The Environmentalist 15, 97-107 (1995)

Water resources exploitation in Australian

prehistory environment
HANS BANDLER*
45, Kissing Point Road, Turramurra, NSW 2074, Australia

Summary
People have been living on the Australian continent for at least 40 000 years, possibly longer.
Many significant environmental changes in climate, flora and fauna have occurred during that
period of human occupation. Availability of water has been a constant concern. It was sought
after, of necessity, due to the fairly consistent low precipitation rate throughout the continent,
both along the coast, as well as inland to the very arid, dry desert area. From earliest times,
ingenious methods of water resources exploitation were practised. There are significant exam-
ples of fish and eel trap systems in western Victoria. Another important fish trap exists at
Brewarrina, in New South Wales. Coastal fish traps are in existence along many suitable sea-
board locations, from the east coast to the west. Water, retained in naturally occurring rock pools,
was extensively exploited. An important source of water, particularly in the arid inland was from
the so called native wells. These wells sustained a great number of the white explorers in the
1840s to 1880s, amongst them Ludwig Leichhardt and Ernest Giles. Some interesting native
wells, in former Aboriginal occupation sites, have even been traced in the Simpson Desert. The
construction of the hydraufic structures which have remained in existence were carried out using
simple tools and limited materials. A culture existed with the technical sophistication, ingenuity
and skills to satisfy the water needs of the people in the environment of an arid continent over
several thousand years.

Introduction
Western science has largely ignored the consider-
able knowledge which the Aborigines amassed
over thousands of years about the water resources
in the various parts of Australia. Although the
Australian Aborigines did not consider them-
selves as one people, their activity throughout
the continent, within different language groups,
did possess a cultural unity. They did not claim
land ownership but considered that they were
owned by the land. They have a close relationship
to the land and the environment, a remarkably
deep knowledge of the country, including its
water resources both at ground level and below
the land surface.
Aboriginal existence within Australia has
been established to extend back for at least
40 000 years. However, one theory justifies the
claim that the first arrival of Aborigines in Aus-
tralia dates back to about 53 000 years BP (Da-
vidson and Noble, 1992). Significant environmen-
tal changes have occurred within that extensive
time span. There have been remarkable changes
*Hans Bandler is both an Editorial Board member and a Civil and
Environmental Engineering consultant.
in climate affecting precipitation, temperature, air
movement, and with it, evaporation. Variation in
global temperature has had momentous influences
on sea levels. When worldwide maximum glacia-
tion occurred, at about 18 000 BP, the sea levels
were about 150 m below the present. An earlier
glaciation occurred at about 53 000 BP, a signifi-
cant date in the Davidson and Noble (1992) theo-
ry.
The Aboriginal expertise in water resources
exploitation will be presented by a few case studies
selected randomly from a number of examples
which are known.
Fish and eel traps
Lake Condah, Victoria
An example of one of the most extensive systems
of fresh-water fish and eel traps is located at Lake
Condah, in Western Victoria (Fig. 1). In prehisto-
ric times, Aborigines constructed an elaborate
network of canals and traps in the water course
connecting Condah Swamps with Lake Condah
and linked to Darlot Creek. After heavy rains,
Lake Condah would rise, the lower channels and
traps would be flooded. Water would then spill

0251-1088 9 1995 Chapman & Hall 97

 Bandler

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Fig. 1. Australia, detailing localities described in text and expedition routes of Leichhardt (1844-45) and Lindsay
(1886).

into rocky hollows and form pools, activating an- sists of stone walls built to form funnel-shaped
other series of traps downstream. The system con- water courses, directing the flow of water, causing

98 The Environmentalist

Is[AN OIF TIIIti lllIllIl!l IE$
AT 11I I1WAI II INA
I ~ I I ~ ] Mq.trcs
Fig. 2. Plan of the fisheries at Brewarrina, New South Wales as surveyed by A.W. Mullen in 1906. Figure 3 is a copy
of the original photograph taken from position A. Figure 4 is a general photograph of the site. Reference to the large
rocks B E is made in the current text.
the fish to swim into the narrow ends of these
channels. The stone walls are formed from blocks
of volcanic basalt, which litter the district. These
walls were up to 1 m high and more than 50 m
long. At the ends of these channels gaps were left,
where the fish could be caught in nets woven from
reeds and possibly other materials available in the
proximity. These rock channels were linked with
canals, up to 1 m deep and nearly 300 m long.
Wooden digging sticks were the tools used to ex-
cavate the canals.
The Aborigines understood the hydrology of
the lake and its water system and used it to full
advantage. Eels were probably the main species
caught during their annual migrations, upstream
in spring and downstream in autumn. It has been
estimated that a good number of animals could be
caught once the eels were active in the water
course. Probably no more than 20 people were
required to operate the traps once they were built.
The practice of the Aborigines harvesting the
fish persisted even after arrival of the white man
and was recorded in some detail at the time (Ro-
binson, 1841). Lourandos (1976) has described the
extensive prehistory of the area, and in 1978,
Water resources exploitation in Australia
,I
A.W. M u l l c n , 5urge.Ljor
W(sltrn Lands Board
Date. of Sur'oe. 9 : 15 th June. 1~06
Coutts et al. were to provide an archaeological
analysis of the operation of the traps. Dating of
the fish traps at Lake Condah has been fairly dif-
ficult. Based on pollen analysis in the area, it has
been assumed that the fish traps could have been
in operation for about 8000 years, but only at
times of extreme floods. The could have been op-
erated more frequently over the last 4000 years.
However, the last one to two thousand years is
the most likely time period for continuous use
(Head, 1989).
Further, more recently, critical archaeological
analysis of the area has been carried out and con-
firmed the above dates. This work also indicates,
inter alia that considerable European landscape
modification has taken place (Clarke, 1994).
Brewarrina, Barwon River, New South Wales
Another fresh water fish trap exists in north-wes-
tern New South Wales (Figs. 1 and 2). It consists
of a complex maze of weirs and pens of varying
size and shape erected across the Barwon River
(Figs 3 and 4). The fish trap structure stretches
for about 750 m along the river on a low bar of
99
Bandler
Fig. 3. Copy of photograph taken in 1906 from position A on Fig. 2 of the Brewarrina fisheries, New South Wales
Note, the original glass negative is broken. (Photo courtesy: Tyrrell Collection, Powerhouse Museum, Sydney.).
sandstone. Most enclosures are tear-drop shaped,
with the convex wall facing upstream. The stone
walls are between 0.5 and 1 m in height and about
1 m at the base. In the spawning season, in the
spring, vast numbers of fish travel upstream. As
soon as enough fish had entered the trap, men and
women would block up the openings. The fish
were then herded into smaller enclosures, where
they could be speared, clubbed, or caught more
easily by hand. Pens at different heights came into
operation in sequence, as the water level in the
river rose or fell. Great care was taken that no
fish should escape lest they might warn their fel-
lows 'about the ingenuity of their enemies'.
The extensive formation and layout of the
stones in the river bed forming the fish traps and
the legends associated with the locality would sug-
gest that they were placed in that position a long
time ago, most likely several hundred years before
the coming of the white man. They were generally
in good repair when first observed by Europeans
but during the last 200 years the stone arrange-
ments have been much disturbed. They were
moved to make way for river steamers and some
100
were also taken away for the building of structures
in the township. A mission station was established
some distance from the river, the Aboriginal po-
pulation declined and a very different lifestyle al-
lowed the fishery to fall partly into disrepair.
More recently, changed circumstances gave rise
to an Aboriginal initiative for the establishment
of a cultural centre in the township of Brewarrina
at the fish trap site.
In 1906, A.W. Mullen carried out a survey
for the Western Lands Board of New South
Wales, Australia (Fig. 2). He also provided an
extensive detailed description of the fish traps. Be-
yond his professional activity Mullen was also en-
gaged in research of Aboriginal languages (Dar-
gin, 1976). It may be noted that on the map (Fig.
2) the river is named 'Darling River'. The Barwon
River flows into the Darling River. The location
of the junction of the Barwon River with the Dar-
ling has been under dispute for some time. In
1970, the Geographical Names Board of New
South Wales declared that the Barwon River ex-
tended to the confluence with the Culgoa River,
about 50 km downstream of Brewarrina. Here it
The Environmentalist

Fig. 4. Early photograph of Brewarrina fisheries, New South Wales. (Photo Courtesy: Tyrrell Collection, Power-
house Museum, Sydney.).
becomes the Darling River. The tribal group oc-
cupying the land south of the Barwon River was
the Ngemba. They owned and named the area
around the fish trap structure 'Ngunnhu'. Along
the northern and the southern shore of the river, a
few large and outstanding rocks (B, C, D and E)
are a striking feature in the landscape. They had
traditional significance and were given specific
names. Surveyor Mullen indicated and named
them on the map. However, the meaning of the
names has not been established.
Hinchinbrook Island, North Queensland
Along the North Queensland coast, separated
from the mainland by a drowned river channel,
is the attractive Hinchinbrook Island (Fig. 1). Nu-
merous fish traps can be found there, mainly
along the northern part of the island (Fig. 5).
Hinchinbrook Island is not only a very beautiful
island, it is archaeologically most interesting.
Campbell (1982) claimed that the fish traps pro-
duced an 'automatic seafood retrieval system'.
The low walls of the fish traps are cemented to-
Water resources exploitation in Australia
gether with rock oysters, thus resisting tidal move-
ment. With the retreating tide the fish are caught
in the traps and are easily accessible (Thorsborne
and Thorsborne, 1988).
Obviously a knowledge of the tides and fish
movement, as well as perhaps some apparent un-
derstanding of oysters as a potential cementing
medium, reveals an Aboriginal expertise in the ex-
ploitation of natural phenomena. Quite a number
of fish traps with walls of similar shape and con-
struction exist along the coasts of New South
Wales and Western Australia.
Actual dating of these marine fish trap struc-
tures is still waiting some detailed analysis. It
would be surprising if they had not existed thou-
sands of years ago. Some now invisible or elimi-
nated fish traps may have been in operation at
times of lower sea levels. These have been lost
with the sea level having risen in Pleistocene post
glacial times.
101
 Bandler

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Goold Island~
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Missionary Boy

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II Point

Point 9 ",: :7), .... - -

.2. 9
9 . o.

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& ROCK SHELTER
MANGROVES
9 . . , ,,i

~ RANGES
>300 m
0 10
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km

F i g . 5. Map of Hinchinbrook Island, Queensland, Australia showing distribution of fish trap sites, after Campbell
(1982).

Native wells and rock pools
Native wells, early explorers
With the coming of white man to Australia, there
was a desire to know more about the interior of
the sub-continent. Enterprising men gathered in
groups to explore the unknown interior. The dry
and difficult climate made the use and search for
water for expeditions, as well as for possible fu-
ture development, a constant theme.
The first great expedition in the north was led
by Dr Ludwig Leichhardt, a German scientist who
on his first trip in 184445, traversed over 5000
km in northern Australia from Moreton Bay near
Brisbane, to Port Essington on the coast of Arn-
hem Land (Fig. 1). He included in his small party
two Aborigines who were to assist in communica-
tion with the local inhabitants, mind the beasts,
and check out the creeks and water holes. Dr
Leichhardt travelled generally in a west and
north-west direction. He followed, where possible,
river and creek beds and a great number of water
holes. He described his expedition in some detail
(Leichhardt, 1847). Leichhardt generally at-

102 The Environmentalist

 Water resources exploitation in Australia

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Fig. 6. Map of the Simpson Desert, Central Australia showing early explorers' routes, after Bonython (1980).

tempted to remain on the best of terms with the
Aborigines, and they usually pointed out the
creeks and native wells along the route selected.
These rivers, creeks and wells, of which the local
Aboriginal groups were aware, provided essential
water supply to the members of his expedition and
their beasts. Leichhardt's next expedition, which
commenced in 1847, however, had a tragic ending
which is shrouded in mystery. Practically no re-
cords of remains of the expedition could be found
and contradictory accounts have prevailed (Con-
nell, 1980).
Of other expeditions into the interior, Ernest
Giles' travels in 1889, mainly within South Aus-
tralia, were most important. He covered many
miles which he described graphically in his book.
In this he describes the use of numerous native
wells and even the presence of two or three native
dams (Giles, 1889).
There are a great number of native wells
throughout the sub-continent. Most are not neces-
sarily associated with early white explorers but
they have been knowingly used by the native po-
pulations for hundreds of years.

103
 Bandler

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Fig. 7. Site sketches of nine Simpson Desert wells, after Hercus and Clarke (1986). See also Table 1.

Rock pools in the Sydney area some situations they were extended by pounding
the sides and the bottom to increase their capa-
Rock holes or pools are geological features which city. They could also be made more effective by
were in prehistory times used as a means of stor- the provision of special guiding grooves leading
ing water. It has also been reported that they were the natural run-off into the holding pools (Magar-
sometimes used to heat water for cooking food. In ey, 1894).

104 The Environmentalist

 Water resources exploitation in Australia

Fig. 8. Booloburtinna Well, Simpson Desert, Australia in May, 1983. This well is detailed as Number 7 in Table 1 and
Fig. 7. (Photo courtesy P. Clarke.).

Fig. 9. Kilpatha Well, Simpson Desert, Australia in May, 1983. Excavated ground water is visible at the site. This well
is detailed as Number 9 in Table 1 and Fig. 7 (Photo courtesy: V. Potezny.).

The predominant rocks in the area of Sydney
are the Triassic fresh-water sediments of the
Hawkesbury Sandstone and the Wianamatta
Shale. The former is comprised of a bonded,
coarse grained quartz sand and it is prone to the
development of rock holes where the rock is
slightly weaker. Many, mostly small, rock pools
can be found in the Sydney-Port Jackson area.
Dating of the use of the rock pools can be deduced
from artefacts and/or middens found in their vici-
nity. Some of the artefacts date back 13 000 years
(Attenbrow, 1991 and personal communication).

105
Bandler

Table 1. Details of nine Simpson Desert Aboriginal wells, after Hercus and Clarke (1986). See also Figs. 7 9.
Well Access Depth Water Habitation Distance
quality
1. Murrabutt or Marubadi Small, tight 3.6 m vertical, good major 21.7 km
2.4 m sloping
2. Beelpa or Pilpa Shallow, conical 2.75 m slightly poor minor 27.8 km
angled salt lake nearby
3. Bolrcoora or Palkura Not in centre 6.0 m good major
of depression
4. Pudlowinna Dense tree coverage ?? ?? minor 26.1 km
5. Beelaka or Pirlaka Conical well depression 4.0 m good major 17.7 km
6. Wolporican or Walpurkanna 1.3 m diameter 3.6 m good minor
7. Booloburtinna or Pulabutu 2.5 m 5.2 m bitter major 33.0 km
8. Perlanna or Tjarlpa Parkulu Clean cut, Seismic 6.7 m good major 14.5 km
line through a
9. Kilpatha or Tjilparta Dug out by seismic 6.0 m initially now foul major
surveyorsa
Badly disturbed
aThe seismic survey was carried out by the French Petroleum Company of Australia in 1963 to ascertain possible petroleum
resources below ground level in the vicinity of this line.

only p e r m a n e n t water is at the Puritjarra Rock

Kelly's Bush Roek Pool, Sydney
A n interesting example of a rock pool exists in the
Sydney municipality of H u n t e r ' s Hill (Fig. 1).
T h a t local g o v e r n m e n t area is located on a penin-
sula between the P a r r a m a t t a River and Lane
Cove River. Both the P a r r a m a t t a and the Lane
Cove River are d r o w n e d rivers for a long distance
upstream, well past H u n t e r ' s Hill. Within this mu-
nicipality, Kelly's Bush, a small public reserve
area o f a b o u t 4.8 ha has been retained. Roughly
in the centre o f the reserve, a b o u t 30 m f r o m the
bank o f the P a r r a m a t t a River is a fairy large rock
p l a t f o r m a b o u t 11 m across by 5 m wide. Almost
in the middle o f the p l a t f o r m is a rock pool a b o u t
3 m long and 1.2 m deep.
The importance o f the rock p o o l is that,
although there m a y have been some small springs,
there are no reasonably p e r m a n e n t fresh water
streams on the whole o f the peninsula. Thus the
rock pool would have been an i m p o r t a n t resource
in the area, at the time o f prehistoric settlement of
the land (Attenbrow, 1988). Along the waters edge
o f the P a r r a m a t t a River, a b o u t 70 m south o f the
rock pool there are rock shelters and Aboriginal
middens.
Puritjarra Rock Shelter and Rock Hole, Central
Australia
N e a r to the centre o f Australia, in an extremely
arid area, is the Puritjarra R o c k Hole and close
by, the huge Puritjarra R o c k Shelter (Fig. 1).
Rainfall in this area is very low, averaging less
than 350 m m a year. D u r i n g the last glacial epi-
sode the conditions in the area, are believed to
have been even m o r e arid and colder than at pre-
sent. The c o u n t r y in this area, a r o u n d the Cleland
Hills, covers a b o u t 8000 k m 2 o f dry land. The
Hole. W a t e r in the rock hole is sustained by a
regional aquifer.
Knowledge o f the occupation o f the area in
the past is supported by a n u m b e r of artefacts
found at the large rock shelter. These findings
were tested by radio-carbon dating, and checked
by thermo-luminescence. This established that the
zone was occupied by h u m a n groups in the period
from 22 000 to 13 000 BP. F r o m a b o u t 7000 years
ago the site was used more intensively, with the
most extreme use occurring during the last 2000
years (Smith, 1989). Puritjarra Rock Shelter is
very large. At the entrance to the cave extensive
rock art pecked into the rock face is evident
(Flood, 1990).
The Simpson Desert
A b o u t 20 percent o f the land area o f Australia is
desert. Yet even in some o f these un-inviting, arid
areas, Aborigines lived with their security o f
knowledge o f the available water resources. Nu-
merous expeditions into the Simpson Desert have
been u n d e r t a k e n at various times in the recent
past. W a r r e n B o n y t h o n , traversed the Simpson
Desert with specially designed equipment in 1973
and wrote a detailed account of his expedition
(Bonython, 1980). B o n y t h o n ' s m a p (Fig. 6) indi-
cates the route which David Lindsay, a licensed
surveyor o f South Australia, travelled in 1886
from Dalhousie Station, north of Adelaide, east-
wards towards the location o f several native wells
in the Simpson Desert. There was habitation
a r o u n d most of the wells at the time o f Lindsay's
visit. Access f r o m the surface to the water in the
wells was sometimes difficult. However, the com-
plex delineation o f the shafts protected the avail-
able water in the well f r o m e v a p o r a t i o n and dis-

106 The Environmentalist


turbance. In some cases the access to the well was
described as '...so small ... that I h a d to take o f f
m y clothes before I was able to go to the w a t e r ....
The water bubbles u p slowly and I think is a
spring' (Lindsay, 1886).
A n academic expedition in 1983 followed the
1886 route, with the help o f some surviving na-
tives f r o m the W a n g k a n g u r r u people (the Abori-
ginal g r o u p w h o used to live in the area). The
location o f the wells was sometimes difficult in a
p r e d o m i n a n t l y adverse landscape. All the nine
wells reported by Lindsay in the western S i m p s o n
Desert were relocated by that p a r t y (Hercus and
Clarke, 1986). T h e discovery o f nine wells in the
western Simpson Desert, all o f which had been at
one time centres o f h a b i t a t i o n for groups o f the
W a n g k a n g u r r u Aborigines (but now a b a n d o n e d ) ,
indicates that in the p a s t these people had the re-
m a r k a b l e ability to locate and treasure water re-
sources in very difficult surroundings. Details o f
the nine wells are given in T a b l e 1 a n d Figs. 7-9.
Conclusions
T h r o u g h o u t the large sub-continent o f Australia a
fair n u m b e r o f ancient w a t e r structures exist.
These date b a c k t h o u s a n d s o f years, and indicate
a highly developed prehistoric culture. A high de-
gree o f expertise a n d knowledge in preserving
water resources, u n d e r a great variety o f circum-
stances, in natural a n d m a n - m a d e structures is
revealed. It would also a p p e a r that these skills o f
the A b o r i g i n a l A u s t r a l i a n people, were applied
f r o m the earliest periods, in sometimes extremely
adverse conditions. T h e i r w o r k was carried out
with simple tools and only natural materials were
used. The w o r k was inherently an integral p a r t o f
their culture. T h e y built canals and w a t e r courses
t h o u g h no optical instruments were available and
neither ceramics n o r metals were ever developed
or used. The relative shortage o f rainfall a n d run-
off, d e m a n d e d considerable, ingenuity in effort.
The concern o f the Aboriginal people with
water was consistently significant t h r o u g h o u t the
ages, independent o f whether they were living in
close p r o x i m i t y to the ocean shore, in areas where
fresh water was available in creeks or rivers, or in
the dry, sometimes desert, inland areas. F r o m the
records o f the various communities, there is evi-
dence o f a general ability in 'water engineering'
expertise. T h e y exploited the resources t h r o u g h o u t
Australia with great skill, with knowledge o f link-
ing lakes and rivers, o f d r o u g h t and s t o r m flows in
rivers and creeks, a n d o f the possible location o f
ground water and where it could be reached and
protected.
W a t e r resources exploitation in A u s t r a l i a
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