NETHERLANDS GEODE,TIC COMMISSION

PUBLICATIONS
ON GEODESY

N E WS E R I E S

V O L U M E6

N U M B E R4

A CONNECTIONBETWEENGEOMETRIC
AND GRAVIMETRICGEODESY
A FIRST SKETCH
ry
W.BAARDA

ComputingCentreof the Delft GeodeticInstitute

Delft Universityof Technology

1979
RIJKSCOMMISSIE
VOOR GEODESII],
THIJSSEWEG
1I. DELFT. THE N[,THERLANDS

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1.1 Introduction
The sketch given here evolvedas a sparetime activity from the presentationand discussionof
the paper IBr t n u a u v o n , 1962]. The strugglewith the subjectconcernedthe main lines:not
all mathematicaldetailshave been satisfactorilysolvedand the theory is not complete,hence
the sketchycharacterof the treatrnent.The incentiveto this investigationcamefrom two sides:
a. In settingup a spatialtheory of geometricgeodesythe needwas felt for a connectionwith
gravimetric{or physical} geodesythat wasindependentof the classicalellipsoidalapproach.
b . S i n c et h e l e c t u r e sb y F . A . V a N I N G M E I N E S zi n l 9 3 8 a n d l 9 3 9 , t h e f i e l d o f p h y s i c a l g e o d e s y
has always fascinatedme and held my interest.However,as the number of publicationson
this field grew, the theoreticalstructurebecamelessand lessclearto me. Sphericaland nonsphericalapproximationsfollowed each other in arbitrary order, just as the use of Poissonand Greenintegrals.The use of approximatevalueswas somewhatcurious,leading,on the
one hand, to a kind of physicalinterpretationsuchasthe "telluroid", and on the other hand
to a "fundamental equation of geodesy" which sometirneswas a hindrance.Further, the
whole theory seemsto be due to an "ill-posedproblem", althoughthe applicationof the collocation techniqueremovesthis difficulty or leavesit aside.And, finally, why is the purpose
of geodesythe determinationof a vagueconceptlike the "geoid", and not the determination
of the topographical
land and seasurfaceofthe earth?
In the courseof yearsI havein developingthe presentapproachbecornemore and more convinced that its main lines havea real significance.
Many classical
resultscan be recognizedin
the new theory; its basicthought is connectedwith tlie model theory on wl.richI basedthe
adjustmenttheory of geometricgeodesy.Yet many questionsand problemsare left open:
newly developedmeasuringprocesses
have not found their placeyet, methodsof dynamical
geodesy
satellite
have not been sufficientlyanalysed,the elaborationand interpretationof
the relationshipsfound are still somewhatproblematic.It is hoped that criticismwill provide
a checkon the resultsobtained.
Let the followingsummaryprecedethe tl'reory:
The coreof the theory is the connectionof
o resultsof geometricnetworks
r spirit levelling
r gravity{and verticalgravitygradient}observations
to the third integralidentity of Green.The way in which this connectionis established
is deterleadingto a connectionvia dimensionless
commined by the analysisof measuringprocesses,
pound differencequantities.Linearizationof the integral equationsnecessitates
a closerstudy
of Poisson's
integral;itappearsthat effectsofGauss'sintegraland Poisson's
integralcanceleach
other in the linearizedequations.The closedrnodelof approximatevaluesturns out to be of
dominatingimportance;sphericalapproximation{Poisson'sintegral}requiresan orderof mag-

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I7

This notatit-rnis introducedon the analogyof a derivationby M. S. Moloopt'ts rrr {[MoloD r i N S K r 1, 9 5 8 1I ,M o l o D E N S K r r e t a | , 1 9 6 2 1[ P

, rcr et al,l973,pp.a67,a68ll.
(1.7.4) can be reducedin an analogous
way as( 1.7.1):

v,=r-4,
[l-,,,\-; h (+)].+,l-,,V]]ryD,t
or, with (1.5.1),O the surfaceof a sphereof unit radius:

v , = f{ ,1 , } * , , (

v)l

!
rii

xt,,

(1.7.s)

P; outside,on or insideS;4 on S

In this notation, the surfaceover which one has to integrateappearsto causeno difficulties.
But severaldifficultiesremain:

a'\

isundefinedon the boundarybetweenthe earthand the

dtr'
atmosphere,and so it is also undefined on S, although one wishesto measurethe secondderivatesof Z. It is still more essentialthat in practicemeasurements
are neverexecutedon S itself, but at somedistanceoutsideS. Here,a comparisoncanbe madewith the spatialgeometric
networks, by which one determinescoordinatesof points usually situated at some distance
from the earth, on towers, pillars, etc.*). For cartographicpurposesthesepoints are projected
on a referenceellipsoid or on a plane, but this is not essentialfor spatialgeometricgeodesy.
Similarly,the "reduction" of observations
in gravimetricgeodesydoesnot belongto the essenceof tle theory,so that in principleall reductionsshouldbe excluded.
The exclusionof reductionsis attainedby replacingthe surfaceS by the geosurface
S*, containing the observationpoints on, or near and connectedwith, the earth'ssurface.S* may
locally coincidewith S but it may alsodeviatefrom S. S* hasto fulfil the samerequirements
as
S; the surfacemay contain a finite number of singularpoints and a finite numberof edges,which
divide the surfaceinto a finite number of pieceswith continuouslychangingnormal direction
[ S r r n N s p R c a n dS u r r H , 1 9 5 2 ,c h a p t e3r] .

, sw e l l a s( 1 . 7 . 1 )r e m a i n
T h e e q u a t i o n(s1 . 7 . a )a n d( 1 . 7 . 5 ) a
validif S is replacedby the geosurface
S* . PointsP7,connected
with the earth are thereforealwayssituatedon S*. "P; inside
a more realisticmeanins.
S*" now assumes

( r . 7. 6 )

* ) T h i s m e a n st h a t m a n - m a d es t r u c t u r c sa r e n o t c o n s i d e r e da s b e l o n g i n gt o S . P r o b a b l y t h i s i s s o m e t h i n g s i m ilar to the influence of the mass of the atmosphere.

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lln
G

33

car be consideredas a kind of "dynamic height". Then, with (1 .2.3) we havefor points on

S*:

ll,,

w,

a l o -3h. e n ce
:
fi u

< lo- e
l nrrsr ) ( /)
o+{

smallwith respect*
and consequently

. Then in (2.2.3)onecanput:

^ro

+{

. (2.3.4)

IlpiL,(lnrygl)0-0
Witlr this resultit followsfrom (2.2.3) and(2.2.4)in connectionwith (2.3.3)that:

S-transformation

^wlo)

I ri =rp =r7 =R

= A W : '-)^ w [ ' '

A (ln g;)(k) = A (ln s,)(') - a (ln 96)(/)

(2.3.s)

a (ln q;)(&) = A (ln q,)(') - a (ln q*)(r)

A (ln r;)(k) = A (ln ,,)(') -l

(ln r1)(/)

a lT,irlrttl= o (-4t')t"- a (7(r))(/)

as studiedin [Bnnnoe,
This meansthat one obtainsthe simplesttype of S-transformations,
1 9 7 3 , s e c t i o1n1 ] .
Thenit alsofollowsfrom (2.3.3)and (2.3.5)that:

ti=t1r-4-R

+)=A(# +) -a(# +)
+) +) (# +)
(#-,
+) (# '+) (#
(#

(*

(*

- A

-A

(3.1.7).
with the expansions
in accordance

t !ro)

(r.3.6)

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A C O N N E C T I O NB E T W E E NG E O M E T R I CA N D G R A V I M E T R I C G E O D E S Y

P; on S*
and Pi + Po

P; outsideS*

Po, Pi on S*

* f f ^(H1)( a;11!aa,= ^(il'-1)'u# ^ (#)

+"II^

' U

(*

I
4tr

;)

( o,;11ao,=
'tl

fl^(il- ,or)( - 6 a )

rj
dQi'
f..

'tl

^ ( *+ )

P; insideS*
{ri Srll

-^ (*-

;)

+)
^(H,+)+^ (#) -^(*-,+)
^ ( * _

nectedpublicationsby severalauthors.
The question ariseswhat is the essentialsignificanceof (3.2.5). The Poissonintegralswill be
the degreeofapproximation
usedin section4 for the derivationof Greenintegrals,consequently
(3.2.5)
differenceequationsinthe
introduced
as
the
relations
may
be
that
follows
is the same.lt
on differenceequations
computational model of adjustmenttheory; their posible dependence
obtained from the Greenintegralswill hraveto be investigated.A handicapis the occurrenceof
anO a { # |
differencequentities A / al
\ oo/
\oo/
relationin (3.2.5)will be the most usefulone.

;thereforeit is to be expectedthat the second

As far as I can see,it follows from the derivationthat:

( 3 . 2 . 5 )i s d e p e n d e not n ( 3 . 1 . 7 )

(3.2.5")

(3.2.5"')

ThesePoissonintegralsfollow directly from the seriesexpansionfor differencequantities(3.1.7),

which in tum follow from (3.1.1),i.e. Newton'sgravitationtheory.
The approximationof S* by the sphericalsurfaceS, with the indeterminationof theradiusR
in (3.2.5).This makesit difficult to understand
formulatedbV (3.1.S),is not directlyexpressed
fully the significanceof the Bjerhammarsphere,the more so becausenumericalcomputations
conseemto suggestan optimal value for the radius.See[Knenup,1969) and subsequent

. (3.2.6)

3.3 First degreeterms

By meansof geometrictechniquesthe direction of the Z-axiscan be chosenso asto be parallel
to the axis of rotation of the earth to a sufficientdegree.We have,however,no similarmeansto
let the position of the geocentrecoincide with the gravity centre of the earth. Here one must
expecta deviation,seefigure3.3-1,with an orderof magnitude:

F 5 to-'

(3.2.5')

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euBLICATIoNS

56

. (3.4.1')

A ( h , r ) S 1 0 - 6r a d

to assurethat the neglect of | (h,r) A (h,r) | is permissible.Here, too, it is evident, that the
greatestdifficulties for the applicationof this theory are presentedby the computationof apuna on-'+
can be
p r o x i m a t ev a l u e s .I n a n y c a s e .t h e i n t l u e n c eo l ( h o . r o l . " 4 ] \ )
ro9o
\ro8i'ol
neglected.
Then one obtainsfrom (3.4.6):

ri=rs=R

(*

(*
l9oi
\ %

+)

= A ( H .) o ( ' ' ; )
= o ('^*) . z a ( r " ! )

;)

a2 R2
foSo

_ u2R'
roSo

(ol"- o$')

(r1',
"u1

(3.4.7")

- r : ) = z t ( n ! i ) - e a ( r "1 )

with G from (3.1.10)one can write without any practicalobjection:

a'R2
,rg,

os2R
G

' /^
\ r ' '+ -,,,\
't )

BecauseZs; is smallcomparedto Oo, the followingderivationcanbe useful:

av, :rn
^+
= o o _ li o(rn*o' ) a gtl
A(lnQs)
r4o/
%

oo

tu LVo

to
- - " A lVo\
|
l.
li

11

\Oo/

, r/-.t

A (3-)

\Oo/

'o

''
r;

ro
-A(lnQo)
r;

Oo

(5)
\Oo/

=o'o'
oo

hence:

ro

ri avo

11

Qo

. r e f e r e n cies m a d et o ( 2 . 6 . 7 ) .
F o r a n a n a l o g o udse r i v a t i o np e r t a i n i n ,g" o ( + )
\rngoI

. (3.4.8)

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A C O N N E C T I O NB E T W E E NG E O M E T R I CA N D G R A V I M E T R I C G E O D E S Y

If now Ps is chosenon or nearthe coastof the continent {and in any caseconnectibleby spirit
levelling|,then:
. 11
4
lnr=ln#
fs

fs

hi
fio

lhi
l-\ri

*)""'

Atrr

. @.3.1')

If ft doesnot vary much, the secondterm in the right handmemberof (4.3.1')canperhapsbe

consideredasnon-stochastic,
or it canbe neglected,
so that:

^(**)=o
('"++")

(4.3.1")

Similar to Po, one can chooseone or more pointsPr on or nearcontinentalpartsor islands,so

that seasor oceansarebrideed:

, rk = l n
lnf6

o (t"
No* 3
fg

7*-hr
_------;ls

z)

116

=a lln

(+

*)""'

Atrr

(4.3.2')

T*)

can also be determined{directly or indirectly} by e.g.geometricsatellitemethods,so

that (4.3.2') could also be used,if necessary,for the determinationof a remainingsmallvalue

Atrr.
g!
I f n o w w e s t a r t f r o m o b s e r v a t i o nosf A Y ! ' t ) < , L Y" ( " ) | ,

, ' J - , a n d e l i m i n a t et h e A Y ( l ) ro
8o
term via (4.4.12"), then (4.2.9) givesthe contribution to the condition model of an adjustment
orocedure:

+ ,2,{ (f)" or;", (*)"o"y,}-* il''#;',o(*9 ;)do,=s

- (*)'","'lr;'"'
,;11i
" =#,2,+#{ (f )' v;@t
P; in satelliteorbit; Po,Pi on S*;ro = ri - R

(4.3.3)

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8l

, ith (1.5.1);
T h i sg i v e sw

\*l
,"=+
II[.,+',0 -,0{ (;)' *' *ruo

B;
O ' r -A o

** ,o,+e^t,r,,Y(+ * *) +
+ e , (i ?
The term with

,r * ;)],',

(s22)

ao,

vanishes,in view of (5.1.3). Consequently,there are no difficulties when P;

passes
on to S*.
Now substractone half times(5.1.5) from (5.2.2):

2Bi A;
vo=
2Oj

,
Q i- i v i

= a;tu wJr' rJfl- o 'l -+_-6 ,-i rr;i1

L
+

2Bi _ Ai

Vii

vo1

^j

* lj ,''
(s.2.3)

The discontinuitiesin the situation i .' 7 vanishbecauseof the coefficientsZ; and Ot. If this is
alsoassumedfor Bi, Qq canbe replacedby Qr..With I/o from (4.1.1)we then obtainfor (5.2.3):

o,-

iv,=+
il?,+ +*to1ea;
r!*

-'' lGf - iuot'*uorl

i1*'

(s.2.4)

For points P; and Pi on a spherical surfacewith centre Py and radiusR {4 = ri = R',6i = 0},
and with (1.7.1),one obtainsthe relationof MolooE,r.rsxl {seealso[Htvt,(t-SZ)]and[KocH,
D67b,p. 19J):
dVi

Vi

ah+n

= G1

rr

V,;

n sphere

'4

R2 d0i I P; on sphere

(s.2.s)

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LWoi
go

=-

91

i1l gr.** r
-A11s;
Lh*,**t
?=" ^
*=,

' (6'4'3)

Now assumeadditionally that in the situation (6.4.l) the following holds for usein the coefficientsof differencequantities:
E i = g o - g 1= G : 9 . 8 m s - z
hence:

(644)

,'
f o.as-rou

then (6.4.2)with (6.4.3)and (6.4.4)becomes:

j")l =
- oj',)
=*,il r$;"l, + * *';*o- , # (ol',
l

{ - + . # ( t ' " - o}i ." ){ Y"!t

- (ar,l')-rr

dQ;'

Lri- N
-"-j(3.3.4),(3.a.5):

(o"1" -^rl'))= 4174ll

Pe datum point means:416 and fu:s are taken to be zero.

{with respectto Pgl

(6.4.s)

(6.4.5) meansin principle,that from levellingand gravity measurements

the metric height for P;
follows as the distanceri to the centre of massof the earth {Pc'}, providedthat the small <,-r2terms can be computedor neglected.With Po asdatum point, this conceptof height becomesin
fact r'ilrs, in other words this height conceptis nothing but a radial componentof lhe X, Y, Zsystemin a spatial S-system.In this view, the introduction of some extra conceptof "height"
is nol necessary.
Someexamplesfor illustration:
I. In section 4.3 under item I, mention wasmadeof inexplicabledifferencesbetweengeodetic
and oceaniclevelling.In order to find out whetherthere are sourcesof systematicerrorsin geodetic levelling,it is investigatedin the U.S.A. to what extent V.L.B.I. or other very precisegeometric network elementsrnay be helpful. (6.4.5) showsthat this concernsdata for Ar;, which
in combination with AHq and fu; providecondition equationsgivingthe possibilityto test for
an alternativehypothesis{connectedwith the suspectedsourceoferror}.
In this caseone must havedata on the relativeposition of Py andP6',becausethe distancesbetween points P; are of the order of 1000 km or more. Theoretically,the problem can be clearly
analyzed,but the practicalsolutionwill be difficult.