphologicallydifferentfrom,theadult.Ininsects

withmetamorphosis,thelarvamustbecomeapupabeforereachingadulthood.the
immature, wingless,andoftenwormlikestageofametamorphicinsectthathatches
fromtheegg,alterschieflyinsizewhilepassingthroughseveralmolts,andisfinally
transformedintoapupaorchrysalisfromwhichtheadultemerges.
LateriteAkindoftropicalsoilhighinaluminumandironcompounds,oftenreddish
incolor.
Laterization The process whereby leaching caused by heavy rains plus high
temperaturesconvertslateriticsoilsintohardened,bricklikematerial..Usedbysome
torefertotheprocessesofformationoflateriteorredandyellowtropicalsoils.This
termisnotspecificandshouldnotbeused.
LatitudeSouthtonorthmeasurementoflocationontheplanet
Latitudinalcline Trendthatincreasesordecreaseswithlatitude.Example:alkaloid
contentinplantleavestendstodecreasewithincreasinglatitude.Alsoseelatitudinal
diversitygradient.
LatitudinaldiversitygradientThestrongtendencyforvarioustaxonomicgroupsto
havetheirmaximum species richnessintheequatorialtropics,with species richness
diminishingwithincreasinglatitude(i.e.,towardPolarRegions).
Leach/leachingTheremovalofnutrientatomsfromsoilsbroughtaboutbytheeffect
of rainwater washing through the soils, interacting with the clay component of the
soil.. Theprocessbywhichnutrientchemicals orcontaminants aredissolvedand
carriedawaybywater,oraremovedintoalowerlayerofsoil.Theprocessbywhich
solubleconstituentsaredissolvedandfilteredthroughthesoilbyapercolatingfluid.
(See: leachate.) The washing out of material from the soil, both in solution and
suspension.Leachingmayoccurinfarmingareas,feedlots,andlandfills,andmayresult
inhazardoussubstancesenteringsurfacewater,groundwater,orsoil.
LeaflitterLeaflitter,orforestlitter,isthedetritusoffallenleavesandbarkwhich
accumulateinforests.
LeafmarginTheoutermarginoredgeofaleaf.
LeafpetioleThestalkoftheleaf.
LeafletOneofthesegmentsofacompoundleaf.
LekTraditionaldisplaygroundsonwhichmalesofcertainpromiscuousspecies,such
as some manakins, perform courtship displays to attract females. Displaying males
defend small territories on the lek, with the more dominant males usually dancing
towards the center of the court. Females visit the lek, and select a male for
copulation.An area in which several, and sometimes several dozen, males court
passingfemales.Maybeconcentratedordispersed,coveringalargerareawheremales

arenotindirectviewofoneanother.(Examples:BandtailedManakin,ScreamingPiha,
AndeanCockoftheRock).
LianaAwoody,climbing,tropicalvineAtypeofwoodyvinethatbeginsasasmall
shrubandentwinesupward,entanglingthroughoutthecanopy.
LichenAcompositeorganismformedfromthesymbioticassociationofatruefungi
andanalga.
LifecycleThephases,changes,orstagesthroughwhichanorganismpassesduringits
lifetime.
LifezoneArecognizablebandofvegetationwithinacertainaltitudinalrangealonga
mountainslope.
LigninApolymerthatbindscellulosetogethertomakewood.Thestiffeningmaterial
insidewoodcellwallsthatgivesstrengthandrigidity. Allowstreestogrowtalland
outcompeteotherplantsforsunlight.Accountsforabout30%ofthedryweightof
wood..thecomponentofwoodresponsibleforitsrigidity.
limitingfactorAconditionwhoseabsenceorexcessiveconcentration,isincompatible
withtheneedsortoleranceofaspeciesorpopulationandwhichmayhaveanegative
influenceontheirabilitytothriveorsurvive.
LlanosAvastareaofseasonalmarshlandinmostlyincentralandsouthernVenezuela
butalsoinColombiaandnortheasternBrazil.
Lobed Withleaves, havingdeeplyindentedmarginsbutwiththelobesnotentirely
separatefromeachother.
LongitudeEasttowestmeasurementoflocationontheplanet.
LumpIntaxonomy,tocombinetwoormoregeneraintoonegenusortwoormore
speciesintoonespecies.Theoppositeofsplit.
LushHavingorcharacterizedbyluxuriantvegetation.
MaggotThelegless,softbodied,wormlikelarvaofanyofvariousfliesoftheorder
Diptera,oftenfoundindecayingmatter.
MeiosisTheprocessofcelldivisioninsexuallyreproducingorganismsthatreduces
thenumberofchromosomesinreproductivecellsfromdiploidtohaploid,leadingtothe
productionofgametesinanimalsandsporesinplants.
Mesic Of sites or habitats characterized byintermediate moisture conditions, i.e.
neitherdecidedlywetnordecidedlydry.

MetabolismSumofthechemicalreactionswithinacellorwholeorganism,including
the energyreleasing breakdown of molecules (catabolism), and the synthesis of
complexmoleculesandnewprotoplasm(anabolism).
metamorphosis A process of developmental change whereby a larva reaches
adulthoodonlyafteradrasticchangeinmorphology;occursinmostamphibiansand
insects,forsomeinsects,thischangemayincludeanotherstage(pupa)beforetheadult
stage;(verbismetamorphose).
Mesic In ecology, a type of habitat with a moderate or wellbalanced supply of
moisture,i.e.amesicforest..Growinginorcharacterizedbymoderatemoisture.
MicroclimateGenerally,theclimateofsmallareas,especiallyinsofarasthisdiffers
significantlyfromthegeneralclimateoftheregion.Moreparticularly,theclimateunder
a plant or other cover, differing in extremes of temperature and moisture from the
climateoutsidethatcover.Theclimateofaverysmallregion..Thelocalizedclimate
conditionswithinanurbanareaorneighborhood.
Micro fauna Small animals only visible with a microscope, including protozoa,
nematodes, etc.The small animals that can only beseen with a microscope; they
includeprotozoa,nematodes,etc.
MicrofloraSmallplantsthatcanonlybeseenwithamicroscope;theyincludealgae,
fungi,bacteria,etc.
MicrohabitatThespecificcombinationofhabitatelementsinthelocationsselected
byorganismsforspecificpurposesand/orevents.
MicroorganismsThemembersofthe microfloraand microfauna thatcanonlybe
seenwithamicroscope.
MigrantAnanimalwhomigrates(See:migration)
Migration The regular, extensive, seasonal movements of birds between their
breedingregionsandtheirwinteringregionsThemovementofanimalsinresponseto
seasonalchangesorchangesinthefoodsupply.Birdsprovidethebestexamples.Inthe
Peruvian Amazon, at the proper season, you can find bird migrants from North
America,southernSouthAmerica,thePantanal,andtheAndes.(See:dispersal,winter
resident)
MimicAnorganismthatengagesinmimicry.
mimicry Asituationinwhichanorganism,througheitherappearance,behavior,or
both, comes to resemble closely another, unrelated species that shares the same
ecosystem.(SeeBatesianmimicry,Mllerianmimicry,andmimicrycomplex.)

Mimicrycomplex Asituationinwhichagroupoforganisms,includingsomefrom
different taxonomic families,convergeinappearance.Agoodexampleofamimicry
complexcanbefoundamongthebutterfliesofthefamiliesIthomiidaeandHeliconidae.
MistletoeAmemberoftheplantfamilyLoranthaceae.
Mixedflock(=mixedspeciesflock).Aforagingflockofbirdscomprisedofseveral,
andsometimesmany,species.
Mob(mobbing) Amonganimals thatarepreyedupon,tosurroundandharass a
potentialpredator.
ModalTermusedtodescribethehometreewhereaslothspendsmostofitstime.
ModerateverbTolessentheviolence,severity,orextremenessof.
moist forest A seasonal tropical forest receiving not less than 100 mm.
(approximately4inches)ofrainfallinanymonthfortwooutofthreeyears,frostfree,
with an average temperature of 24C (75F) or more. (See: rainforest, tropical
rainforest)
MoltToshedperiodicallypartorallofacoatoranoutercovering,suchasfeathers,
cuticle,orskin,whichisthenreplacedbyanewgrowth.
MonogamousReferstoananimalpracticingmonogamy.
MonogamyThepracticeofhavingonlyonemateatatimeorduringalifetimethe
oppositeofpolygamy.
MonomorphicHavingasingleform.Theoppositeofpolymorphic.
MonotypicAtermappliedtothefamilies,genera,andspeciesoflivingorganisms.
Theoppositeofpolytypic.Afamilycontainingonlyonespeciesisamonotypicfamily.
Examples of monotypic bird families are the Eurypygidae (Sunbitterns) and
Opisthocomidae(Hoatzins).Agenuscontainingonlyonespeciesisamonotypicgenus.
Aspecieswithoutanysubspeciesorracesisamonotypicspecies.(See:subspecies)

MontaneMountainouspertainingtoamountainousregion.
Morphological Relatingtobodyshape;alsotakentoincludebodysizeandcolor
patterns
MorphologyTheformandstructureofanything,usuallyappliedtotheshapes,parts,
andarrangementoffeaturesinlivingandfossilorganisms.
MotileAbletomoveoneselfabout,capableofselflocomotion.

Muck

Highly

decomposed

organic

wet

soil.

MllerianmimicryAsituationinwhichtwoormoreunpalatablespeciesconvergein
appearance.
MuskyOf,relatingto,orhavingtheodorofmuskwithapungentsmellsimilarto
thatofmusk.(Muskisagreasysecretionwithapowerfulodor,producedinaglandular
sacbeneaththeskinoftheabdomenofthemalemuskdeerandusedinthemanufacture
ofperfumes.Asimilarsecretionisproducedbycertainotheranimals,suchasmembers
oftheweaselfamily.(See:scentgland)
MutagenAchemicalorphysicalagentthatcausesapermanentgeneticchangeina
cellotherthanthatwhichoccursduringnormalgeneticrecombination.
MutagencityThecapacityofachemicalorphysicalagenttocausepermanentgenetic
changeinacell.
Mutant Anindividual,organism,ornewgeneticcharacterarisingorresultingfrom
geneticmutation.
MutationSeegeneticmutation.(Alsosee:geneticdrift)
MutualismAtypeofsymbiosisinwhichbothmembersoftherelationshipbenefit.
As anexample, mycorrhizae (fungi) form symbiotic associations with the roots of
some plants. Mycorrhizae aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients, while the plant
provides the fungi with carbohydrates (food)..A situation in which two or more
species become evolutionarily interdependent in such a way that each benefits the
other(s).(See:symbiosis,commensalism,andparasitism)
MutualistAnorganisminarelationshipinvolvingmutualism.
Mycorrhizae (singular: mycorrhiza)Agroupoffungalspeciesthatare mutualists
withtrees.Fungi,whichgrowintotheroots,aidintakingupmineralsfromthesoil.
Treessupplyfungiwithcarbohydratesfromphotosynthesis. Symbiotic association
betweenafungusandtherootsorrhizoidsofaplant.Theprobablysymbioticand
maybesometimes parasitic,associationbetweentherootorrhizomeofagreenplant
andafungus.
Myrmecophyte 1)Plantsthatofferspecializedshelterorfoodforants.2)Aplant
pollinatedbyants.
Native species Indigenous species that is normally found as part of a particular
ecosystem.speciesthatoccursnaturallyinanareaorhabitat.Alsocalledindigenous
species.

NaturalselectionThemechanismofevolutionarychangefirstformallydescribedby
Charles DarwinandAlfred Russel Wallace. Argues that genetic characteristics best
suited to a particular environment will be disproportionately passed to offspring
becausethesecharacteristics confergreatersurvivalvalue,andthustheirpossessors
reproduceingreaternumbers. theprocessbywhichgenetictraitsarepassedonto
eachsuccessivegeneration.Overtime,naturalselectionhelps species becomebetter
adaptedtotheirenvironment.Alsoknownassurvivalofthefittest,naturalselection
isthedrivingforcebehindtheprocessofevolution.theprocessbywhichthegenetic
makeup of a population changes allowing for a better adapted phenotype to be
produced. (For information on the formation of species see: speciation, species,
evolution, population, reproductive isolation, geographic isolation, isolated
populations, genetic drift, founder effect, secondary contact, refugia, natural
selection,selectionpressure,PleistocenePeriod)
Naturalized Alien or exotic species that have become successfully
established.Whenaspeciesthatisnotnativetoacertainareagrows,reproducesand
maintainsitself.
Nectarivore / nectivore (nectivorous) An animal that eats primarily nectar, for
exampleanadultbutterflyorahummingbird.
NeotropicalReferringtotheNeotropics.
NeotropicsThetermfortheAmericanorNewWorldtropics.
Nesting Theprocessinbirdsandotheranimalsofbuildinganest,layingeggs,and
raisingyoung.
NestlingAyoungbirdthathasnotleft,orabandoned,thenestAyoungbirdnotyet
fledged.(See:fledge,fledging)
NeutralismSeecommensalism.
Neutralize Tocounterbalanceorcounteracttheeffectof;renderineffective.To
makechemicallyneutral.
Niche 1) The ultimate unit of the habitat, i.e., the specific spot occupied by an
individualorganism.2)Byextension,themoreorlessspecializedrelationshipsexisting
betweenanorganism,individualorsynusia,anditsenvironment.3)Thespecificsetof
environmental/ahabitatconditionthatpermitsthefulldevelopmentandcompletion
ofthelifecycleofanorganism.theplaceandfunctionofaspeciesinanecosystem.
NOTE: The ecological niche ofa species is thefunctional roleofthe species ina
community; the fundamental niche is the totality of environmental variables and
functionalrolestowhichaspeciesisadapted;therealizednicheisthenichewhicha
species normally occupies. n. The portion of the environment which a species

occupies,definedintermsoftheconditionsunderwhichanorganismcansurvive,and
maybeaffectedbythepresenceofothercompetingorganisms.
Nitrogen fixation The complex process by which microorganisms, often in
association withrootsystemsofcertain vascularplants (suchaslegumes),acquire
energyfromtheconversionofgaseousnitrogentoinorganicnitratethatissubsequently
takentipbyvascularplants.Thetransformationofelementalnitrogentoanorganic
formbymicroorganisms.Theconversionofgaseousnitrogenintoaformusableby
plants.
Nocturnal Activeonlyatnight.Occurringoractiveduringthenightratherthan
duringtheday.Theoppositeofdiurnal.
Nomadic a roaming lifestyle, moving frequentlyhaving no permanent abode
movingaccordingtotheseasonsfromplacetoplaceinsearchoffoodandwater.
NonnativespeciesSeeexoticspecies,alienspecies,introducedspecies.
Nonrenewableresource aresourcethatisinlimitedsupplyanddoesnthavethe
capacitytobereplacedthroughnaturalprocesses,atleastnotformanythousandsof
years.FossilFuelsareanonrenewableresource.
Nonvascular plants Nonvascular plants include the mosses, hornworts, and
liverworts andmembersofotherkingdoms(thevarious algae).Becausetheseplants
lackwaterconductingtissues,theyfailtoachievethestructuralcomplexityandsizeof
vascularplants.(Seevascularplants)
NutrientSubstancerequiredforgrowthanddevelopment.Plants,forexample,need
water and minerals to grow and reproduce.. Elements or compounds essential to
growth and development of living things; carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium and
phosphorus..TheelementsC,H,O,P,K,N,S,Ca,Mg,K,B,Mn,Cu,Zn,Mo,Cl,
Co,SiandFwhicharerequiredforplantgrowth.. Anysubstanceassimilatedby
living things that promotes growth. The term is generally applied to nitrogen and
phosphorusinwastewater,butisalsoappliedtootheressentialandtraceelements.
Anyelementorsimplecompoundnecessaryforthehealthandsurvivalofanorganism.
Thisincludesairandwater,aswellasfood.
Nutrient cycle The exchange of elements between the living and nonliving
componentsofanecosystem.(Seenutrientcycling)
NutrientcyclingThetransformationofchemicalelementsfrominorganicforminthe
environment toorganicforminlivingorganisms,thenbacktoinorganicform.This
includes the exchange of elements between and among the biotic and abiotic
components.Alltheprocessesbywhichnutrientsaretransferredfromoneorganism
toanother.Forinstance,thecarboncycleincludesuptakeofcarbondioxidebyplants,
ingestionbyanimals,andrespirationanddecayoftheanimal.

NymphInaquaticinsects,thelarvalstage.
Obligatecommensal Anorganismthatcanonlyexistina commensal relationship
withanotherspecies.(See:commensalism)
ObligateparasiteAparasitethatcannotsurvivewithoutahost.
Omnivore (omnivorous) Organismsthatfeedonbothplantsandotheranimals.
animalorganismsthatcanuseplantsandotheranimalsasfoodsources.Literally,an
organismthatwilleatanything.Referstoanimalswhodonotrestricttheirdiettojust
plantsorotheranimals.
OmnivoryTheprocessofanimalseatingbothplantsandotheranimals.2)Feedingon
preyfrommorethanonetrophiclevel.
OpportunisticTermusedtodescribethehuntingbehaviorofsometypesofpredators.
Whileallpredatorsareopportunistictosomedegree,otherpredators,suchasCoatis,are
morepurelyopportunisticintheirhuntingmethods,takinginsects,lizards,birdseggs,
smallmammals,orwhateverotherpreytheycomeupon.
OppositeleavesTwoleavesateachnode,alwaysonoppositesidesofthestem.(See:
alternateleaves)Whetheraplanthasoppositeoralternateleavescanbeimportantin
itsidentification.
OrbitalringSeeeyering.
OrderAtaxonomiccategorybetweenclassandfamily.Ordersarecomposedofone
ormorefamilies.
Ore A mineral or an aggregate of minerals from which a valuable constituent,
especiallyametal,canbeprofitablyminedorextracted.
Organic Pertainingtocompoundscontainingcarbon.Alsoreferstolivingthingsor
thematerialsmadebylivingthings.Referringtoorderivedfromlivingorganisms;in
chemistry,anycompoundcontainingcarbon..Substancewhichincludescarbonto
carbon

bonds.
(Opposite

is
inorganic)
organicmatter Referringtoorderivedfromlivingorganisms.2.Inchemistry,any
compound containing carbon. .Carbonaceous waste contained in plant or animal
matter andoriginating fromdomestic orindustrialsources.Organism: Anyformof
animalorplantlife.Decomposedplantandanimalresidues.portionofthesoilthat
includes microflora and microfauna (living and dead) and residual decomposition
productsofplantandanimaltissue;anycarbonassembly(exclusiveofcarbonates),
largeorsmall,deadoralive,insidesoilspace;generallyconsistsprimarilyofhumus.
OrnithologyThescientificstudyofbirds.

OutcompeteTosucceed,throughcompetition,overanotherspecies.
Overripe Tooripe.pastitsbestflavorandtexturemarkedbydecayordecline.
Rotten Affected by rot or decaybeing in a state of putrefaction or decay;
decomposed.
Ovipositor Egglayingtubularstructureattheendoftheabdomeninmanyfemale
insects and some fishes A tubular structure usually concealed but sometimes
extending outside the abdomen, with which many female insects deposit eggs.A
similarorganofcertainfishes.
PackAgroupofanimals,suchasdogsorwolves,thatrunandhuntstogether.
pair bond The association between two birds who have come together for
reproduction; can be shortterm (lasting only through egglaying or the rearing of
young)orlifelong
PampasTemperategrasslandsinthecentralandsouthernpartsofSouthAmerica.
Pantanal Anextensive areaofseasonal grassland andmarshland insouthwestern
BrazilandextremeeasternBolivia.
ParallelveinedLeavesinwhichtheveinsrunparalleltoeachother.Thisconditionis
characteristicoftheMonocotyledoneae(Poaceae,Orchidaceae,andLilaceae).
Paramo highelevation shrubby grasslands found in the northern Andes, from
northernPerunorthward.
Parapatric When the ranges of two populations (or species) meet but do not
extensivelyoverlap.termusedwhenthegeographicalrangesoftwotaxameet,and
overlaponlyslightly.(See:sympatricandallopatric)
Parasite An organism that derives its nutrients from living organisms. Parasites
includebothplantsandanimals.Theplantparasitescanbeclassifiedashemiparasites
orholoparasites.Anorganismthatlivesonorwithinahost(anotherorganism);it
obtainsnutrientsfromthehostwithoutbenefitingorkilling(althoughitmaydamage)
thehost;atypeofsymbioticrelationshipinwhichoneorganismbenefitsandtheother
doesnotAnorganismthatlivesonorinanorganismofanotherspeciesandderives
nutrients from it. n organism (plant or animal) that lives in or on another living
organismofadifferentkind(host)andderivessubsistencefromitwithoutreturning
anybenefit.(adjectiveisparasitic;nounisparasitism)

Parasiteload Theamountorquantityof parasitespossessedbyanindividualthat

mayaffecttheindividualscapacityforsurvival.
ParasitismAtypeofsymbiosisinwhichaparasiteobtainsitsenergyrequirements
(food)fromthe host.Thiscouldbeconsideredatypeofpredator/preyrelationship.
Parasites may live within their host (endoparasite) or on the body of their host
(ectoparasites).Typically,anefficientparasitedoesnotkillitshost,butinsomecases
thisdoesoccur.Manykindsofwormsandfungiareparasitic,livingin(worms)oron
(fungi)their host.Forexample,ringworms(fungi)areparasiticonhumanskinand
hookwormsareinternalparasitesthatattachthemselvestotheintestineandobtainfood
intheformofbloodandtissueliquids....Themodeoflifeofaparasite,i.e.asbetween
itanditshost.(See:symbiosis,commensalism,andmutualism)
PasserineAmemberofthebirdorderPasseriformes.
Pathogen anorganism,chieflya microorganism,includingviruses,bacteria,fungi,
andallformsofanimal parasites andprotozoa,capableofproducinganinfectionor
disease in a susceptible host. Microorganisms that can cause disease in other
organismsorinhumans,animalsandplants(e.g.,bacteria,viruses,orparasites)found
in sewage, in runoff from farms or rural areas populated with domestic and wild
animals, and in water used for swimming. Fish and shellfish contaminated by
pathogens,orthecontaminatedwateritself,cancauseseriousillness.
Peat Acompacteddepositofpartiallydecomposedorganicdebrisusuallysaturated
withwater.
Peel nounTheskinorrindofcertainfruitsandvegetables.VerbTostriporcut
awaytheskin,rind,orbarkfromTostripaway;pulloff.
PerchangleTheangleatwhichabirdperchesonabranch.Forexample,theperch
angleofaTropicalKingbirdisoftencloseto90,whereastheperchangleofaDrab
WaterTyrantiscloserto25.
Perennial Usedtodescribeaplantthatlastsformorethantwogrowingseasons,
either dying back after each season, as some herbaceous plants do, or growing
continuouslyassomeshrubsandtreesdo.
Periscope(periscoping) AbehaviorofGiantOttersinwhichtheycranetheirhead
andneckstraightupoutofthewaterwhileremainingstationary.Theydothistocheck
outapotentialdangerwhentheyfeelanxiousorthreatened.
Permanentresidentsanimalsthatlivesinthesameareayearround.(See:resident)
PhenotypeTheobservablephysicalorbiochemicalcharacteristicsofanorganism,as
determinedbybothgeneticmakeupandenvironmentalinfluences.(See:genotype)

PheromoneAnychemicalproducedbyalivingorganismthattransmitsamessageto
other members of the same species. There are alarm pheromones, food trail
pheromones, sex pheromones, and many others. Their use among insects has been
particularlywelldocumented,althoughmanyvertebratesandplantsalsocommunicate
usingpheromones.
PhilopatryFaithfulnesstoaregionoranarea.
PhloemInvascularplants,phloemisoneofthetwotypesoftransporttissueinplants,
xylem beingtheotherone.Phloemistheliving tissue thatcarriesorganicnutrients,
particularly sucrose, to all parts of the plant where needed. In trees, the phloem is
underneathanddifficulttodistinguishfrom bark,hencethename,derivedfromthe
Greekwordfor"bark".
Unlikexylem(whichiscomposedprimarilyofdeadcells),thephloemiscomposed
ofstilllivingcellsthattransport sap.Thesapisawaterbasedsolution,butrichin
sugars made by the photosynthetic areas. These sugars are transported to non
photosyntheticpartsoftheplant,suchastheroots,orintostoragestructures,suchas
tubers or bulbs.. A layer of plant tissue just inside the bark that transports food
(dissolved nutrients) from the leaves to the stem and roots. Nutrientconducting
tissueofvascularplants.(See:xylem).
Photosynthesis Thecomplexbiochemicalprocessbywhichgreenplantscapturea
small amount of the sun's light energy and incorporate it, with water and carbon
dioxide, into energyrich sugar compounds. The manufacture by plants of
carbohydratesandoxygenfromcarbondioxidemediatedbychlorophyllinthepresence
ifsunlight.Complexprocessthattakesplaceincellsofgreenplants.Radiantenergy
fromthesunisusedtocombinecarbondioxide(CO2)andwater(H2O)toproduce
oxygen(O)andcarbohydrates(suchasglucose)andothernutrientmolecules.
PhototropismAbotanicaltermsforasessileorganism'sresponsetolight(alsoknown
asheliotropism.Inthecaseofheliotropism,specificallythelightfromthesun).These
are one of the many plant tropisms or movements in response to external stimuli.
Growthtowardalightsourceisapositivephototropism,whilethereverseiscalled
negative phototropism (if growth or orientation is toward darkness, as with some
membersoftheAraceaewhentheyfirstgerminate).Leavesandotherpartsoftheplant
thatrequirelightforphotosynthesisexhibitpositivephototropism,whilerootsusually
exhibitnegativephototropism,although gravitropism (growthinresponsetogravity)
mayplayalargerroleintheirbehaviorandgrowth.
Phylogeny Theevolutionaryhistoryofanorganismora taxonomic group,e.g.a
species...Theevolutionaryhistoryofaspeciesorsubspecies.
PhysiognomyThestructureandlifeformofaplantcommunity.
PhytoestrogenAnaturallyoccurringcompoundofplants,suchassoybeans,orplant
products,suchaswholegraincereals,thatactslikethehormoneestrogeninthebody.

Phytoprotective Serving to protect a plant from herbivores. A phytoprotective

chemicalisacompoundsuchasanthocyaninthatdiscouragesherbivores.
PhytotoxinSubstancecausinggrowthreductionordeathinplants.
Pioneer The first species of plant or animal life to begin living in a previously
unoccupied site, for example, a moss beginning to grow on otherwise bare rock.
Pioneersofteninvadeinlargenumbersandoverconsiderableareas.
PioneerplantAplantspeciesthatappearsearlyinthecycleofvegetationsuccession.
Thesepioneerplantshavecharacteristics thatparticularlysuittheirroleintheearly
stages of succession, such as a rapid growth rate and the ability to produce large
amountsofsmall,easilydispersedseeds.Aplantcapableofinvadingbaresites(e.g.
a newly exposed soil surface) and persisting there or "colonizing" them, until
supplanted,bysuccessionalspecies.anynewarrivalintheearlystagesofsuccession.
Piscivore(piscivorous)Habituallyfeedingonfish;fisheating.
PitviperVenomoussnakesinthefamilyCrotalidae,suchastheBushmasterandFer
deLance.
PlagioclimaxAplantcommunitywhichismaintainedbycontinuoushumanactivity
ofaspecificnature,suchasburningofgrazing.
Pleistocene Period The period following the Pliocene period, extending from
2,000,000010,000yearsBP.InEuropeandNorthAmerica,thereisevidenceoffouror
fiveperiodsofintensecoldduringthisperiod,whenlargeareasofthelandsurfacewere
coveredbyiceglacialperiods.Duringtheinterglacialperiods,theclimateameliorated
andtheglaciersretreated.(See:iceages,refugia)
PlumageThecoveringoffeathersonabird.
PointedHavingasharportaperedend.
PollenThefertilizingelementoffloweringplants.
PollinationProcessoftransferringthepollenfromitsplaceofproductiontotheplace
wheretheeggcellisproduced.Thismaybeaccomplishedbytheuseofwind,water,
insects,birds,bats,orothermeans.Pollinationisusuallyfollowedbyfertilization,in
whichspermarereleasedfromthepollengraintounitewiththeeggcell.
Pollinator Animalwhichcarries pollenfromoneseedplanttoanother,unwittingly
aiding the plant in its reproduction. Common pollinators include insects, especially
bees,butterflies,andmoths,birds,andbats.
PolliwogSeetadpole.

Polyandry(polyandrous)Animalmatingsysteminwhichafemalemateswithmore
thanonemaleduringanysinglebreedingseason.
Polygamy(polygamous)Animalmatingsysteminwhichanindividualofaspecies
mates with more than one other individual during any single breeding seasonthe
oppositeofmonogamy.(Includesbothpolyandryandpolygyny)
Polygyny(polygynous)Animalmatingsysteminwhichamalemateswithmorethan
onefemaleduringanysinglebreedingseason.
Polymorphic The occurrence of different forms, stages, or types in individual
organismsorinorganismsofthesame species,independentofsexualvariations.The
oppositeofmonomorphic.
Polytypic Atermappliedtothe families, genera,and species oflivingorganisms.
The opposite of monotypic. A polytypic family or genus contains more than one
species. A polytypic specieshastwoormore races or subspecies.Thisclassification
reflectsseparategroupsthatareclearlydistinctfromoneanotheranddonotgenerally
interbreed (althoughtheremaybearelativelynarrowhybridizationzone),butwhich
wouldinterbreedfreelyifgiventhechancetodoso.Althoughdifferent species can
sometimesinterbreedtoalimitedextent,theconverseisnottrue.Groupsincapableof
producingfertileoffspringwitheachotherareuniversallyconsidereddistinctspecies,
and not merely different races or subspecies of the same species. (See: species,
subspecies)
PopulationAgroupofindividualsallofwhicharethesamespecies.Thestructureof
any ecological systemconsistsof populations,whicharethemembersofthesame
speciesthatinhabitaparticulararea.Agroupofinterbreedingorganismsoccupyinga
particularspace;thenumberofhumansorotherlivingcreaturesinadesignatedarea.
(For information on the formation of species see: speciation, species, evolution,
population, reproductive isolation, geographic isolation, isolated populations,
geneticdrift,foundereffect,secondarycontact,refugia,naturalselection,selection
pressure,PleistocenePeriod)
Powderdownaspecialkindofmodifiedfeatherswhichsometimesformpatcheson
certainpartsofsomebirds.Thesedownfeathersdifferfromtheusualdownastheyare
exceptionallyfineandproduceadustbetweenthefrons,thebirdtakesthisdustfromits
powderdownfeathersandcoatsallitsexternalfeatherswiththedust.Thisdustmainly
providesthebirdwithsomewaterproofingforthemainflightfeatherssoitcanstillfly
intherain.Italsoconditionsthefeathers.
PrecocialPrecocialbirdshavetheireyesopenathatching,arecoveredwithdown,and
leave the nest almost immediately after hatching to find food for themselves. The
oppositeof altricial.Capableofahighdegreeofindependent activity frombirth.
Manygroundnestingbirdssuchastinamousandwoodquailhaveprecocialyoung.

PredationTheactofpreyingOneorganismfeedingonanotherisanaturalwayin
which population size is kept in check. A predator is typically well adapted to
capturingitsfood,theprey.Predationincludesanimalsfeedingonplantsoranimals
feedingonotheranimals. A predator typically willbethe prey andthe prey will
alwaysbethe predator ofanotherorganism.Althoughnatural population sizesare
usuallymaintainedwithinanundisturbedecosystemduetopredator/preyinteractions,
thereareoccasionswhenpredatorsmayseriouslyreducetheirpreypopulations.This
resultsnotonlyinthereductionofthepreypopulation,buteventuallyareductionin
thepredatorpopulation.Oncethepredatorpopulationisreducedtoacertainsize,the
preypopulationmaybegintoincrease.Thisinturnwillbefollowedbyanincreasein
thepredatorpopulation.
Predator Organism which hunts and eats other organisms. This includes both
carnivores,whicheatanimals,andherbivores,whicheatplants.Anorganismthat
livesbypreyingonotherorganisms.
PreenTosmoothorcleanfeatherswiththebeakorbill,asbirdsdo,or
totrimorclean(fur)withthetongue,asmammalsdo.
prehensileAtypeoftailfoundoncertainNeotropicalmonkeys,anteaters,kinkajous,
opossums, and some snakes that functions as a fingerlike limb. The sensitive and
dextroustailiscapableofbeingcurledaroundabranch,holdingtheanimalsecurely.
PreyOrganismhuntedandeatenbyapredator.
PrimariesInbirds,thelongestflightfeathersinthewings,attachedtothemanus,or
the"hand"partofthewing.Thenumberofprimaryfeathersvariesfrom9to11,andis
numberedfromtheinnermostprimarytotheoutermost.(See:secondaries)
Primaryproducerorganismthatusessolar(greenplants)orchemicalenergy(some
bacteria)tosustainlife.Anyorganismwhichbringsenergyintoanecosystemfrom
inorganicsources.Mostplantsandmanyprotistsareproducers.
Producer Sameasaprimaryproducerorganismthatusessolar(greenplants)or
chemicalenergy(somebacteria)tosustainlife.Anyorganismwhichbringsenergy
intoanecosystemfrominorganicsources.Mostplantsandmanyprotistsareproducers.
productionTheprocessofproducingorganicmaterial.Theincreaseinbiomass,by
individuals,speciesorspeciesgroupings,overtime,suchasthetotalamountofwood
orfishtissueelaboratedbya population oftreesorfishwithinaspecifiedperiodof
time.
ProductivityThetotalamountofphotosynthesisthatoccursinagivenecosystem
Theabilityofastream,estuary,ortheoceantoproducethefoodneededbyanadromous
fishatthevariousstagesoftheirlifecycle..Therateatwhichbiomassisproduced
perunitareabyanyclassoforganisms.2)Rateofnewtissueformationorenergy

utilizationbyoneormoreorganisms.3)Capacityorabilityofanenvironmentalunitto
produceorganicmaterial.4)Theabilityofa population torecruitnewmembersby
reproduction.
Promiscuous Notformingpairbondsduringthematingseason,butrather,having
indiscriminate,casualsexualrelationships ofbriefduration.Mostofteninvolvesthe
malematingwithmorethanonefemale.
ProprootArootthatleavesthetrunkorabranchwellabovegroundandhelpsanchor
thetree.Sameasstiltroot.
PropaguleAnyspore,seed,fruitorotherpartofaplantormicroorganismcapableof
producinganewplantandusedasameansofdispersal.
ProstrateGrowingflatalongtheground.
Protist AmemberoftheformerKingdomProtista.Theprotistsnowbelongtothe
KingdomProtoctista,anewclassificationinmostmodern taxonomic systems.(See:
Protoctist)
ProtoctistAmemberoftheKingdomProtoctista,regardedasdistinctfromplantsand
animals.Inmostmodernclassifications, KingdomProtoctistaisareplacementforthe
Kingdom Protista. It includes Protozoa, Euglenophyta, Chlorophyta, Cryptophyta,
Heterokontophyta, and Rhodophytaunicellular protists and their descendant
multicellularorganisms.SomemembersoftheProtoctistakingdomareunicellular,
othersarecolonial,andyetothersaremulticellular.Inthecolonialforms,allthecells
are similar with similar, generalized functions, whereas in the truly multicellular
species,thebodyoftheorganismconsistsofavarietyoftypesofcells,eachtype
withitsownspecializedfunction.Theseorganismsarealleukaryotes,meaningthey
haveatruenucleus.Theyallneedsomekindofawaterbasedenvironment,whichcan
befreshormarinewater,snow,ordampsoilinwhichtolive.Allareaerobicandhave
mitochondria to do cellular respiration, and some have chloroplasts and can do
photosynthesis.Mostofthemreproduceorgrowbymitosis,andsomereproduceby
meiosis and fertilization. Manycan formcysts inadverse conditions. Protists area
major component of plankton. Protists are grouped into three major, unofficial
categoriesbasedonmeansbywhichtheyobtainnutrition.ThesearetheProtozoa,the
Algae,andtheFunguslikeProtists.(See:Protist)
PseudobulbAthickened,bulblike,fleshystemlocatedabovetheground,asinmany
orchids.
Puna Highelevation grassland found throughout the southern Andes, from Peru
southward.
PupaInmetamorphosinginsects,astagebetweenthelarvaandadultduringwhich
theorganismundergoes major developmental changes. anintermediate stageofa

metamorphicinsect(suchasabee,moth,orbeetle),usuallyenclosedinacocoonor
protectivecovering.
PyrophyteAgeneraltermforanyspeciesorgroupofplantsthatisclearlyadaptedto
anenvironmentinwhichfireisfrequent.Aspeciesthatisadaptedtosurvivesevere
fires.
RaceAraceorsubspeciesisageneticallydistinctpopulationwithinaspeciesthatis
notreproductivelyisolatedfromotherpopulationswithinthespecies.Ataxonomic
categoryintermediateinrankbetweenspeciesandvarietybasedonasmallernumber
ofcorrelatedcharactersthanareusedtodifferentiatespeciesandgenerallyconditioned
bygeographicaland/or ecological occurrence. Race.Arace,or subspecies,isa
recognizablegroupformingallorpartofaspecies.
Amonotypicspecieshasnoraces,orratheroneracecomprisingthewholespecies.
Monotypicspeciescanoccurinseveralways:
Allmembersofthespeciesareverysimilarandcannotbesensiblydividedinto
biologicallysignificantsubcategories.
Theindividualsvaryconsiderablybutthevariationisessentiallyrandomand
largely meaningless so far as genetic transmission of these variations is
concerned(manyplantspeciesfitintothiscategory,whichiswhyhorticulturists
interestedinpreserving,say,aparticularflowercoloravoidpropagationfrom
seed,andinsteadusevegetativemethodslikepropagationfromcuttings).
Thevariationbetweenindividualsisnoticeableandfollowsapattern,butthere
arenocleardividinglinesbetweenseparategroups:theyfadeimperceptiblyinto
one another. Such clinal variation always indicates substantial gene flow
between the apparently separate groups that make up the population(s).
Populationsthathaveasteady,substantialgeneflowbetweenthemarelikelyto
representamonotypicspeciesevenwhenafairdegreeofgeneticvariationis
obvious.
Rainforest/rainforestAverywet,essentiallynonseasonalforest.(Definitionsvary.
Thisisthedefinitionfrom ANeotropicalCompanion) Evergreenforestassociated
withaclimatecharacterizedbycontinualhighhumidityandabundantrainfallanda
shortornodryseason.NOTE:Commonlyapplied,inarestrictedsense,totropical
forestswithanannualrainfall80inchesandabundantepiphytesandclimbers. (See:
moistforestandtropicalrainforest)
RainshadowThedryregionontheleewardsideofamountainrange,whererainfall
isnoticeablylessthanonthewindwardside.Forexample,thecoastofPeruisinthe
rainshadowoftheAndes.Anareatotheleewardofahighlandmass,particularlya
mountainrange,whichreceiveslessrainthanwouldbeexpectedhadthehighlandmass
notbeenupwindofit.
Range 1)Theareainwhichaplantnaturallylivesandreproduces.2)Theknown
geographicaldistributionofaplantoranimalduringadefinedperiodoftime.3)The
areainwhichananimalseeksfoodandwater..theareainwhichanorganismmay

travelinitslifetime.Rangealsoreferstothegeographicdistributionofaparticular
species.
RaptorAbirdofprey.
RealmaregionoftheEarththatharborssimilargroupsofspeciesbasedonashared
biogeographicalhistory.Forexample,whileprimatesarefoundinmanypartsofthe
world,allmonkeysfoundwithprehensiletailsareonlyfoundintheNeotropicrealm.
TheEarthismadeupofeightrealms.
RecessivegeneAtypeofgenethatisnotexpressedasatraitunlessinheritedbyboth
parents.(See:recessivetrait)
RecessivetraitAcharacteristicdeterminedbyarecessivegene.Ifagenetictraitis
recessive,apersonneedstoinherittwocopiesofthegeneforthetraittobeexpressed.
Thus,bothparentshavetobecarriersofarecessivetraitinorderforachildtoexpress
thattrait.Ifbothparentsarecarriers,thereisa25%chancewitheachchildtoshowthe
recessivetrait.(See:recessivegene)
RefugiaHypothesizedshrunkenareasofrainforestthatwerescatteredinCentraland
SouthAmericaduringthePleistoceneIceAges.Sonamedbecauserainforestspecies
found"refuge"intheserainforests,whichwereotherwisesurroundedbysavanna.(For
information on the formation of species see: speciation, species, evolution,
population, reproductive isolation, geographic isolation, isolated populations,
geneticdrift,foundereffect,secondarycontact,refugia,naturalselection,selection
pressure,PleistocenePeriod)
Regeneration Therenewalofvegetationbynaturalorartificialmeans.Aparent
tree'sestablishmentofprogeny.
RegurgitateTocausetopourback,especiallytocastuppartiallydigestedfood.Many
birdsfeedtheiryoungbyregurgitatingfoodtheyhaveeaten.
Reintroducetoreturnmembersofaspeciestotheirhistoricalrange.Thisstrategyis
sometimes used when a species has become locally extinct or if its population is
threatened.
Relict species a species that has survived while other related ones have become
extinct.Arelict species maybeonethathadawiderrangebutisnowfoundonlyin
particular areas,oritmayhavesurvivedrelatively unchangedfromanolderperiod
whenotherkindsofspecieswentextinct(suchashorseshoecrabs).
Remotesensing1)anexplicitlyspatialmethodofusingsatelliteimagerytoconduct
ecological researchanddecisionmaking.2)Acquisitionofinformationaboutobjects
usingphotographicorelectromagneticsensorsonairplaneorsatelliteplatforms..The

collectionandinterpretationofinformationaboutanobjectwithoutphysicalcontact
withtheobject;e.g.,satelliteimagingandaerialphotograph.
RenewableresourceAresourcethathasthecapacitytobereplacedthroughnatural
processes.Treesarearenewableresource.
ReplacementclutchTheeggslaidbyabirdtoreplaceaclutchinwhichnoneofthe
eggshatched.
Reproduction The manufacture of offspring as part of an organism's life cycle.
Reproductionmaybesexual,involvingthefusionofgametes,orasexual.
ReproductiveisolationSometimesgroupsoforganismswithinapopulationbecome
isolatedgenetically withoutprior geographicisolation.Whenbarriers tosuccessful
breedingariseamong population groupsinthesamearea,theresultisreproductive
isolating.Reproductiveisolationistheinabilityofformerlyinterbreedingorganismsto
produce offspring. Reproductive isolation can arise through disruptive selection.
Rememberthatindisruptiveselectionthetwoextremesofaspecifictraitinagiven
population ate selected for. The wood frog and the leopard frog have become
reproductivelyisolated,possiblyasaresultofdisruptiveselection.Thoughthewood
frogandtheleopardfrogsometimesinterbreedincaptivity,theydotointerbreedwhere
therangesoverlapinthewild.ThewoodfrogusuallybreedsinearlyApril,andthe
leopardfrogusuallybreedsinmidApril.Thisreproductiveisolationmayhaveresulted
fromdisruptiveselection.Intheancestralfrogspeciesfrogsthatbredearlierandfrogs
thatbredlatermayhavebothbeenselectedfor,whilefrogsthatbredbetweenthese
timesmaybeenselectedagainst,perhapsbecausesomepredatorwasespeciallyactive
duringthattime.Thetwogroupsoffrogsmayhavebecomereproductivelyisolated
because of differences in breeding times. Probably it was in part through such
reproductive isolation that speciation occurred in these frogs. Eventually different
selectionpressuresledtothetypeofmorphologicalvariations.(Forinformationonthe
formation of species see: speciation, species, evolution, population, reproductive
isolation,geographicisolation,isolatedpopulations,geneticdrift,foundereffect,
secondary contact, refugia, natural selection, selection pressure, Pleistocene
Period)
Residentanimalsthatlivesinaparticulararea.Onecantalkabouttheresidentspecies
of an area in contrast to the migrant species. One can also differentiate between
permanentresidentsandwinterresidents.(See:permanentresident)
ResilienceTheabilityofacommunitytoreturnstoitsformerstateafterdisturbance.
respiration The act or process of inhaling and exhaling; breathing.The act or
processbywhichanorganismwithoutlungs,suchasafishorplant,exchangesgases
withits environment.Theoxidativeprocessoccurringwithinlivingcellsbywhich
thechemical energyoforganicmolecules is released inaseriesofmetabolic steps
involving the consumption of oxygen and the liberation of carbon dioxide and

water.Anyof various analogous metabolic processes bywhich certain organisms,

suchasfungiandanaerobicbacteria,obtainenergyfromorganicmolecules.
RestorationTherepairofecologicaldamagetoanecosystemsothatitisclosetothe
naturalconditionpriortoadisturbanceanditcanfunctionasanormalselfregulating
system.Thisisdonethroughprocessessuchaschemicalcleanups,revegetation,andthe
reintroductionofnativespecies.
RhizoidRhizoidsareastructure(asahyphaofafungus)thatfunctionslikearootin
support or absorption. Rhizoids, in fungi, are small branching hyphae that grow
downwardsfromthe stolons thatanchorthefungus.Theyreleasedigestive enzymes
andabsorbdigestedorganicmaterial.Rhizoids,in bryophytes,are rootlikestructures
thatanchorstheplanttotheground.Rhizoidsarerelatedprimarilyto heterotrophic
nutrition
RhizomeAhorizontalundergroundstem,suchasfoundinmanyferns,whereonlythe
leavesmaystickupintotheair;sphenophytes(horsetailsandtheirrelatives)spreadvia
rhizomes, but also produce erect stems. An underground portion of a stem,
producingshootsontopandrootsbeneath;differentfromarootinthatithasbuds,
nodes,andscalyleaves;rootstock.
RictalbristlesOutwardlydirected,bristlyfeathersnearthebaseofabirdsbill.
riparianAlongbanksofriversandstreamsThelandadjacenttoandpertainingto
thebanksofstreams,rivers,orotherwaterbodies.pertainingtothebanksofariver
orotherbodyoffreshwaterHavingtodowiththeedgesofstreamsorrivers.The
physical andbiological environment adjacent toariverorstreamthatsignificantly
influences,and/orissignificantlyinfluencedby,thestreamorriver.NOTE:Thezone
which contributes organic matter tothe river orstream; the zone that is wetted by
periodicsurfaceorsubsurfacewaterfromtheriverorstream.Treesformingastrip
alongawatercoursemaybetermedgalleryforest.(See:riverine)
RiparianhabitatAreasadjacenttoriversandstreamswithahighdensity,diversity,
andproductivityofplantandanimalspeciesrelativetonearbyuplands.
RiparianorriverinesuccessionVegetationalsuccessionintheriparianzone.Along
lowland whitewater rivers in Amazonia riparian succession follows a predictable
pattern,beginningwithgrasses,andthenproceedingthroughaTessariaSalixphase,a
CecropiaGyneriumphase,thenaFicusinsipidaCedrelaphase.
RiparianzoneTerrestrialareasadjacenttoperennialorintermittentstreamsandrivers
alsocalledriparianareaorriparianhabitat.
Ripe Fullydeveloped;matureSufficientlyadvancedinpreparationoragingtobe
usedoreaten,asinripefruit.

Riverbasin Thelandareadrainedbyariveranditstributaries.Alsoknownasa
drainagebasinorwatershed.(See:drainagebasin)
RiverineRelatingtoriversandstreams.(See:riparian)
Roost(noun)Asupportonwhichbirdsrest;aplacewherebirdscustomarilyrest;also
agroupofbirdsrestingtogether(Verb)Tosettledownforrestofsleep:perch.
RufousAreddishbrowncolor,asinthetailsofmostspeciesofwoodcreepersand
foliagegleaners.
RunwaysThecoveredpathwaysconstructedbytermitestoprotectthemselvesfrom
weatherandthesun.
RStrategistAnRStrategistischaracterizedby:1)smallparentalinvestmentinthe
young.Theprenatalperiodisshortandpostnatalcareisminimal.Tocompensate,anr
strategistproducesalargenumberofoffspring,mostofwhomwillnotsurvivelong
enoughtoreproduce,and2)theabilitytorapidlyexploitunpredictable environment
opportunities.AnexampleofthisistheCecropia.
Saprophyte Organismlivingondeadordecayingorganicmatterthathelpsnatural
decomposition of organic matter in water. Organism which feeds on dead and
decayingorganisms,allowingthenutrientstoberecycledintotheecosystem.Fungiand
bacteriaaretwogroupswithmanyimportantsaprophytes.
SapwoodTheyoungerwoodnearertothesurfaceofthetree,whichdoesnothavethe
naturalextractives(chemicals)topreventdecay.
Savanna An ecosystem that is primarily grassland but with scattered trees and
shrubs. atypeof grassland withwidelyspacedtreesandablanketofgrassesthat
requirealotoflight.Rainfallusuallyoccursinthewarmer,summermonthswithadry
periodofbetweentwotoeightmonths.Firesaretypicalacrosssavannasduringdrier
monthsandoccuratintervalsfromoneto50yearsEssentiallylowland,tropical
andsubtropicalgrassland,generallywithascatteringoftreesand/orshrubs.
savannawoodlandAmoreorlessopen,tropicalorsubtropicalwoodlandhavingan
undergrowth mainly of grasses, the trees being of moderate height and generally
deciduousor,ifevergreen,tendingtohavesmallleaves.
ScavengerAnorganismthatfeedsupondeadanddyingorganisms.
Scentgland Scentglands arefoundinthe genital area ofmost mammals andin
variousotherpartsofthebody,suchastheunderarmsof humans andthepreorbital
glandsofdeer.Theyproduceasemiviscousfluidwhichcontainspheromones.These
odormessengersindicateinformationsuchasstatus,mood,andsexualpower.Theodor
maybesubliminal,notconsciouslydetectable.

SchoolAlargegroupofaquaticanimals,especiallyfish,swimmingtogether.
ScrubVegetationconsistingofsmallorstuntedtreesand/orshrubs.
SearchimageApatternrecognizedbypredatorstoaidinquicklyidentifyingpotential
prey.
Second growth Vegetation that covers an area after the removal of the original
vegetation,asbycuttingorfire.
Secondaries In birds, the flight feathers of the wing arising from the ulna, or
"forearm"regionofthewing.Secondaryfeathersarenearerthebird'sbodythanthe
primaryfeathers,andarenumberedfromtheoutermostfeathertotheinnermost.(See:
primaries)
SecondarycompoundsChemicalcompoundsproducedbyplantstohelpprotectthem
fromherbivores.Afewofthesecompoundsinclude
Alkaloids:preventenzymestoworkeffectivelyasbiologicalcatalyst;examples
cocaine,morphine,cannabidiol,caffeine,andnicotine.
Cardiacglycosides:actontheheart;exampledigitalis.
Cyanogenicglycosides:affecttherespiratoryprocess;foundincassavaroots.
Tannins:makevegetationindigestible;characteristicoftemperateoaks.
Saponins:aresoaplikecompoundsanddestroypartofthecellmembrane.
Terpenoids:arefatsolublecompoundsthatarehighlytoxictosomefungiand
theleafcuttingant.
Toxicaminoacids:tendtoreplacetheaminoacidsofanorganismandinterfere
withthenormalsynthesisofproteins.
Calciumoxalates:crystalsofcalciumoxalatethat,wheneaten,severelyburn
themouthtissues;acommoncompoundfoundintheplantfamilyAraceae(at
urns).
Secondarycontact Therejoiningoftwo populations whoserangewasdividedin
two.InAmazonia,thishappenedseveraltimesduringthePleistoceneglaciationsasthe
areas of forest and savanna expanded and contracted in response to the changing
climaticconditions.Whentwopopulationsofaspeciesareseparated(See:geographic
isolation), they begin to evolve differently in response to differences in the two
differentregionstheynowoccupy.Ifinthefuturetheirrangesareagainjoinedandthe
populationscomeintosecondarycontact,oneofthreethingswillhappen
1) Ifthetwo populations havenotdivergedorevolved greatly,then theywill
interbreedfreelyandagainbehaveasasinglespecies.
2) Ifthetwo populations havedivergedorevolvedonlyslightly,therewillbe
limited hybridization in the zone of contact, but the two populations will
generallyremainseparate.
3) Ifthetwo populations havedivergedorevolvedsignificantly,thentheywill
behaveastwoseparatespecies.

Ifthetwopopulationshavedivergedorevolvedtotheleveloftwoseparatespecies,
thenoneofthreethingswillhappen
1) Onespecieswilloutcompetetheotherandoccupytherangesofboth.
2) thetwospecieswillcoexistsidebyside,occupyingdifferentniches
3) thetwospecieswillremainparapatric,occupyingdifferentareas
(For information on the formation of species see: speciation, species, evolution,
population, reproductive isolation, geographic isolation, isolated populations,
geneticdrift,foundereffect,secondarycontact,refugia,naturalselection,selection
pressure,PleistocenePeriod)
Sedentary Livinginafixedlocation,aswithmostplants,tunicates,sponges,etc.
Contrastwithmotile.
Sediment Suspendedordepositedsoilandorganicmatterinstreamsthatoriginates
fromerosionprocesses.Soil,sand,andmineralswashedfromlandintowater,usually
afterrain.Theypileupinreservoirs,riversandharbors,destroyingfishandwildlife
habitat,andcloudingthewatersothatsunlightcannotreachaquaticplants.Careless
farming,mining,andbuildingactivitieswillexposesedimentmaterials,allowingthem
towashoffthelandafterrainfall.
SeedAstructureproducedbyseedplantswhichencapsulatestheembryo.Theseed
oftenprovidesnourishmentduringgermination,butmayliedormantformanyyears
first.
Seed predator Animals that eat seeds. Examples of seed predators are pigeons,
macaws,parrots,andseedeaters.
SelectionpressureAcharacteristicoftheenvironmentofanorganism,eitherabiotic
orbiotic,thatinfluencestheprobablesurvivaloftheorganism.(Forinformationonthe
formation of species see: speciation, species, evolution, population, reproductive
isolation,geographicisolation,isolatedpopulations,geneticdrift,foundereffect,
secondary contact, refugia, natural selection, selection pressure, Pleistocene
Period)
SenescenceTheagingprocess.Sometimesusedtodescribelakesorotherbodiesof
waterinadvancedstagesofeutrophication.
SeralstageAstageintheseriesofchangesoccurringintheecologicalsuccessionof
aplantcommunity,e.g.pioneerstageorclimaxstage.Atemporalandintermediate
stageintheprocessofecologicalsuccession.
Sere Asequenceofplant communities thatsuccessivelyfollowoneanotherinthe
same habitat fromthe pioneer stagetoaclimaxstage.asequenceofevents by
whichthevegetationofanareadevelopsandbecomesmorecomplex. Aserewhose
firststageisopenwateristermedahydrosere,onewhosefirststageisdryground,a
xerosere.

SerratedHavingorformingarowofsmallsharpprojectionsresemblingtheteethofa
sawHavingasawtoothededgeormarginnotchedwithtoothlikeprojections.
SessilePermanentlyattachedorfixed;notfreemoving,aswithmostplants.
Sexual reproduction A type of reproduction in which two parents give rise to
offspringthathaveuniquecombinationsofgenesinheritedthroughthegametesofthe
twoparents.
SexualselectionTheprocessfirstdescribedbyCharlesDarwininwhichfemalesmate
preferentiallywiththemost"attractive"malesand/orinwhichmalescompeteamong
themselvesforfemales.Theresultoffemalechoiceandmale/malecompetitionisto
selectforcolorfuland/orlargemales.
SexuallydimorphicSeesexuallydimorphism.
SexuallydimorphismOrganismsinwhichthemaleandfemaledifferinoneormore
characteristics,suchassize,color,shape,orstructure.Organismsexhibitingsexually
dimorphismaresaidtobesexuallydimorphic.
Shadetolerant Aplantthatisabettercompetitorundershadedconditions..The
capacity of a tree or plant species to develop and grow in the shade of, and in
competitionwith,othertreesorplants.(Oppositeisshadeintolerant)
Shed Tolosebynaturalprocess,example:asnakesheddingitsskin.Tolosea
naturalgrowthorcoveringbynaturalprocess,example:a Capirona treesheddingits
bark.
SheenGlisteningbrightness;luster.
ShrubAwoody,perennialplantdifferingfromaperennialherbinitspersistentand
woodystem,andlessdefinitelyfromatreeinitslowerstatureandthegeneralabsence
ofawelldefinedmainstem.Awoodyplantthatproducesnotrunkbutbranchesfrom
thebase.
SiblicideAtypeofbehaviorinwhichayoungbirdkillsitssiblinginthenest.The
victim ismostoftentheyounger,smaller siblingofa clutch,andparents oftendo
nothingtopreventitsdeath.Thisbehavioriscommoninsomespeciesofraptors,for
example.
sit&waitAmethodofhuntingpracticedbysomepredators,suchasRoadsideHawk,
thatsitquietlywatchingandwaitingforapreyanimaltocomewithineasyrange.
slashandburnagricultureAfarmingtechniqueinwhichvegetationiscutandthen
burnedonsmallplots,thusopeningtheplotsforplantingcropsaswellasfertilizingthe
soil. anagriculturalsysteminwhichfarmersperiodicallyclearlandforfarmingby

cuttingandburningpatchesofforest.Traditionally,patchesusedforagriculturewere
allowed to revert to forests for a number of years before being replanted, causing
minimalimpact.Today,however,intensiveslashandburnagriculturedamagesmany
tropicalforestecosystems.
SnagAstandingdeadtree.Snagsfrequentlyprovidehomesforwildlife.
SoarTheactofrisingupwardintotheairtoflyorrisehighintheair,oftenwiththe
aidofthermals.
SociabilityThetendencyoforganismstogrowtogetherwithothersofthesamekind.
Socialparasitismwhenonespeciestakesadvantageofanotherspecies.Somespecies
ofbirdswilllaytheireggsinthenestofotherbird species,leavingtheprocessof
protectingandfeedingoftheiryoungtotheparasitizedbird.Therearesomespeciesof
antsthatwillenslaveotherspeciestocarefortheireggs,larvae,andpupae.
SoftpartsAgeneraltermforthebill,legs,feet,andbarefacialskinofbirds.
SoilTheaccumulationofmineralparticlesandorganicmatterthatformsasuperficial
layeroverlargepartsofEarth'ssurface.Itprovidessupportandnutrientsforplantsand
isinhabitedbynumerousandvariousmicroorganismsandanimals.(1)Adynamic
naturalbodycomposedofmineral andorganicmaterials andlivingformsinwhich
plantsgrow.(2)Thecollectionofnaturalbodiesoccupyingpartsoftheearth'ssurface
thatsupportplantsandthathavepropertiesduetotheintegratedeffectofclimateand
livingmatteractinguponparentmaterial,asconditionedbyrelief,overperiodsoftime.
SolutionInchemistry,ahomogeneousmixtureoftwoormoresubstances,thismaybe
solids,liquids,gases,oracombinationofthese.
SongperchAfavoredperchfromwhichabirdsings.Thesamesongperchwillbe
useddayafterday.
SoupymudWet,slushy,deepmud.
Specialist/specialistspecies Organismwhichhasadoptedalifestylespecifictoa
particular set of conditions. ..A species that has a narrow ecological niche. For
example,theymaybeabletoliveinonlyonetypeof habitat,tolerateonlyspecific
environmentalconditions,oreatonlyafewtypesoffood.Thepandaisaspecialist
species becauseover95percentofitsdietconsistsonlyofbamboo.(Contrastwith
generalist)
specialization1)Theactorprocessofbecomingspecialized,2)Theadaptationofan
organismorpartofanorganismtoaparticularfunctionorconditioninresponseto
environmentalconditions,3)anorganismorpartofanorganismthathasbeenadapted
toaparticularfunctionorcondition.

SpeciationTheprocessbywhichaspeciesevolvesintotwoormoreotherspecies.
theprocessbywhichoneormorepopulationsofaspeciesbecomegeneticallydifferent
enoughtoformanewspecies.Theprocessoftenrequirespopulationstobeisolatedfor
alongperiodoftimeTheformationofanewspeciesbyevolution.
Howfastdonewspeciesform?Becausetheirgenerationtimesareshort,newspecies
ofunicellularorganismsmayevolveinyears,months,orevendays.Forplantsand
animalsDarwintheorizedthatnew species formedgraduallyovermillions ofyears.
Todayscientistsknowofexamplesinwhichspeciesaroseinonlythousandsratherthan
millionsofyears.
For example, archaeological evidence indicates that settlers from Polynesia
introducedbananatreestotheHawaiianIslandsaboutathousandyearsago.Today
severalspeciesofmoths,uniquetotheHawaiianIslands,feedonBananas.Thesemoth
speciesarecloselyrelatedtootherplanteatingmothsinHawaii.Thusscientistssuggest
thatthebananaeatingmothsarosefromotherplanteatingmoths,undergoingadaptive
radiation in less than the thousand years that banana trees have existed in Hawaii.
Evidencefromthefossilrecordhasledsomescientiststoproposethatspeciationneed
notoccur gradually butcan occurinspurts.According tothe theoryofpunctuated
equilibrium,allpopulationsofaspeciesmayexistforarelativelylongtimeatorclose
togeneticequilibrium.Thentheequilibriummaybeinterruptedbyabriefperiodof
rapid genetic change in which speciation occurs. Some scientists argue that if new
speciesevolvedgradually,thefossilrecordshouldshowmanyexamplesoftransitional
formsspecieswithcharacteristicsintermediatebetweenthoseofancestralspeciesand
newspecies.However,formostorganismssuchtransitionalformsareabsentfromthe
fossilrecord.Insteadthefossilrecordshowsthatmostspeciesremainedthesamefor
hundreds of thousands or millions of years. Then new, related species suddenly
appeared. Whether new species form gradually or rapidly is still a point of debate
amongscientist.However,scientistsagreethatnaturalselection,whethergradualor
rapid,isthemostimportantfactorinspeciation.
(Forinformationontheformationof species see: speciation,species,evolution,
population, reproductive isolation, geographic isolation, isolated populations,
geneticdrift,foundereffect,secondarycontact,refugia,naturalselection,selection
pressure,PleistocenePeriod)
Species 1)agroupoforganismsthathaveauniquesetofcharacteristics(likebody
shapeandbehavior)thatdistinguishesthemfromotherorganisms.Itisusuallydefined
as an interbreeding group of birds that is reproductively isolated from other such
groups. Ifmembersofa species reproduce,individualswithinthesame species can
producefertileoffspring.(2)Thebasicunitofbiologicalclassification.Scientistsrefer
to species using both their genus and species name. A reproductively isolated
aggregate of interbreeding organisms. Related organisms or populations having
commonattributes andpotentially capableofinterbreeding. (Forinformationonthe
formation of species see: speciation, species, evolution, population, reproductive
isolation,geographicisolation,isolatedpopulations,geneticdrift,foundereffect,
secondary contact, refugia, natural selection, selection pressure, Pleistocene
Period)

SpeciesrichnessThenumberofspeciesofagiventaxonwithinagivenecosystem.
Split Intaxonomy,todivideonegenusorone species intotwoormoregeneraor
species.Theoppositeoflump.
Stand Acommunity oftrees sufficiently uniformin species,age,arrangement or
conditiontobedistinguishableasagroupfromtheforestorothergrowthonthearea.
StiltrootArootthatleavesthetrunkorabranchwellabovegroundandhelpsanchor
thetree.Sameasproproot.
StingingnettleAnherbaceousfloweringplantsofthegenusUrtica,nativetoEurope,
Asia,northern Africa, NorthAmerica,andSouthAmerica.Boththeleavesandthe
stemsarecoveredwithbrittle,hollow,silkyhairswhichcauseaburningsensationwhen
theycomeincontactwithbareskin.Recentresearchhasrevealedthecauseofthesting
tobefromthreechemicalsahistaminetoirritatetheskin,acetylcholinetobringona
burningsensationand hydroxytryptamine toencouragetheothertwochemicals.Bare
skinbrushingupagainstastingingnettleplantwillbreakthedelicatedefensivehairs
andreleasethetrioofchemicals,usuallyresultinginatemporaryandpainfulskinrash.
StolonAnaerialshootfromaplantwiththeabilitytoproduceadventitiousrootsand
newoffshootsofthesameplant.
Stoma(plural: stomata) Asmallopeningfoundintheepidermal layerofplants,
allowingaccessforcarbondioxideandthereleaseofwater.Stomataaresurroundedby
guardcellsthatcontroltheopeningsize.Openingsintheepidermisofastemorleaf
of a plant which permit gas exchange with the air. In general, all plants except
liverwortshavestomataintheirsporophytestage.
StratificationTheorganizationoftreesinaforestindifferenthorizontallayerssuch
ascanopy,subcanopy,shrub,andherblayers.Separatingintolayers.
SubspeciesAsubspeciesorraceisageneticallydistinctpopulationwithinaspecies
that is not reproductively isolated from other populations within the species. A
taxonomic category intermediate in rank between species and variety based on a
smaller number of correlated characters than are used to differentiate species and
generallyconditionedbygeographicaland/orecologicaloccurrence.Race.Arace,
orsubspecies,isarecognizablegroupformingallorpartofaspecies.
Amonotypicspecieshasnoraces,orratheroneracecomprisingthewholespecies.
Monotypicspeciescanoccurinseveralways:
Allmembersofthespeciesareverysimilarandcannotbesensiblydividedinto
biologicallysignificantsubcategories.
Theindividualsvaryconsiderablybutthevariationisessentiallyrandomand
largely meaningless so far as genetic transmission of these variations is
concerned(manyplantspeciesfitintothiscategory,whichiswhyhorticulturists

interestedinpreserving,say,aparticularflowercoloravoidpropagationfrom
seed,andinsteadusevegetativemethodslikepropagationfromcuttings).
Thevariationbetweenindividualsisnoticeableandfollowsapattern,butthere
arenocleardividinglinesbetweenseparategroups:theyfadeimperceptiblyinto
one another. Such clinal variation always indicates substantial gene flow
between the apparently separate groups that make up the population(s).
Populationsthathaveasteady,substantialgeneflowbetweenthemarelikelyto
representamonotypicspeciesevenwhenafairdegreeofgeneticvariationis
obvious.

SubstrateSupportingsurfaceonwhichanorganismgrows.Thesubstratemaysimply
providestructuralsupport,ormayprovidewaterand nutrients.Asubstratemaybe
inorganic,suchasrockorsoil,oritmaybeorganic,suchaswood.
SubterraneanSituatedoroperatingbeneaththeearth'ssurface;underground.
SubtropicalGeographically,regionsthathaveanaveragetemperatureof50degrees
Fahrenheitor10degreesCelsiusorabovefor5to8monthsoftheyear.Subtropical
areascanbefoundtothenorthandsouthofthetropicsaswellasonmountainslopes
withinthetropicalregions.
SuccessionSeeecologicalsuccession.
SuperspeciesAgroupofspeciesthataremorphologicallysimilarandareconsidered
tohaveevolvedquiterecently fromacommonancestor. Therearemanyexamples
amongAmazonianandAndeanbirdsandmammals.
Surfaceroots Rootsthatradiateouton,ratherthanin,thesoil.Mostcommonon
nutrientpoorsoils.
Suspendedloads Sedimentparticlesmaintainedinthewatercolumnbyturbulence
andcarriedwiththeflowofwater.
Sustainable/sustainabilityMeetingtheneedsofthepresentwithoutdiminishingthe
abilityofpeople,otherspecies,orfuturegenerationstosurvive.
Swamp 1)Atractgenerallycharacterizedbyasoilthatisslightlyacid,neutral,or
slightlyalkaline,andawatertableatorabovethesoilsurface(thewateroftenmoving
perceptibly),supportingnotonlylowvegetation,e.g.sedges,butalsoreedsandwoody
vegetation, including trees. 2) Tree or tall shrub dominated wetlands that are
characterizedbyperiodicfloodingandnearlypermanentsubsurfacewaterflowthrough
mixtures of mineral sediments and organic materials, essentially without peat
accumulation..A type of wetland dominated by woody vegetation but without
appreciablepeatdeposits.

swarmnounAlargenumberofinsectsorothersmallorganisms,especiallywhenin
motionA group of bees with a queen bee in migration to establish a new
colony.verbTomoveoremergeinaswarm.Toleaveahiveasaswarm,aswith
bees.Tomoveorgatherinlargenumbers.
SwiddenagricultureSeeslashandburnagriculture.
SymbiontAnorganisminasymbioticrelationship.Alsocalledsymbiote.
SymbiosisTheintimaterelationshipbetweentwoormoredissimilarorganisms.The
individual organisms are called symbionts. There are three kinds of symbiotic
relationships...
1. Mutualism:inwhichbothmembers oftherelationship benefit.Mycorrhizae
(fungi)formsymbioticassociationswiththerootsofsomeplants.Mycorrhizae
aidtheplantintheuptakeofnutrients,whiletheplantprovidesthefungiwith
carbohydrates(food).
2. Commensalism:onememberbenefitswhiletheotherdoesnotbenefit,butis
not harmed. Epiphytes depend on trees for support. The host tree does not
receiveanyrealbenefitfromtheepiphyteandtheepiphytedoesnotobtainits
nutrientsfromthetree.Alsoknownasneutralism.
3. Parasitism:a parasite obtainsitsenergyrequirements (food)fromthe host.
Thiscouldbeconsideredatypeofpredator/preyrelationship. Parasites may
live within their host (endoparasite) or on the body of their host
(ectoparasites).Typically,anefficient parasite doesnotkillits host,butin
somecasesthisdoesoccur.Manykindsofwormsandfungiareparasitic,living
in (worms) or on (fungi) their host. For example, ringworms (a fungi) are
parasitic on human skin and hookworms are internal parasites that attach
themselves to the intestine and obtain food in the form of blood and tissue
liquids.
..A relationship between two organisms that live in intimate contact with each
other;includesmutualism(bothorganismsbenefit,theyrelyoneachotherforsurvival),
parasitism(oneorganismbenefitsatitshost'sexpense)andcommensalism(onepartner
benefitsandtheotherisneitherbenefitednorharmed).Therelationshipmaysometimes
beobligatoryforall.Anonobligatoryrelationshipmaybetermedprotocooperation.
SymbioteAnorganisminasymbioticrelationship.Alsocalledsymbiont.
Symbiotic Refers to the intimate relationship between two or more dissimilar
organisms.(See:symbiosis)
Sympatric Whentwo populations'(or species')rangesextensivelyoverlap. term
used when two taxa live in the same area at the same time. (See: allopatric and
parapatric)
SynchronoushatchingHatchingthatoccursatthesametimeornearlythesametime,

usuallywithinonecalendarday.
SynchronousnestingNestingbyalocalpopulationinwhichbreedingpairsinitiate
egglayingwithinarelativelyshortperiodoftime(afewdaystoafewweeks).
SynconiumAveryparticularinflorescence,typicalofallfigtrees.Itconsistsofaflat
andwidefloralreceptaclewithtenstohundredsoftiny,sessileflowers.Thisreceptacle
closesitselfinafruitlikestructure,withanorificeonthetop.Insidelaytheflowers,
and,afterfertilization,thefruits.
synergism the simultaneous action of separate agencies which, together, create a
greatertotaleffectthanthesumoftheirindividualeffects..Aninteractionoftwoor
morechemicalswhichresultsinaneffectthatisgreaterthanthesumoftheireffects
takenindependently.
SynusiaVegetationalunitsbasedonlifeform.
Systematic Thestudyofbiologicaldiversityandevolutionaryrelationshipsamong
organisms.NOTE:Thetermissometimesusedinterchangeablywithtaxonomy.The
field of science dealing with the diversity of life and the relationships of life's
componentorganisms.
TadpoleThelimblessaquaticlarvaofafrogortoad,havinggillsandalongflattail.
Asthetadpoleapproachestheadultstage,legsandlungsdevelop,andthetailgradually
disappears.Alsocalledpolliwog.
TankbromeliadBromeliadswithlongstiffleavesthatformarosetteofoverlapping
leafbases.Theresultistheformationofareservoirthatusuallypermanentlyholds
water.Falling intothis watertherewillbeanaccumulation ofdeadleafandwood
material,anddeadandlivinganimals,mostlyinsects.
TanninsSeesecondarycompounds
TaprootAthick,deepcentralroot.
Taxon(plural:taxa)Agroupoforganismsthataremembersofthesameevolutionary
group.Forexample,birdsrepresentataxon,asdomammals,insects,andflowering
plants. literally an 'arrangement', a group of organisms bunched together for
taxonomic purposes; it is generally used in place of the more clumsy, species or
subspecies.
TaxonomicReferringtotaxonomy.
TaxonomyThescientificnamingoforganismsandtheirclassificationwithreference
to their precise position in the animal or plant kingdom The science of the
classificationoforganisms.Thefieldofsciencethatclassifieslife.

TaxonomistOnewhostudiesthescienceoftheclassificationoforganisms.
Temperate Geographically,regionsthathaveanaveragetemperatureof50degrees
Fahrenheitor10degreesCelsiusoraboveforonly2to4monthsoftheyear.Region
in which the climate undergoes seasonal change in temperature and moisture.
Temperateregionsoftheearthlieprimarilybetween30and60degreeslatitudeinboth
hemispheres.
TemperaterainforestAtypeofforestfoundinonlyafewplacesaroundtheworld,
suchasthePacifictemperaterainforestonthewestcoastofNorthAmerica.These
forests are often dominated by conifer trees adapted to wet climates and cool
temperatures.
Tendril Atwisting,threadlikestructurebywhichatwiningplant,suchasavine,
graspsanobjectoraplantforsupport.
Tepuis A group of unique, flattopped, geologically ancient table mountains in
southeasternVenezuelathatremainfromtheerosionoftheGuiananShield.Mosthave
endemicplantspecies.NotpartoftheAndes.
TermitariumAnestbuiltbyacolonyoftermites.Alsocalledatermitary.
TermitaryAnestbuiltbyacolonyoftermites.Alsocalledatermitarium.
TerrafirmeAnareaofrainforestoffthefloodplainandthusnotsubjecttoflooding.
TerraceAbroadsurfacerunningalongthecontour.Itcanbeanaturalphenomenonor
specially constructed to intercept runoff, thereby preventing erosion and conserving
moisture.
TerrestrialLivingorgrowingonland,asopposedtomarineoraquatic.
Thermal Inweather,acolumnofwarmairrisingthroughcoolersurroundingair.
Birdssuchasvultures,hawksandstorksoftenusethermalstosoar.
Thermoregulation The act of maintaining a constant body
temperature.Maintenanceofaconstantinternalbodytemperatureindependentfrom
theenvironmentaltemperature.(See:warmblooded,homeothermic)
ThicketAdensegrowthofsmalltrees,bushes,bamboo,cane,etc
ThornforestAdeciduousforestofsmallthornytreesdevelopedinatropicalsemi
aridclimate.
ThreatenedspeciesSpeciesthatarelikelytobecomeendangeredinthenearfuture.

ThunderheadSeecumulonimbus.
Tolerance1)Theabilityofanorganismorbiologicalprocesstosubsistunderagiven
setofenvironmental conditions. NOTE:(1)The rangeofthese underwhichit can
subsist,representingitslimitsoftolerance,istermedits ecologicalamplitude.(2)For
trees,thetoleranceofmostpracticalimportanceistheirabilitytogrowsatisfactorilyin
theshadeof,andincompetitionwith,othertrees;ifintolerantofshade,theyaretermed
lightdemanders,iftolerant,shadebearers.(See:shadetolerant).(3)Forwildlife,itis
itsabilitytoadjusttodifferentordisturbedhabitats.
TopographicmapAmapdepictingthenaturalandhumanmadefeaturesofaplace
orregion,especiallyinawaytoshowtheirrelativepositionsandelevations.
TopographyThephysicalfeaturesofasurfaceareaincludingrelativeelevationsand
thepositionofnaturalandmanmadefeatures.
Topsoil Soilconsistingofvariousmixtures ofsand,silt,clayandorganicmatter;
consideredtobethenutrientrichtoplayerofsoilthatsupportsplantgrowth.
TorporThedormant,inactivestateofahibernatingorestivatinganimal.Toconserve
energy,hummingbirdswillgointoastateoftorporatnightandduringperiodsofcold,
rainyweather.
Toxicant A toxic substance.A harmful substance or agent that may injure an
exposedorganism.(See:toxin)
ToxicityAdversebiologicaleffectduetotoxinsandothercompounds.
Toxin Atoxic substanceAnunstable poisonlike compound ofbiological origin
whichmaycauseareductionofviabilityorfunctionalityinlivingorganisms.(See:
toxicant)
Transect A narrow sample strip or a measured line laid out through vegetation
specificallychosenforstudy,i.e.foranalysis,profilingandcharting.
Transpiration(transpire) Ametabolicprocesswherebyplantstakeupwaterand
mineralsfromthesoil,evaporatingthewaterviatheleaves..Theprocessbywhich
plantsabsorbwaterfromtheirroots,moveitupthroughtheplant(viathexylem),pass
itthroughpores(stomata)intheleavesandotherplantparts,andthenevaporateitinto
theatmosphereaswatervapor.. Theprocessbywhichwatervaporislosttothe
atmospherefromlivingplants.Thetermcanalsobeappliedtothequantityofwater
thusdissipated.
TreelineAloosetermforthelimitbeyondwhichtreescannotordonotoccur.The
limitingfactorismostcommonlyaltitudeorgeographicallatitudebutmayalsobee.g.
aridity,flooding,airpollution.Note:Adistinctionmaybedrawnbetweentreelineand
timberline,thelatterbeingroughlythelimitoftimberratherthanisolatedtrees.

Tributary(plural:tributaries)Astreamthatflowsintoalargerstreamorotherbody
ofwater.
TroopAgrouporcompanyofpeople,animals,orthings.Thetermusedforagroup
ofmonkeys.
TrophicPertainingtofoodandnutrition.
Trophiclevel Positioninthefoodchainassessedbythenumberofenergytransfer
stepstoreachthatlevel.
TropicalReferringtothetropics.
tropicsTheregionoftheworldbetweentheTropicofCancer(2326'22"northofthe
Equator) andtheTropicofCapricorn(2326'22" southofthe Equator) Regionin
whichtheclimateundergoeslittleseasonalchangeineithertemperatureorrainfall..
Geographically,regionscharacterizedbyaclimatewithhightemperature,humidityand
rainfall,andhavingveryrarelightfrostsatnight(anaveragetemperatureof65degrees
Fahrenheitor18degreesCelsiusforthecoolestmonth).
TropicaldryforestAtypeofforestfoundneartheEquatorthatexperiencesdistinct
rainyanddryseasons.Manytropical dryforest plantsareadaptedtowithstandhigh
temperaturesandseasonaldroughts.(See:dryforest)
TropicalrainforestForestoccurringinthetropicsandreceivingatleast2000mm.of
rainperyear. atypeofwetforestfoundneartheEquatorthatharborstherichest
diversityofterrestrialplantandanimalspecies.(Seerainforest)
Tropophyte A plant that markedly changes its character, particularly its water
requirements,withseasonalchangesofclimate,e.g.adeciduoustree.
TroposphereThelayeroftheatmosphereclosesttotheearth'ssurface.
Tundra Thezoneoflow,arcticvegetationbetweenthetreelineofthetaigatothe
south and the region of perpetual ice and snow. The corresponding zone on high
mountainsmaybetermedalpineormountaintundra...Avast,mostlyflat,treeless
ArcticregionofEurope,Asia,andNorthAmericainwhichthesubsoilispermanently
frozen. The dominant vegetation is lowgrowing lichens, mosses, and stunted
shrubs.A type of ecosystem dominated by lichens, mosses, grasses, and woody
plants. Tundra is found at high latitudes (arctic tundra) and high altitudes (alpine
tundra).Arctictundraisunderlainbypermafrostandisusuallysaturated.
Tusk Anelongated pointed tooth,usuallyoneofapair,extendingoutsideofthe
mouthincertainanimalssuchasthewalrus,elephant,wildboar,orpeccary.

TypelocalityThegeographiclocationwherethefirstspecimenofaspeciesofplant
oranimalwascollected.
Typespecimen Intaxonomy,theoriginalplantoranimalfromwhichadescription
wasdrawnup.
UmbrellaspeciesBiologistssometimesnamecertain speciesasumbrella speciesin
thehopesofsavingawholerangeofanimalsandplantsinagivenarea.Theideaisthat
byprotectingtheimportantumbrella speciesandpreservingitshabitat,youwillalso
protectanumberofotherspeciesthatdependonthesamehabitat.
However,itdoesn'talwaysworkoutthatway.Forexample,inCalifornia,acertain
insect's umbrella species was doing okay, but the insect itself had gone down in
numbers. What happened was that some development was allowed in the umbrella
species'habitat,keepinginmindtoprotecttheumbrellaspecies.However,theinsect
requiredaspecificplantinordertolivethattheumbrella species didnotnecessarily
need.Manyoftheinsect'splantswerelosttodevelopment.Withfewerplantstoliveon,
fewerinsectswereabletosurvive.Soitisoftenbetterallaroundtopreservelandrather
thanaspecificspecies.
UndergrowthLowgrowingplants,saplings,andshrubsbeneathtreesinaforest.
UnderstoryAnunderlyinglayerofvegetation,especiallytheplantsthatgrowbeneath
aforest'scanopy.Thislayerisfoundabovetheundergrowthlayerandbelowthesub
canopylayer.
UnpalatabilityReferringtosomethingthatisunpalatable.
UnpalatableNotpleasingtothetaste.
UnstableTendingstronglytochange;notconstant;fluctuating.
UropygialglandAlargeglandatthebaseofabird'stailthatsecretesanoilusedin
preening.Alsocalledtheoilgland.
UrticatinghairsHairsthatcontainskinirritants,aswithstingingnettle.
Variety In botany, variety is a taxonomic rank below that of species and
subspecies.
VarzeaABraziliantermreferringtoriverineforestsalongwhitewaterriverssuchas
muchoftheAmazonandsomeofitstributaries.
Vascularplants Plantsthathavespecializedtissuesforconductingwater.Vascular
plantsincludethe ferns,clubmosses, horsetails, floweringplants, conifers andother
Gymnosperms.(Seenonvascularplants)

VenationDistributionorarrangementofasystemofveins,asinaleafbladeorthe
wingofaninsect.
Venom Apoisonoussecretionofananimal,suchasasnake,spider,orscorpion,
usuallytransmittedbyabiteorsting.
VentriloquismTheartofprojectingone'svoicesothatitseemstocomefromanother
source,orfromadifferentdirection.
VentriloquousOforpertainingtoaventriloquistorventriloquism.Manyrainforest
birdscanbesaidtobeventriloquous.
vicarianceAsituationinwhichpopulationsarephysicallyseparatedbysomesortof
naturalbarrier,suchasamountainrange,unsuitablehabitat,orriver.
Vinetangle Adensetangleofvines,oftenintheunderstoryorsubcanopyofthe
forest.Somespeciesofbirds,suchasGrayAntbird,arevinetanglespecialists.
Warmblooded Maintaining a relatively constant and warm body temperature
independentofenvironmentaltemperature.Mammalsandbirdsaretheonlyanimals
that are warmblooded. Opposite of coldblooded. (See: thermoregulation,
homeothermic)
Warning coloration Conspicuous, usually bright animal coloration that typically
signalsthattheanimalisaggressiveortoxicObviousnessofappearanceassociated
withunpalatabilityortoxicity.Alsocalledaposematiccoloration.
watershedAregionoflandwherewaterfromrainorsnowmeltdrainsdownhillintoa
bodyofwater,suchasariver,lake,estuary,orocean.Itincludesboththestreamsand
riversthatconveythewateraswellasthelandsurfacesthatfeedthosechannels.The
combinedstreamsandriversthatdraintheareaarecollectivelythe drainagesystem.
Drainage basins are separated from one another by peaks, ridges, or other
topographicallyhighpointsonthelandscape.Thetopographicregionfromwhicha
stream receives runoff, through flow, and groundwater flow. The area of land that
drainswater,sediment,anddissolvedmaterialstoacommonoutletatsomepointalong
astreamchannelAlsoknownasadrainagebasinorriverbasin..
WaxyConsistingof,aboundingin,orcoveredwithwax.
WebbingAmembraneorfoldofskinconnectingthetoes,asofcertainamphibians
(frogs),birds(ducks,Anhingas),andmammals(GiantOtter).Itisgenerallyfoundon
aquaticanimalsandaidstheanimalinswimming.
Whiskers The long, stiff, tactile bristles or hairs that grow near the mouth and
elsewhereontheheadofmostmammals.

Whitewaterriver AsedimentrichriverthatispartoftheAndesdrainagepattern.
(Seealsovarzea)
WingedpetioleAleafpetiolewithaleaflikeormembranelikeextensionalongits
length,asinInga.
Wing bars Most common in some passerine bird species. They are the lighter
coloredtipsoftheupperwingcovertswhichappearasnarrowbarsinthefoldedwings.
WingflashingSeewinglifting.
Winglifting A habit in birds of raising a single wing up over the back, either
alternatelyorthesameonerepeatedly,especiallyduringdisplay,butalsoatothertimes.
The behavior is also known as wingflashing. Members of the flycatcher genera
Leptopogonand Mionectesareknownforthisbehavior,andthewingliftingbehavior
canbeusedasafieldmarktoidentifyasmallflycatcherasamemberofoneofthese
genera.
Wingspread The distance from tip to tip of the longest primary feathers of the
outstretchedwingsofabird.
Winter resident Term used fora migratory birdthat spends either the boreal or
australwinterinadifferentregionfromwhereitbreeds.InAmazonia,EasternWood
Peweeisanexampleofawinterresidentfromthenorth,andVermillionFlycatcheris
anexampleofawinterresidentfromthesouth.
XanthophyllsXanthophylls(originallyphylloxanthins)areyellowtoorangepigments
ofoxycarotenoidtype,fromthecarotenoidgroup.Theyarefoundintheleavesofmost
plants andaresynthesizedwithinthe plastids.Theyareinvolvedin photosynthesis
alongwithgreenchlorophyll,whichtypicallycoversuptheyellowexceptinautumn
(inthenorth),whenthechlorophylldecomposes.Inplants,xanthophyllsareconsidered
accessorypigments,alongwith anthocyanins, carotenes,andsometimes phycobilins.
Animalscannotproducexanthophylls,andthusxanthophyllsfoundinanimals(e.g.in
theyolksofchickeneggs)comefromtheirfoodintake. Yellowpigmentinplants
that, like chlorophyll, is responsible for the production of carbohydrates by
photosynthesis.Yellowpigmentinplantsthat,likechlorophyll,isresponsibleforthe
production of carbohydrates by photosynthesiscarotenoids serve as accessory
pigmentsin photosynthesis,trappingsolarenergyandpassingitto chlorophyll,the
primary photosynthetic pigment. Xanthophylls are carotenoids. The main
xanthophyllinleavesislutein.Xanthophyllsarestructuralcomponentsofthelight
harvestingantennainchloroplasts.Theyfunctionasaccessorypigmentsforharvesting
light at wavelengths that chlorophyll cannot, and transfer the light energy to
chlorophyll.Theyalsoabsorbexcesslightenergyanddissipateitinordertoavoid
damageinwhatistermedtheXanthophyllCycle.Thexanthophyll,zeaxanthin,appears
to have a role in sensing blue light which is involved in stomatal opening and in
phototropism.

XylemInvascularplants,xylemisoneofthetwotypesoftransporttissueinplants,
phloembeingtheotherone.ThewordxylemisderivedfromclassicalGreekxlon,
"wood",andindeedthebestknownxylemtissueis wood.Thexylemtransportssap
fromtherootuptheplant:xylemsapconsistsmainlyofwaterandinorganicions,
althoughitcancontainanumberoforganicchemicalsaswell.(See:phloem).