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ENGINEERING DESIGN
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE
THEORIES
AGENT OF FAILURE
AGENT OF FAILURE
See
Example:
Level of
application
Time of
application
Force
Low
Steady
Medium
Transient
High
Cyclic
Temperature
Reactive chemical
environment
Reactive nuclear
environment
Reactive
metallurgical
environment
MODES OF FAILURE
Types of Failure Modes: Elastic, Plastic,
Fracture, Material change
Duration of Failure: Sudden, Progressive
Location of Failure: Local, Surface and Volume
ELASTIC
REGION &
HOOKES
LAW
APPLIED
NECKING
occurs before
facture
No NECKING
before facture
There is no necking in the fracture
of brittle material.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
FOR DUCTILE
MATERIALS:
The value of
yielding in shear =
0.5 0.6 of the
value of yielding
in tension
YIELDING
COMPRESSION TEST
Ductile Steel
BENDING TEST
Ductile Steel
TORSION TEST
Ductile Steel
BRITTLE MATERIALS
Brittle materials do not yield, they fracture
Strength in compression >> strength in tension
Theory of failures used:
Material strength:
FAILURE THEORIES
When state of stress is uniaxial tension or
compression; limiting stress values from the
tension/compression tests (which are widely
published in material handbooks) can be used
But for complex state of stresses, predicting
failure is not straightforward
Several theories of failures have been put
forward to predict failure for complex engineering
stresses
Unfortunately, no single failure theory can
adequately predict failure in all combination of
engineering stresses
FAILURE THEORIES
Failure theories have been formulated in terms of
three principal normal stresses (S1,S2, S3) at a
point
For any given complex state of stress ,
we can always
find its equivalent principal normal stresses (S1,
S2, S3)
Thus the failure theories in terms of principal
normal stresses can predict the failure due to any
given state of stress
FAILURE THEORIES
STATIC
LOADING FAILURE
FATIGUE
SODERBERG Equation
Modified GOODMAN Equation
BRITTLE MATERIALS
THEORY OF FAILURE
Failure is predicted to
occur in the multi-axial
state of stress when the
maximum principal
normal stress becomes
equal to or exceeds the
maximum normal stress
at the time of failure in
a simple uni-axial stress
test using a specimen of
the same material.
SYP C
S
S1 YP T
N FS
N FS
THESE ARE
FOR DUCTILE
MATERIAL
SYP C
S
S 2 YP T
N FS
N FS
SYP C
S
S 3 YP T
N FS
N FS
U C
N FS
U C
N FS
S1
S2
S3
U T
N FS
U T
N FS
U T
N FS
2
1
1
or
N FS
Suc N FS
OULOMB-MOHR THEORY S
or
RITTLE MATERIAL
ut
2
Suc
2
Sut
1
Suc
2
Suc
1
1
or 2 1
N FS
Sut Suc N FS
MODIFIED MOHR-COULOMB
THEORY BRITTLE MATERIAL
The mathematical expressions
representing a safe design
according to the Modified MohrCoulomb theory are given,
1
Sut
1
Sut Suc
or
2
1 specifies the line in IV quadrant
Suc
connecting the points (0, Suc ) and (Sut , Sut )
Sut 1
1 specifies the line in II quadrant
1
Sut
1
Sut Suc
2
S
1
or 2 1 ut
Sut Suc
Suc N FS
1
1
Suc N FS
Sut
1
Sut Suc
2
1 specifies the line in IV quadrant
Suc
connecting the points (0, Suc ) and (Sut , Sut )
Sut
or
1
Sut Suc
1
Sut
or
2
Suc
2
Sut
1
1 specifies the line in II quadrant
Suc
connecting the points ( Suc , 0 ) and ( Sut , Sut )
1
Suc
COMPARISON TO EXPERIMENTAL
DATA BRITTLE MATERIAL
DUCTILE MATERIALS
THEORY OF FAILURE
Primarily, the most common combinations are in the rst (I) quadrant
where (1) and ( 2) are both positive and in the fourth (IV) quadrant
where ( 1) is positive and (2) is negative.
Combinations can occur in the third (III) quadrant where (1) is negative,
however (2) must be equally or more negative.
2
1
1
or
N FS
S y N FS
P
and y 0; xy yx 0
A
At Yield Point:
x S yp
S yp
2 N fs
S yp
2
S yp
S1 S2
2
2 N fs
S yp
S 2 S3
2
2 N fs
S yp
S1 S3
2
2 N fs
S yp
N fs
S yp
N fs
S yp
N fs
S1 S 2
S 2 S3
S1 S3
S yp
N fs
S yp
N fs
S yp
N fs
S1 S2
S yp
N fs
Sy
1 2 S y
1
Nfs
Hookes Law:
U1 D
At yield point:
U1 D
2
1 S yp
2 E
1
U1 D x x
2
x
E
1 x2
2 E
x S yp
2
1 S yp
2 E N fs
S11
2
U 2 S 2 2
2
U 3 S3 3
2
U1
U 3-D
1
S11 S2 2 S3 3
2
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP:
1
S1 S2 S3 & is Poisson's Ratio
E
1
2 S2 S1 S3
E
1
3 S3 S1 S2
E
S1
S2
1
S12 S2 2 S32 2 S1S2 S2 S3 S1S3
2E
S yp 2
N fs
HYDROSTATIC LOADING
Materials that are hydrostatically loaded will
have the stresses uniform in all directions.
Very large amount of strain energy can be stored
in materials without failure if they are
hydrostatically loaded.
Many experiments have shown that materials
can be hydrostatically stressed to levels well
beyond their ultimate strengths in compression
without failure, as this just reduces the volume of
the specimen without changing its shape.
No distortion in the part there is no shear
stress. There is no distortion and no failure.
Thus, it appears that distortion is the cause in
tensile failure as well.
DUE TO HYDROSTATIC
LOADING CHANGE IN
VOLUME
UT = UV + UD
DUE TO DISTORTION
CHANGE IN SHAPE
S3
S3 SV S3
SV
=
S2
S1
Normal Stresses
+
SV
SV
Hydrostatic Stresses
change in volume
S1 SV S1
S 2 SV S 2
Distortion Stresses
change in shape
UT
U D U T UV
1
S12 S22 S32 - 2 S1S2 S2 S3 S1S3
2E
1 - 2
S12 S22 S32 2 S1S2 S2 S3 S1S3
6E
1
S12 S22 S32 S1S2 S2 S3 S1S3
UD
3E
S1
S yp
N fs
UD
1
S12 S22 S32 S1S2 S2 S3 S1S3
3E
P
UD for Uniaxial state of stress:
U D -UNIAXIAL
1 2
S1
3E
U D -UNIAXIAL
1 S yp
3E N fs
1
S12 S22 S32 S1 S2 S2 S3 S1S3
3E
U D -UNIAXIAL
1 S yp
3E N fs
1
1 S yp
S12 S22 S32 S1S2 S2 S3 S1S3
3E
3E N fs
S
S12 S22 S32 S1S2 S2 S3 S1S3 yp
N
fs
Alternately,
S1 S2
S2 S3 S3 S1
2
2
S1 S2
or
S yp
N
fs
2
2
S yp
S2 S3 S3 S1
N
2
fs
S1 S2
VM
S2 S3 S3 S1
2
2
12 22 1 2 S y2
The above expression in
represents the equation of
an ellipse inclined at 45
as shown in the Figure.
This ellipse passes
through the six corners of
the enclosed shape.
FACTOR OF SAFETY:
12 22 1 2
Sy
1
N fs
COMPARISON TO EXPERIMENTAL
DATA DUCTILE MATERIALS
Note that there is no
experimental data in the
second (II) and third (III)
quadrants. This is not
unexpected as combinations
in the second (II) quadrant are
impossible if the maximum
principal stress (1) is greater
than or at least equal to the
minimum principal stress (2) .
Also, combinations in the third
(III) quadrant require that the
principal stress (2) be at least
equally or more negative than
the principal stress (1) .
STRESS CONCENTRATION
Stress concentration is caused by the sudden
changes in geometry.
Sudden change in geometry:
Hole
Shoulder fillet
Groove
Notch
TWO STRESS
CONCENTRATION
FACTORS
K or Kt STRESS
CONCENTRATION
FACTOR for STATIC
LOADING
Kf STRESS
CONCENTRATION
FACTOR for CYCLIC
LOADING
STRESS CONCENTRATION
max max
Max Stress at the section of interest
Kt
max
K ts
o
K OR KT GEOMETRIC STRESS
CONCENTRATION FACTOR
Stress distribution for semi-infinite plate with a hole. Plate in tension:
nom
P
P
A (W D)h
P P
A dh
max Kt nom
Kt is geometric stress concentration factor
FILLETS ON SHAFTS
FORCE-FLOW ANALOGY
The force-flow analogy
for contoured parts
Analogy
NOTCH SENSITIVITY Q
Due
to existence of irregularities or
discontinuities (holes, grooves or notches)
in part, high stress will occur in the
immediate vicinity of the discontinuity.
Some materials are not fully sensitive to
the presence of notches, for these a
reduced value of Kt can be used.
max K f o
K f is fatigue stress-concentration factor
NOTCH SENSITIVITY q
Notch
K f 1
0 q 1
K 1
K f 1 q K 1
qshear
K fs 1
Ks 1
Kf 1
If q 1
K f Kt
FATIGUE-FAILURE MODELS
FATIGUE REGIMES
STRESS-LIFE APPROACH
The oldest and easiest of the three models to use.
Most often used for High-Cycle Fatigue (HCF) where
part is expected to undergo more than about 103
cycles of stress.
Work best when the load amplitudes are predictable
and consistent over the life of the part.
It is a stress-based model, which determines a fatigue
strength and/or an endurance limit for material so
that the cyclic stresses can be kept below that level
and failure avoided for the required number of cycles
STRESS-LIFE APPROACH
Part is designed based on the materials fatigue
strength or endurance limit and factor of safety.
Assume that stresses and strains everywhere remain
in elastic zone.
No local yielding occurs to initiate a crack.
Least accurate in defining stress/strain states in the
part, especially for LCF finite-life where N is less
than 103 cycles and stress is high enough to cause a
local yielding.
For certain materials, stress-life approach allow the
design of parts for infinite life under cyclic loading.
STRAIN-LIFE APPROACH
Strain-based
LEFM APPROACH
Best model for the crack propagation stage due
to fracture mechanics theory.
Apply to LCF finite-life problem where the cyclic
stresses are known to be high enough to cause
the formation of cracks.
Most useful in predicting the remaining life of
cracked parts in service.
Most often used in conjunction with
nondestructive testing (NDT) in a periodic
service-inspection program, especially in the
aircraft/aerospace industry.
More accurate results when a detectable and
measurable crack already exists.
MACHINE-DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
STRESS-LIFE
(S-N) approach:
MACHINE-DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
MACHINE-DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS
thereafter
SOLDERBERG
CRITERION
MODIFIED GOODMAN
CRITERION
FULLY REVERSED
REPEATED
FLUCTUATING
S max min
The alternating component Sr or a:
Sr a
max min
2
Stress Ratio:
max
min
max min
2
Amplitude Ratio:
a
m
SOLDERBERG EQUATION
Se
Se
N fs
K f Sr
Savg
S yp
N fs
S yp
Solderberg equation:
S S
S avg S r K f yp yp
Se N fs
where:
S S min
S avg max
2
S Smin
S r max
2
K f 1 q ( K t 1)
S-N DIAGRAM
LCF
HCF
ENDURANCE LIMIT
Unfortunately, for
nonferrous materials
like aluminum there
is no endurance limit,
meaning the test
specimen will
eventually fail at
some number of
cycles, usually near
(N = 108) cycles, no
matter how much the
stress level is
reduced. This is why
critical aluminum
parts, especially
those in aircraft
where the number of
reversed loadings
can become very
high in a short period
of time, must be
inspected regularly
and replaced prior to
reaching an unsafe
number of cycles.
Second equation:
S avg S r K f
S yp
N fs
Gerber parabola is a good fit to experimental data, making it useful for the
analysis of failed part.
LINEAR HYPOTHESE
Equation of straight line in
intercept form:
x y
1
a b
1
S yt Se
Sm Sa
Sm K f Sa
1
1 or
Sut Se
Sut
Se
N fs
Sm Sa
1
Sut Se
LINEAR HYPOTHESE
For Soderberg line:
S
S a Se 1 m
S
yt
1
Sm
N
S
ut
fs
LOG
Scale
LOG
Scale
r AN B
Number of cycles N:
N r
A
1
B
106 B
LIMIT
n1 n2 n3
... 1
N1 N2 N3
Stress levels are
higher than
endurance limit
n1 n2 n3
... 1
N1 N2 N3
Proportionate Damage D:
ni
Ni
Di
D1
D1 D2 D3
n
n1
n
; D2 2 ; D3 3 and so on.
N1
N2
N3
MINERs
EQUATION
n1 n2 n3
... 1
N1 N 2 N 3
1 N
N1
1
N1
2 N
N2
2
N2
3
N3
3 N
N3
1
1
N
Note that 1 N 2 N 3 N
1 2 3
Each 90-ksi cycle uses one part in 3.8x104 of the life N2 = 3.8 x 104 cycles,
Each 100-ksi cycle uses one part in 1.6x104 of the life N3 = 1.6 x 104 cycles.
n1 n2 n3
1
N1 N 2 N 3
Failure occurs
5
3
1
0.0001651
5
4
4
10 3.8 10 1.6 10
n1 n2 n3
1
N1 N 2 N 3
5
3
1
0.0001651
5
4
4
10 3.8 10 1.6 10
For the fraction of life consumed to be unity, the 20-second test time must
be multiplied by
1
Fatigue Life
20 121,138.7038 seconds
0.0001651
121,138.7038
Fatigue Life
2018.9784 minutes
60
2018.9784
Fatigue Life
33.6496 hours
60