Kinetics: The Rates of Reactions

Chemical kinetics studies the reaction rates and

mechanisms

16.1 Factors Affecting the Reaction Rate

Chemical nature of the reactants each
reaction has its own characteristic rate
Concentration the reaction rate increases
with increasing the reactant concentrations
(the collision frequency increases)
The reactants must collide in order to react
Rate Collision freq. Concentration

16.2 Expressing the Reaction Rate

Reaction rate change in the concentration
(C) of reactants or products per unit time (t)
Rate = C/t

Physical state the reaction rate increases

with the degree of mixing (contact) between
the reactants (depends on the reactants phase)
Temperature the reaction rate increases
with increasing the temperature (increases the
collision frequency and the average kinetic
energy of the molecules)
The reactants must collide with sufficient energy
in order to react
Rate Collision energy Temperature

Catalyst increases (or decreases) the

reaction rate by changing the reaction path
(mechanism)

Reaction Rate and Stoichiometry

C is dependent on the stoichiometric
coefficients of the reactants and products
For a reaction,
A 2B

Units M/s or mol/Ls

The concentration of B changes twice faster than

the concentration of A

Reactant (A) Product (B)

[B]/t = 2(-[A]/t)

C < 0
C > 0
The rate is positive by convention, but C is (-)
for the reactants and (+) for the products

Rate = -[A]/t

or

Rate = [B]/t

Square brackets represent the concentrations of

the reactant [A] and product [B] in mol/L

Example:
For the reaction N2 + 3H2 2NH3, the rate of
formation of NH3 is 1.4 M/min. Calculate the
rate of disappearance of H2 and the reaction
rate.
[NH 3 ]
mol NH 3
M
= 1.4

1.4
t
L min
min
mol NH 3 3 mol H 2
mol H 2
1.4

= 2.1
L min 2 mol NH 3
L min

Rate =

To make the rate independent of the choice of a

reactant or product, we use the convention:
For a reaction, aA + bB cC + dD

1 [NH 3 ] 1
mol NH 3
mol NH 3
= 1.4
= 0.70
2 t
2
L min
L min

Rate =

1 [A]
1 [B] 1 [C] 1 [D]
=
=
=
a t
b t
c t
d t

Average and Instantaneous Rates

The reaction rate typically changes with time

Rate =

Reactant concentration
(C) versus time (t)

C
(C - C )
= 2 1
t
( t 2 - t1 )

= slope (a )

C1

Average rate in the

interval of time (t1, t2)

a
b

C
C2

Rate = slope (b )
t1

t2

Instantaneous
rate at time t

The instantaneous rate at time t is given by the

slope of the tangent (b) to the curve at this time

measuring the average rate in a narrow time interval

Normally the term reaction rate refers to the

instantaneous rate

Initial rate the instantaneous rate at time, t=0

(the starting point of the reaction)
For most reactions the rate decreases gradually after
the starting point so the slope of the tangents gets
smaller with time
Initial rates are easier to measure and depend on the
initial concentrations which are normally known

Rate law the dependence of the instantaneous

rate on the concentrations of the different species
in the reaction determined experimentally
Example: 2N2O5(g) 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Concentration versus
time from experiment

Slope of c

Slope of d

aA + bB + Products

k is a
constant
(slope
of line)

Slope of b

b
a

Slope of a

d [N2O5]

General rate law expression:

Rate = k[A]m[B]n

the rate law can be expressed in the form:

Rate =

Experimental rate law

Rate = k[N2O5]

Some Examples of Experimental Rate Laws

For most reactions of the type

k[A]m[B]n

Rate

The instantaneous rate can be estimated by

16.3 Rate Laws

[N2O5]

As the interval of time (t1, t2) gets smaller, the slope

of a approaches the slope of b and the average rate
approaches the instantaneous rate

k rate constant (depends on the nature of A, B,

and the temperature )
m, n, reaction orders with respect to A, B,
m + n + overall order of the rate law

Example: 2N2O5(g) 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

Rate law Rate = k[N2O5]
m = 1 first order in N2O5
m + n + = 1 first order overall

Examples:
CH3Br + OH- CH3OH + Br-

Rate law Rate = k[CH3Br][OH-]

m = 1 first order in CH3Br
n = 1 first order in OHm + n + = 2 second order overall

(CH3)3CBr + H2O (CH3)3COH + HBr

Rate law Rate = k[(CH3)3CBr]
same as Rate = k[(CH3)3CBr]1[H2O]0
m = 1 first order in (CH3)3CBr
n = 0 zero order in H2O
m + n + = 1 first order overall

Examples: 2N2O5(g) 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

Rate law Rate = k[N2O5]
m = 1 first order in N2O5
m + n + = 1 first order overall

2NO2(g) 2NO(g) + O2(g)

Rate law Rate = k[NO2]2
m = 2 second order in NO2
m + n + = 2 second order overall

The reactions orders are not related to the

stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants
The reaction orders can sometimes be fractional or
negative numbers
The rate law can include concentrations of products

Examples:
2O3 3O2

Rate law Rate = k[O3]2[O2]-1

2SO2 + O2 SO3

Rate law Rate = k[SO2][SO3]-1/2

2NH3 N2 + 3H2

Rate law Rate = k

zero overall order

Experimental Determination of Rate Laws

Determination of reaction orders and rate
constants

The reactions orders can be determined by

measuring the changes in the reaction rate upon
changing the reactant concentrations

Example:
For the reaction 2NO + 2H2 N2 + 2H2O, the
rate increases by a factor of nine when the
concentration of NO is tripled while the
concentration of H2 is kept constant. What is the
order of the reaction with respect to NO?
Rate law Rate = k[NO]m[H2]n
9Rate = k(3[NO])m[H2]n = 3mk[NO]m[H2]n
9Rate = 3mRate
9 = 3m m = 2 2nd order in NO

1
2
3

Initial Conc. 10-2 (mol/L)

NO
O2
1.1
1.3
2.0
1.3
1.1
3.0

Initial Rate 10-3

(mol/L.s)
3.2
5.8
17.0

1.1

1.3

3.2

2
3

2.0
1.1

1.3
3.0

5.8
17.0

Rate = k[O2]m[NO]n
#1
3.210-3 = k(1.110-2)m (1.310-2)n
Divide eq.2 by eq.1
#2
5.810-3 = k (2.010-2)m (1.310-2)n and eq.3 by eq.1 :
-3
-2
m
-2
n
#3
17.010 = k (1.110 ) (3.010 )
1
m
5 .8
k 2 .0 m 1 .3 n
5 .8 2 .0
m
=

=
1 .8 = 1 .8
3 .2
k 1 .1 m 1 .3 n
3 .2 1 .1
n

1
2

Relative Conc.
O2
1.1/1.1=1.0
1.8
2.0/1.1=1.8

Exp
#
1
3

O2
1.0
1.0

Relative Rate
NO
1.0
1.0

Relative Conc.
NO
1.3/1.3=1.0
2.3
3.0/1.3=2.3

3.2/3.2=1.0
5.8/3.2=1.8

1.81

Relative Rate
3.2/3.2=1.0
17.0/3.2=5.3

2.32

As [O2]o increases by a factor of 1.8, the initial rate

increases by a factor of 1.8=1.81 1st order in O2
As [NO]o increases by a factor of 2.3, the initial rate
increases by a factor of 5.3=2.32 2nd order in NO

Rate = k[O2][NO]2

Initial Rate 10-3

(mol/L.s)

If [A]o is increased by a factor, f, while [B]o is

kept constant:

Exp
#

Alternative method:
Initial Conc. 10-2 (mol/L)
O2
NO

Rateo = k[A]om[B]on

The initial rate increases by a factor of fm

Select experiments with the same concentrations of

one of the reactants (1, 2) and (1, 3)
Calculate the relative concentrations and rates by
dividing with the smallest number in a column

Exp.#

aA + bB Products

new Rateo = k(f[A]o)m[B]on = fmk[A]om[B]on

new Rateo = fmRateo

Example: Determine the rate law for the

reaction O2(g) + 2NO(g) 2NO2(g) from the
following data:
Exp.
#

The initial rate method the initial rate (Rateo)

of the reaction is measured at various initial
concentrations ([X]o) of the reactants

17 . 0 k 1 .1 m 3 .0 n
17 . 0 3 .0
=

=
5 .3 = 2 .3 m
3 .2
k 1 .1 m 1 .3 n
3 .2
1 .3

The reaction is 3rd-overall order

Determine the rate constant by substituting the
initial concentrations and initial rate from one of the
experiments and solve the equation for k
From Exp. #1:
k=

Rate
3.2 10 3 mol/L s
=
2
[O 2 ][NO]
1.1 10 2 mol/L 1.3 10 2 mol/L

k = 1.7 10 3 L2 /mol 2 s

Note that the units of k depend on the overall order

of the reaction and are different for different rate
laws

16.4 Integrated Rate Laws

Give the concentration of the reactants as a
function of time

First order reactions

General reaction: A Products (1st order)
Rate = k[A] and

Rate = -[A]/t

Zero order reactions

General reaction: A Products (Zero-order)

-[A]/t = k[A] Differential rate law (1st order)

Rate = k

[A] = [A]oe-kt Integrated rate law (1st order)

and

Rate = -[A]/t

-[A]/t = k Differential rate law (zero-order)

Integration of the differential equation leads to:

[A] = [A]o - kt Integrated rate law (zero-order)

Gives the concentration of the reactant [A] at
time t during the reaction
[A]o is the initial concentration at time t = 0

Second order reactions

General reaction: A Products (2nd order)
Rate = k[A]2 and

Rate = -[A]/t

Differential rate law (2nd order)

Integration of the differential equation leads to:

-[A]/t =

k[A]2

1/[A] = 1/[A]o + kt Integrated rate law

(2nd order)

Example: For a given zero-order reaction the rate

constant is 0.011 M/s at 25C. If the initial
concentration of the reactant is 1.4 M, what is its
concentration after 1.5 minutes?
[A] = [A]o kt = 1.4 M 0.011 M/s90 s = 0.4 M

Graphical representation of integrated rate laws

Integration of the differential equation leads to:

Exponential form
Take a natural logarithm of both sides:

ln[A] = ln[A]o - kt Logarithmic form

Gives the concentration of the reactant [A] at

time t during the reaction
[A]o is the initial concentration at time t = 0

Example: The decomposition of HI at 25C is a

2nd order reaction with a rate constant of 2.410-21
L/mols. If the initial concentration of HI is 0.050
M, how long would it take for 30% of it to react?
2HI H2 + I2 Rate = k[HI]2 2nd order
30% HI reacted 70% HI remaining
[HI]o = 0.050 M

[HI] = 0.700.050 = 0.035 M

1/[HI] = 1/[HI]o + kt

1/[HI] 1/[HI]o = kt

t = (1/[HI] 1/[HI]o)/k
1
1

0.035mol/L 0.050mol/L
t=
= 3.6 1021s = 1.1 1014 yr
2.4 1021 L/mol s

Example: Determine the reaction order and the

rate constant for the decomposition of N2O5 from
the following data: 2N2O5(g) 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

[A] = [A]o kt
y = b + mx
If a plot of [A]
versus time gives
a straight line, the
reaction is zeroorder in A

ln[A] = ln[A]o kt
y = b + mx
If a plot of
ln[A] versus time
gives a straight
line, the reaction is
1st order in A

1/[A] = 1/[A]o + kt
y = b + mx
If a plot of
1/[A] versus time
gives a straight
line, the reaction is
2nd order in A

Calculate
ln[N2O5] and
1/[N2O5]

Using a trail-and-error approach, plot [N2O5],

ln[N2O5], and 1/[N2O5] versus time until a
straight line is obtained

Reaction Half-Life
(10.0, -4.39)
(50.0, -5.55)

k = -slope
k = -y/x
A plot of
[N2O5] versus t is
not a straight line
reaction is not
zero-order

A plot of
ln[N2O5] versus t
gives a straight
line reaction is
1st order

[-5.55 - (-4.39)]
(50.0 10.0)

k = 0.029

min-1

During each half-life [A] is halved,

so after 3 half-lives, [A] drops to
= 1/8 of its initial value

Half-life (t) the time needed to reduce the

reactant concentration to of its initial value

t1/2 for 1st order reactions

[A] = [A]oe-kt

[A]o = [A]oe-kt
ln() = -kt

ln(2) = kt
t = ln(2)/k = 0.693/k
t is independent of the initial concentration [A]o
During the course of the reaction, t remains the
same, so it always takes the same time to half [A]

t1/2

for zero-order reactions

[A] = [A]o kt

[A]o = [A]o kt
kt = [A]o [A]o
kt = [A]o
t = [A]o/2k
t is directly proportional to [A]o

t1/2 for 2nd order reactions

1/[A] = 1/[A]o + kt 1/[A]o = 1/[A]o + kt
2/[A]o 1/[A]o = kt
1/[A]o = kt
t = 1/k[A]o
t is inversely proportional to [A]o

Radioactive decay is a 1st order process

Example: t is 5700 yr for the radioactive

isotope of carbon, 14C. C-dating shows that the
concentration of 14C in an object has decreased
to 25% of its original value. How old is the
object?
t = 0.693/k k = 0.693/t = 0.693/5700 yr
k = 1.2110-4 yr-1
[14C] = [14C]oe-kt
[14C] = 0.25[14C]o
0.25[14C]o = [14C]oe-kt 0.25 = e-kt
ln(0.25) = -kt
t = -ln(0.25) / k
-4
t = -ln(0.25) / 1.2110 yr-1 = 11,000 yr

16.5 Theories of Chemical Kinetics

The Effect of Temperature
For most reactions, the reaction rate increases
almost exponentially with T (rate ~ doubles for
every 10C of T)
T affects the rate through the rate constant, k

Arrhenius equation gives the temperature

dependence of k
k = Ae-Ea/RT
A preexponential factor; Ea activation energy
Take a natural logarithm (ln) of both sides

lnk = lnA Ea/RT

 For two different temperatures, T1 and T2

lnk2 = lnA Ea/RT2

lnk1 = lnA Ea/RT1

ln
k = Ae-Ea/RT
lnk = lnA (Ea/R)(1/T)
T k Rate
y = b + mx
Ea is the minimum energy the molecules must
have in order to react (Ea can be determined by
measuring k at different T from the slope of a plot
of lnk versus 1/T)

k 1 1
Ea = R ln 2
k1 T2 T1
Ea = 8.314

Allows the calculation of k at a given T, if k is

known at another T (Ea must be known too)

Collision theory molecules must collide in

order to react

Ea = 2.72 105 J/mol = 272 kJ/mol

Collision frequency (Z) number of collisions per

unit time per unit volume (the reaction rate is
proportional to Z)
Z is proportional to the concentration of the
reactants
For a 2nd order reaction (A + B Products)

Z = Zo[A][B]

Zo proportionality constant (depends on T)

Activation energy (Ea) the minimum collision

energy required for the reaction to occur (not all
collisions result in reaction)
f fraction of collisions with energy E > Ea
(only collisions with E > Ea can lead to reaction)
Maxwell distribution

Allows the determination of Ea by measuring k at

two different Ts

The Arrhenius equation is empirical and it does

not explain the T dependence of k

k1 = 2.610-10 s-1
k2 = 6.710-4 s-1

J 6.7 10-4 s 1 1
1

ln

-10 1
mol K 2.6 10 s 773 K 573 K

1 1

T2 T1

Explaining the Effects of

Concentration and Temperature

Example: For a given 1st order reaction, k is

2.610-10 s-1 at 300C and 6.710-4 s-1 at
500C. Calculate the activation energy.
T1 = 300C = 573 K
T2 = 500C = 773 K

k2
E
= a
k1
R

f = e-Ea/RT 0< f <1

T2 > T1
f2 > f1
Tf

The reaction rate is proportional to f

T f Rate
f = e-Ea/RT
Ea f Rate
Steric factor (p) the colliding molecules must
have proper orientation with respect to each other in
order to react
p fraction of the total # of collisions having
proper orientations (0 < p < 1)
The reaction rate
is proportional to p
Effective collisions
having E > Ea and
proper orientation

The reaction rate is proportional to the collision

frequency (Z), the fraction of collisions (f) with E >
Ea, and the fraction of collisions (p) with proper
orientations
For a 2nd order reaction (A + B Products)

Rate = pfZ = pe-Ea/RTZo[A][B] (From theory)

Rate = k[A][B]
(From exper.)
-E
/RT
a
k = pZoe
(pZo = A)

Activated complex theory the reacting

molecules form a high energy complex which
is unstable and breaks down to form either the
products or the original reactants
A + B [A---B]* Products
[A---B]* activated complex or transition state

k = Ae-Ea/RT
The equation is the same as the Arrhenius equation
A contains the steric factor, p, and part of the
collision frequency, Zo (Zo depends weakly on T)

Ea is the height of the barrier between the

reactants and the transition state
Ea is needed to weaken the bonds in the reactants
so that the new bonds in the products can be
formed
Every reaction (every step in a reaction) goes
through its own transition state
Theoretically all reactions are reversible since
once reached the transition state can go forward
to products or back to reactants
Reaction energy diagrams show the energy
profile of the reaction (Ea(fwd), Ea(rev), and Hrxn)

16.6 Reaction Mechanisms

Sequences of molecular level steps (called
elementary reactions) that sum up to the overall
reaction

Elementary reactions (steps) describe

individual molecular events (collisions)
Example: 2O3(g) 3O2(g)

Proposed 2 step mechanism:

1. O3 O2 + O
+ 2O3 3O2 (overall)
2. O3 + O 2O2
Reaction intermediate formed in one step
and used up in another (does not appear in the
overall reaction) O is an intermediate

Example: For a given reaction Ea(fwd) is 55

kJ/mol and Ea(rev) is 28 kJ/mol. Calculate Hrxn.
Ea(fwd) > Ea(rev) the reaction is endothermic
Hrxn = Ea(fwd) - Ea(rev) = 55 28 = 27 kJ/mol
Some examples of reaction energy diagrams:

Reaction intermediates are usually unstable

species, but some are stable enough to be
isolated

Molecularity the number of reactant

species involved in an elementary reaction
(the number of colliding species)
Example: 2O3(g) 3O2(g)

O3 O2 + O (1 reactant molecule Unimolecular)

O3 + O 2O2 (2 reactant species Bimolecular)
Termolecular reactions are very rare very low
probability for a three-particle collision with
enough energy and proper orientation
Higher order molecularities are not known

 Rate laws for elementary reactions can

be derived from the reaction stoichiometry
The reaction orders are equal to the
stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants
iA +jB Products
Rate = k[A]i[B]j
Applies only to elementary reactions!

Overall reaction order (i + j) = Molecularity

1. 2{ N2O5 NO2 + NO3 }

2. NO2 + NO3 NO2 + O2 + NO
3. NO + NO3 2NO2

2N2O5 + NO2 + NO3 + NO + NO3

2NO2 + 2NO3 + NO2 + O2 + NO + 2NO2

2N2O5 4NO2 + O2

(overall reaction)

NO3 and NO are produced in the 1st and 2nd

steps and consumed in the 2nd and 3rd steps (not
present in the overall reaction) intermediates
The rate law of the overall reaction can be deduced
from the rate laws of the elementary reactions

Mechanisms with a slow initial step

Example: NO2(g) + CO(g) NO(g) + CO2(g)
Experimental rate law: Rate = k[NO2]2
Three proposed mechanisms:
I. A single step mechanism:
NO2 + CO NO + CO2 Rate = k[NO2][CO]
Inconsistent with the exp. rate law reject
II. 1. NO2 + NO2 NO3 + NO
[Slow, RDS]
[Fast]
2. NO3 + CO NO2 + CO2
+ NO2 + CO NO + CO2
(overall)
Rate = Rate1 = k1[NO2][NO2] = k1[NO2]2
Consistent with the exp. rate law (k = k1)

Example: For the following three-step

mechanism, determine the rate law and
molecularity of each step, identify the intermediate
and write the overall balanced equation.
1. 2{ N2O5 NO2 + NO3 }
2. NO2 + NO3 NO2 + O2 + NO
3. NO + NO3 2NO2
2{} the 1st equation is taken twice
1. Rate1 = k1[N2O5]

unimolecular

2. Rate2 = k2[NO2][NO3]

bimolecular

3. Rate3 = k3[NO][NO3]

bimolecular

Rate-determining step (RDS) the slowest

step in a mechanism (limits the rate of the
overall reaction)
Rate = Rate of RDS
Correlating Mechanisms and Rate Laws
The validity of a mechanism can be tested by
correlating it with the experimental rate law
The elementary steps must add up to the overall
reaction
The elementary steps must be physically
reasonable (uni- or bi-molecular)
The rate law of the RDS must agree with the
experimental rate law

III. 1. NO2 + NO2 N2O4

[Slow,RDS]
2. N2O4 + CO NO + NO2 + CO2 [Fast]
+ NO2 + CO NO + CO2
(overall)
Rate = Rate1 = k1[NO2][NO2] = k1[NO2]2
Consistent with the exp. rate law (k = k1)
Both (II) and (III) are physically reasonable
(involve bimolecular steps) and consistent with
the experimental rate law more data are
needed to give preference to one of them

Mechanisms can never be proved by

kinetics data alone; we can only reject a
mechanism or state that a mechanism is
consistent with the kinetics data

 Mechanisms with a fast initial step

Example: 2NO(g) + Br2(g) 2NOBr(g)

A Int
[Slow]
[Fast]
k2
Int B
[Fast]
[Slow]
+ AB
Rate = k1[A] Rate = k2[Int]
[Int] can not be in the rate law (intermediate) and
must be expressed through the concentrations of
the reactants (or products) in the overall reaction
If the first reaction is fast and reversible, it
quickly reaches equilibrium and the rate of
formation of the intermediate is equal to the rate
of its consumption (steady state approximation)
The steady state approximation allows the
calculation of [Int]

Experimental rate law: Rate = k[NO]2[Br2]

Proposed mechanism:

k1

1
1. NO + Br2
NOBr2
k

[Fast, revers.]

2. NOBr2 + NO 2NOBr

[Slow, RDS]

-1

k2

Rate = Rate2 = k2[NO][NOBr2]

Rate1 = Rate-1 k1[NO][Br2] = k-1[NOBr2]

k1

1. NO + Br2 NOBr2
k-1

k2

2. NOBr2 + NO 2NOBr

2NO + Br2 2NOBr

(overall)
Rate = Rate2 = k2[NO][NOBr2]
NOBr2 is an intermediate and must be expressed
through the reactants
The 1st step reaches equilibrium so the rates of the
forward (Rate1) and reverse (Rate-1) reactions are
equal

16.7 Catalysis
Catalyst a substance that increases the
reaction rate without being consumed in it
In general catalysts increase the rate by lowering
the activation energy (Ea) of the reaction
Catalysts provide a
different mechanism
for the reaction
Catalysts speedup
both the forward and
reverse reactions
Catalysts dont
change the Hr

Rate = k2[NO][NOBr2] = k2[NO](k1/k-1)[NO][Br2]

Rate = (k2k1/k-1)[NO]2[Br2] = k[NO]2[Br2]
Experimental rate law: Rate = k[NO]2[Br2]
Consistent with the exp. rate law (k = k2k1/k-1)

2H2O2(aq)

Br2(aq)

2H2O(l) + O2(g)

Br2(aq) is in the same phase as H2O2(aq)

Br2 catalyses the reaction by providing a two step
mechanism with lower Ea
1. H2O2(aq) +Br2(aq) 2Br- + 2H+ + O2(g)
2. H2O2(aq) + 2Br- + 2H+ Br2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Br2 is not consumed in the reaction

[Slow, RDS]

[NOBr2] = (k1/k-1)[NO][Br2]

Homogeneous catalysis the catalyst is in

the same phase as the reactants
Example: Decomposition of H2O2

[Fast, revers.]

Heterogeneous catalysis the catalyst is in a

phase different from that of the reactants
Example: Hydrogenation of ethylene
Pt(s)

H2C=CH2(g) + H2(g) H3CCH3(g)

Pt(s) is in a different phase (solid)
The reactants
are adsorbed
over the Pt and
their bonds are
weakened (H2
splits into 2H)