Symmetrical Componet Fauly Calculation

Theory Track
Transmission Protection Theory

Symmetrical Components &
Fault Calculations
Hands-On Relay School
Jon F. Daume
Bonneville Power Administration
March 14-15, 2011
1
Class Outline
Power system troubles
Symmetrical components
Per unit system
Electrical equipment impedances
Sequence networks
Fault calculations
2
Power System Problems

Faults
Equipment trouble
System disturbances
Fault Causes
Lightning
Wind and ice
Vandalism
Contamination
External forces
Cars, tractors, balloons, airplanes, trees, critters,
flying saucers, etc.
Equipment failures
System disturbances
Overloads, system swings
4
Fault Types
One line to ground (most common)
Three phase (rare but most severe)
Phase to phase
Phase to phase to ground
Symmetrical
Components
Balanced & Unbalanced Systems

Balanced System:
3 Phase load
3 Phase fault
Unbalanced System:
Phase to phase fault
One line to ground
fault
Phase to phase to
ground fault
Open pole or
conductor
Unbalanced load
8
Balanced & Unbalanced Systems

C
C
A
A
Balanced
System
B
Unbalanced System
Sequence Currents for

Unbalanced Network
Ib0
Ia0
Ic1
Ic0
Zero Sequence
Ia1
Ia2
Ib2
Positive Sequence
Ic2
Negative Sequence
Ib1
10
Sequence Quantities
Condition
3 Phase load
3 Phase fault
One line to ground fault
Two phase to ground fault
Open pole or conductor
Unbalanced load
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
11
Phase Values From Sequence

Values
Currents:
IA = Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2
IB = Ib0 + Ib1 + Ib2
IC = Ic0 + Ic1 + Ic2
Voltages:
VA = Va0 + Va1 + Va2
VB = Vb0 + Vb1 + Vb2
VC = Vc0 + Vc1 + Vc2
12
a Operator
a
a = -0.5 + j 3= 1 120
2
a2 = -0.5 j 3= 1 240
2
1
1 + a + a2 = 0
a2
13
Phase Values From Sequence

Values
Currents:
IB = Ia0 + a2Ia1 + aIa2
IC = Ia0 + aIa1 + a2Ia2
Voltages:
VA = Va0 + Va1 + Va2
VB = Va0 + a2Va1 + aVa2
VC = Va0 + aVa1 + a2Va2
14
Sequence Values From Phase

Values
Currents:
Ia0 = (IA + IB + IC)/3
Ia1 = (IA + aIB + a2IC)/3
Ia2 = (IA + a2IB + aIC)/3
Voltages:
Va0 = (VA + VB + VC)/3
Va1 = (VA + aVB + a2VC)/3
Va2 = (VA + a2VB + aVC)/3
15
Zero Sequence Filter

3Ia0 = Ig = Ir = IA + IB + IC
and: 1 + a + a2 = 0
+IB = Ia0 + a2Ia1 + aIa2
+IC = Ia0 + aIa1 + a2Ia2
= Ig = 3Iao + 0 + 0
16
Zero Sequence Current Filter

Ia
Ib
Ic
3I0 = Ia + Ib + Ic
17
Zero Sequence Voltage Filter

Ea
Eb
Ec
3 VO Polarizing Potential
3V0
18
Negative Sequence Filter

Some protective relays are designed to
sense negative sequence currents and/or
voltages
Much more complicated than detecting zero
sequence values
Most modern numerical relays have negative
sequence elements for fault detection
and/or directional control
19
Example
IA = 3 + j4
IB = -7 - j2
IC = -2 + j7
+j
IC = -2+j7
IA = 3+j4
IB = -7-j2
-j
20
Zero Sequence
Ia0 = (IA + IB + IC)/3
= [(3+j4)+(-7-j2)+(-2+j7)]/3
= -2 + j3 = 3.61 124
Ib0
Ia0
Ic0
Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0

Zero Sequence
21
Positive Sequence
Ia1 = (IA + aIB + a2IC)/3
= [(3+j4)+(-0.5+j3/2)(-7-j2)
+(-0.5-j3/2)(-2+j7)]/3
= [(3+j4)+(5.23-j5.06)+(7.06-j1.77)]/3
= 5.10 - j 0.94 = 5.19 -10.5
Ib1 is rotated -120
Ic1 is rotated +120

22
Positive Sequence
Ic1
Ia1
Ib1
23
Negative Sequence
Ia2 = (IA + a2IB + aIC)/3
= [(3+j4)+(-0.5-j3/2)(-7-j2)
+(-0.5+j3/2)(-2+j7)]/3
= [(3+j4)+(1.77+j7.06)+(-5.06-j5.23)]/3
= -0.1 + j 1.94 = 1.95 92.9
Ib2 is rotated +120
Ic2 is rotated -120

24
Negative Sequence
Ia2
Ib2
Ic2
25
Reconstruct Phase Currents

Ic
Ic0
Ic2
Ic1
Ia
Ia0
Ia2
Ia1
Ib
Ib0
Ib1
Ib2
26
Positive, Negative, and Zero

Sequence Impedance
Network Calculations for a
Fault Study
27
+, -, 0 Sequence Networks
Fault
Simple 2 Source Power System Example
1PU
V1
V2
V0
I1
I2
Z1
I0
Z2
Z0
28
Impedance Networks & Fault Type

Fault Type
3 Phase fault
Two phase to ground fault
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
29
Per Unit
30
Per Unit
Per unit values are commonly used for fault
calculations and fault study programs
Per unit values convert real quantities to
values based upon number 1
Per unit values include voltages, currents and
impedances
Calculations are easier

Ignore voltage changes due to transformers
Ohms law still works

31
Per Unit
Convert equipment impedances into per unit
values
Transformer and generator impedances are
given in per cent (%)
Line impedances are calculated in ohms
These impedances are converted to per unit
ohms impedance
32
Base kVA or MVA

Arbitrarily selected
All values converted to common KVA or MVA
Base
100 MVA base is most often used
Generator or transformer MVA rating may be
used for the base
33
Base kV
Use nominal equipment or line voltages
765 kV
525 kV
345 kV
230 kV
169 kV
138 kV
115 kV
69 kV
34.5 kV
13.8 kV
12.5 kV
etc.
34
Base Ohms, Amps

Base ohms:
kV2
kV2 1000 =
base kVA
base MVA
Base amps:
base kVA = 1000 base MVA
3 kV
3 kV
35
Base Ohms, Amps (100 MVA Base)

kV
525
345
230
115
69
34.5
13.8
12.5
Base Ohms
2756.3
1190.3
529.0
132.3
47.6
11.9
1.9
1.6
Base Amps
110.0
167.3
251.0
502.0
836.7
1673.5
4183.7
4618.8
36
Conversions
Percent to Per Unit:
base MVA
x % Z of equipment
3 MVA rating
100
= Z pu @ base MVA
If 100 MVA base is used:
% Z of equipment = Z pu
3 MVA rating
37
Ohms to Per Unit

pu Ohms = ohms / base ohms
base MVA x ohms = pu @ base MVA
kV2LL
38
Per Unit to Real Stuff

Amps = pu amps x base amps
kV = pu kV x base kV
Ohms = pu ohms x base ohms
39
Converting Between Bases

Znew = Zold x base MVAnew x kV2old
base MVAold kV2new
40
Evaluation of System
Components
Determine positive, negative, and zero
sequence impedances of various devices
(Z1, Z2, Z0)
Only machines will act as a voltage source in
the positive sequence network
Connect the various impedances into networks
according to topography of the system
Connect impedance networks for various fault
types or other system conditions
41
Synchronous Machines
~
Machine values:
Machine reactances given in % of the
machine KVA or MVA rating
Ground impedances given in ohms
42
Machine values:
Subtransient reactance (X"d)
Transient reactance (X'd)
Synchronous reactance (Xd)
Negative sequence reactance (X2)
Zero sequence reactance (X0)
43
Machine neutral ground impedance: Usually
expressed in ohms
Use 3R or 3X for fault calculations
Calculations generally ignores resistance
values for generators
Calculations generally uses Xd for all
impedance values
44
Generator Example
Machine nameplate values:
250 MVA, 13.8 kV
X"d = 25% @ 250 MVA
X'd = 30% @ 250 MVA
Xd = 185% @ 250 MVA
X2 = 25% @ 250 MVA
X0 = 10% @ 250 MVA
45
Generator Example
Convert machine reactances to per unit @
common MVA base, (100):
X"d = 25% / 250 = 0.1 pu
X'd = 30% / 250 = 0.12 pu
Xd = 185% / 250 = 0.74 pu
X2 = 25% / 250 = 0.1 pu
X0 = 10% / 250 = 0.04 pu
base MVA
x % Z of equipment = Z pu @ base MVA
3 MVA rating
100
46
Generator Example
R1
jX1 = 0.1
R2
jX2 = 0.1
R0
jX0 = 0.04
47
Transformers
Ih
H
Vh
Zh
1:N
Zx
Ze
Zhx = Vh /Ih = Zh + Zx /N2

Zhx % = Vh /Ih x MVA/kV2 x 100
H
Zhx
Equivalent Transformer - Impedance in %

48
Transformers
Impedances in % of the transformer MVA
rating
Convert from circuit voltage to tap voltage:
%Xtap = %Xcircuit kV2circuit
kV2tap
49
Transformers
Convert to common base MVA:
%X @ base MVA =
base MVA x %X of Transformer
MVA of Measurement
%X of Transformer = pu X @ 100 MVA
MVA of Measurement
X1 = X2 = X0 unless a special value is given for
X0
50
Transformer Example
250 MVA Transformer
13.8 kV - 230 kV Yg
10% Impedance @ 250 MVA
X = 10% = 0.04 pu @ 100 MVA
250
X1 = X2 = X0 = X
Assume R1, R2, R0 = 0
51
Transformer Example
R1
jX1 = 0.04
R2
jX2 = 0.04
R0
jX0 = 0.04
Zero sequence connection depends upon

winding configuration.
52
Transformer Connections
Winding Connection
Sequence Network
Connections
Z0
Z1, Z2
Z1, Z2
Z0
53
Winding Connection
Sequence Network Connections

Z1, Z2
Z0
Z1, Z2
Z0
Z1, Z2
Z0
Z1, Z2
Z0
54
Delta Wye Transformer
a
Ia
nIA
IA
B
b
Ib
nIB
IB
C
Ic
nIC
IC
3I0 = IA+IB+IC
55
Delta Wye Transformer

Ia = nIA - nIC = n(Ia0+Ia1+Ia2- Ia0-aIa1-a2Ia2 )
= n(Ia1 - aIa1 + Ia2 - a2Ia2 )
Ib = nIB - nIA
= n(Ia0+a2Ia1+aIa2 -Ia0-Ia1-Ia2 )
= n(a2Ia1 - Ia1 + aIa2 - Ia2 )
Ic = nIC - nIB = n(Ia0+aIa1+a2Ia2 -Ia0-a2Ia1-aIa2 )
= n(aIa1 - a2Ia1 + a2Ia2 - aIa2 )
No zero sequence current outside delta
56
A YG / YG connection provides a series
connection for zero sequence current
A / YG connection provides a zero sequence
(I0) current source for the YG winding
Auto transformer provides same connection as
YG / YG connection
Use 3R or 3X if a Y is connected to ground
with a resistor or reactor
57
Three Winding Transformer

Impedances ZHL, ZHM, & ZML given in % at
corresponding winding rating
Convert impedances to common base MVA
Calculate corresponding T network
impedances:
ZH = (ZHL+ ZHM - ZML)/2
ZM = (- ZHL+ ZHM + ZML)/2
ZL = (ZHL- ZHM + ZML)/2
58
T Network
Calculate corresponding T network
impedances:
ZH
ZHL= ZH + ZL
ZHM = ZH + ZM
ZML= ZM+ ZL
ZM
ZL
59
Transformer Example
230 kV YG/115 kV YG/13.2 kV
Nameplate Impedances
ZHL= 5.0% @ 50 MVA
ZHM = 5.75% @ 250 MVA
ZML = 3.15% @ 50 MVA
60
Transformer Example
Convert impedances to per unit @ common
MVA Base (100)
ZHL= 5.0% @ 50 MVA = 5.0 / 50
= 0.10 pu
ZHM = 5.75% @ 250 MVA = 5.75 / 250
= 0.023 pu
ZML = 3.15% @ 50 MVA = 3.15 / 50
= 0.063 pu
61
Transformer Example
Convert impedances to T network equivalent
= (0.1 + 0.023 - 0.063)/2 = 0.03 pu
= (-0.1 + 0.023 + 0.063)/2 = - 0.007 pu
= (0.1 - 0.023 + 0.063)/2 = 0.07 pu
62
Transformer Example
H , 230 kV
H
0.03
-0.007
L, 13.8 kV
M
M , 115 kV
0.03
0.07
L
+, - Sequence
-0.007 M
0.07
0 Sequence
63
Problem
Calculate pu impedances for generators and
transformers
Use 100 MVA base
Ignore all resistances
Problem
13.8 kV
230 kV
230 kV
13.8 kV
115 kV
Fault
65
Problem - Generator Data

Machine nameplate values:
300 MVA Nameplate rating
X"d = 25% @ 300 MVA
X'd = 30% @ 300 MVA
Xd = 200% @ 300 MVA
X2 = 25% @ 300 MVA
X0 = 10% @ 300 MVA
Left generator: 13.8 kV
Right generator: 115 kV
66
Problem - Transformer Data

Two winding transformer nameplate values
300 MVA Transformer
13.8 kV - 230 kV Yg
10% Impedance @ 300 MVA
Three winding transformer nameplate values

230 kV Yg/115 kV Yg/13.8 kV
ZHL= 5.0% @ 50 MVA (230 kV 13.8 kV)
ZHM = 6.0% @ 300 MVA (230 kV 115 kV)
ZML = 3.2% @ 50 MVA (115 kV 13.8 kV)
67
Transmission Lines
R
jX
68
Positive & Negative Sequence

Line Impedance
Z1 = Z2 = Ra + j 0.2794 f log GMDsep
60
GMRcond
or
Z1 = Ra + j (Xa + Xd) /mile

Ra and Xa from conductor tables
Xd = 0.2794 f log GMD
60
69
Positive & Negative Sequence

Line Impedance
f = system frequency
GMDsep = Geometric mean distance
between conductors = 3(dabdbcdac) where
dab, dac, dbc = spacing between conductors
in feet
GMRcond = Geometric mean radius of
conductor in feet
Ra = conductor resistance, /mile
70
Zero Sequence Line Impedance

Z 0 = Ra + Re +
j 0.01397 f log
De _______
3(GMR
2)
GMD
cond
sep
or
Z0 = Ra + Re + j (Xa + Xe - 2Xd) /mile
71
Zero Sequence Line Impedance

Re = 0.2862 for a 60 Hz. system. Re does
not vary with .
De = 2160 ( /f) = 2788 @ 60 Hz.
= Ground resistivity, generally assumed to
be 100 meter ohms.
Xe = 2.89 for 100 meter ohms average
ground resistivity.
72
Transmission Lines
Ra
j(Xa+Xd)
Z1
Ra
j(Xa+Xd)
Z2
Ra+Re j(Xa+Xe-2Xd)
Z0
73
Transmission Line Example

230 kV Line
50 Miles long
1272 kcmil ACSR Pheasant Conductor
Ra = 0.0903 /mile @ 80 C
Xa = 0.37201 /mile
GMR = 0.0466 feet
Structure: horizontal H frame
74

Structure H frame:
A
23 Feet
J6 Configuration
23 Feet
GMD = 3(dabdbcdac) = 3(23x23x46)

= 28.978 feet
Xd = 0.2794 f log GMD
60
= 0.2794 log 28.978 = 0.4085 /mile
75

Z1 = Z2 = Ra + j (Xa + Xd)
= 0.0903 + j (0.372 + 0.4085)
= 0.0903 + j 0.781 /mile
Z1 Line = 50(0.0903 + j 0.781)
= 4.52 + j 39.03 = 39.29 83.4
Per unit @ 230 kV, 100 MVA Base
base MVA x ohms = pu @ base MVA
kV2LL
Z1 Line = (4.52 + j 39.03)100/2302

= 0.0085 + j 0.0743 pu
76

Z0 = Ra + Re + j (Xa + Xe 2Xd) = 0.0903
+ 0.286+ j (0.372 + 2.89 - 2 x0.4085)
= 0.377 + j 2.445 /mile
Z0 Line = 50(0.377 + j 2.445)
= 18.83 + j 122.25 = 123.69 81.2
Per unit @ 230 kV, 100 MVA Base
Z0 Line = (18.83 + j 122.25)100/2302
= 0.0356 + j 0.2311 pu
77

0.0085
j0.0743
Z1
0.0085
0.0356
j0.0743
j0.2311
Z2
Z0
78
Long Parallel Lines

Mutual impedance between lines
79
Mutual Impedance
Result of coupling between parallel lines
Only affects Zero sequence network
Will affect ground fault magnitudes
Will affect ground current flow in lines
3I0, Line #1
Line #1
3I0, Line #2
Line #2
80
Mutual Impedance
ZM = Re + j 0.838 log De
/mile
GMDcircuits
or
ZM = Re + j (Xe 3Xd circuits) /mile
Re = 0.2862 @ 60 Hz
De = 2160 ( /f) = 2788 @ 60 Hz
Xe = 2.89 for 100 meter ohms average
ground resistivity
81
Mutual Impedance
GMDcircuits is the ninth root of all possible
distances between the six conductors,
approximately equal to center to center
spacing
GMDcircuits =
9(d
a1a2da1b2da1c2db1a2db1b2db1c2dc1a1dc1b2dc1c2)
Xd circuits = 0.2794 log GMDcircuits
82
Mutual Impedance Example

Circuit #1
A
Circuit #2
23 Feet
23 Feet
92 Feet
46 Feet
23 Feet
23 Feet
115 Feet
138 Feet
69 Feet
92 Feet
115 Feet
46 Feet
69 Feet
92 Feet
83
Mutual Impedance Example

GMDcircuits =
9(d
a1a2da1b2da1c2db1a2db1b2db1c2dc1a1dc1b2dc1c2) =
9(92x115x138x69x92x115x46x69x92)
= 87.84 feet
Xd circuits = 0.2794 log GMDcircuits
= 0.2794 log 87.84 = 0.5431 /mile
ZM = Re + j (Xe 3Xd circuits)
= 0.2862 + j (2.89 - 3x0.5431)
= 0.2862 + j 1.261 /mile
(Z0 = 0.377 + j 2.445 /mile)
84
Mutual Impedance Model

Z0 Line 1
ZM
Bus 1
Z0 Line 2
Bus 2
Z01- ZM
ZM
Bus 1 Z02 - ZM
Bus 2
85
Mutual Impedance Model

Model works with at least 1 common bus
ZM Affects zero sequence network only
ZM For different line voltages:
pu Ohms = ohms x base MVA
kV1 x kV2
Mutual impedance calculations and modeling
become much more complicated with larger
systems
86
Mutual Impedance Fault Example

Taft
Garrison
Taft
Garrison
645 Amps
1980 Amps
645 Amps
1315 Amps
1LG Faults With Mutual Impedances

Taft
Garrison
920 Amps
920 Amps
Taft
Garrison
1370 Amps
260 Amps
87
1LG Faults Without Mutual Impedances
Problem
Calculate Z1 and Z0 pu impedances for a
transmission line
Calculate R1, Z1, R0 and Z0
Calculate Z1 and Z0 and the angles for Z1
and Z0
Calculate Z0 mutual impedance between
transmission lines
Use 100 MVA base and 230 kV base
88
Problem
13.8 kV
230 kV
230 kV
13.8 kV
115 kV
Fault
89
Transmission Line Data

2 Parallel 230 kV Lines
60 Miles long
1272 kcmil ACSR Pheasant conductor
Ra = 0.0903 /mile @ 80 C
Xa = 0.37201 /mile
GMR = 0.0466 feet
H frame structure - flat, 23 feet between
conductors
Spacing between circuits = 92 feet centerline to
centerline
90
Fault Calculations and

Impedance Network
Connections
91
Why We Need Fault Studies

Relay coordination and settings
Determine equipment ratings
Determine effective grounding of system
Substation ground mat design
Substation telephone protection
requirements
Locating faults
92
Fault Studies
Fault Types:
3 Phase
One line to ground
Phase to phase
Phase to phase to ground
Fault Locations:
Bus fault
Line end
Line out fault (bus fault with line open)
Intermediate faults on transmission line
93
Fault Study Assumptions

Ignore loads
Use generator Xd
Generator X2 equal Xd
Ignore generator resistance
Ignore transformer resistance
0 Fault resistance assumed
Negative sequence impedance = positive
sequence impedance
94
Positive Sequence Network
Fault
Vl = 1
Z1sl
Z1tl
Z1Ll
V1=1-I1Z1
Z1l
Z1Lr
I1
Z1h
Z1sr
Vr = 1
Z1m
95
Negative Sequence Network
Fault
Z2sl
Z2tl
Z2Ll
V2= -I2Z2
Z2l
Z2Lr
I2
Z2h
Z2sr
Z2m
96
Zero Sequence Network
Fault
Z0sl
Z0tl
V0= -I0Z0
Z0Ll
Z0l
Z0Lr
I0
Z0h
Z0sr
Z0m
97
Network Reduction
Fault
1PU
V1
V2
V0
I1
I2
Z1
I0
Z2
Z0
98
Three Phase Fault

Fault
Only positive sequence impedance network

used
No negative or zero sequence currents or
voltages
99
Three Phase Fault
1PU
V1
V2
V0
I1=11.9
Z1
0.084
I2=0
I0=0
Z2
0.084
Z0
0.081
100
Three Phase Fault

Fault
Vl = 1
Z1sl
Z1tl
Z1Ll
0.1
0.04
0.037
V1=1-I1Z1
Z1Lr
0.07
Z1l
0.037 Z1h Z1m

I1
0.03 -0.007
Z1sr
Vr = 1
0.1
Sequence Network Connection for 3 Phase Fault

101
Three Phase Fault

Fault
Vl = 1
V1=1-I1Z1
0.177
0.160
Vr = 1
I1
Positive Sequence Network Reduced

102
Three Phase Fault Vectors

Ic
Vc
Ib
Va
Vb
Ia
103
Three Phase Fault

MVAFault = MVABase
ZFault pu
or
I pu Fault current = 1 pu ESource
ZFault pu
104
Three Phase Fault

I1 = E / Z1 = 1 / Z1
I2 = I0 = 0
IA = I1 + I2 + I0 = I1
IB = a2I1
IC = aI1
V1 = 1 I1Z1 = 0
V2 = 0, V0 = 0
VA = VB = VC = 0
105
Phase to Phase Fault

Fault
Positive and negative sequence impedance

networks connected in parallel
No zero sequence currents or voltages
106
1PU
V1
V2
V0
I1
I2
Z1
I0
Z2
Z0
107

Fault
Vl = 1
Z1sl
Z1tl
Z1Ll
V1=1-I1Z1
I1
Z2sl
Z2tl
Z2Ll
Z1l
Z1Lr
Z1h
Z1sr
Vr = 1
Z1m
V2= -I2Z2
Z2l
Z2Lr
I2 = -I1
Z2h
Z2sr
Z2m
108
Sequence Network Connection for Phase to Phase Fault
Phase to Phase Fault Vectors

Vc
Ic
Va
Ib
Vb
109

I1 = - I2 =
E
= ___1___
I0 = 0
(Z1 + Z2) (Z1 + Z2)
IA = I0 + I1 + I2 = 0
IB = I0 + a2I1 + aI2 = a2I1 - aI1
IB = (a2 - a) E = _-j 3 E_ = -j 0.866 E
(Z1 + Z2)
(Z1 + Z2)
Z1
IC = - IB
(assume Z1 = Z2)
110

V1 = E - I1Z1 = 1 - I1Z1
V2 = - I2Z2 = V1
V0 = 0
VA = V1 + V2 + V0 = 2 V1
VB = V0 + a2V1 + aV2 = a2V1 + aV1 = -V1
VC = -V1
Phase to phase fault = 86.6%

3 phase fault
111
Single Line to Ground Fault

Fault
Positive, negative and zero sequence

impedance networks connected in series
112

+
V1
V2
V0
I1=4.02
I2=4.02
Z1
.084
Z2
.084
1PU
I0=4.02
Z0
.081
113

+
Vl = 1
V1=1-I1Z1
Z1sl
Z1tl
Z1Ll
Z1Lr
0.1
0.04
0.037
I1 0.037
V2= -I2Z2
Z2sl
Z2tl
Z2Ll
Z2Lr
0.1
0.04
0.037
I2 0.037
V0= -I0Z0
Z0sl
Z0tl
Z0Ll
Z0Lr
0.04
0.04
0.116
I0 0.116
0.07
Z1l
Z1h Z1m
0.03 -0.007
Z1sr
Vr = 1
0.1
0.07
Z2l
Z2h Z2m
0.03 -0.007
Z2sr
0.1
0.07
Z 0l
Z0sr
Z0h Z0m 0.04

0.03 -0.007
I1 = I2 = I0
Sequence Network Connection for One Line to Ground Fault
114
Single Line to Ground Fault Vectors

Vc
Va
Vb
Ia
115

I1 = I2 = I0 = ____E_____ = ____1_____
(Z1 + Z2 + Z0) (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)
IA = I1 + I2 + I0 = 3 I0
IB = I0 + a2I1 + aI2 = I0 + a2I0 + aI0 = 0
IC = 0
I Ground = I Residual = 3I0
116

V1 = E - I1Z1 = 1 - I1Z1
V2 = - I2Z2
V0 = - I0Z0
VA = V1 + V2 + V0 = 0
VB = V0 + a2V1 + aV2 = (Z1 - Z0 ) + a2
(Z0+Z1+Z1)
VC = V0 + aV1 + a2V2 = (Z1 - Z0 ) + a
(assumes Z1 = Z2)
(Z0+Z1+Z1)
117
Two Phase to Ground Fault

Fault
Positive, negative and zero sequence

impedance networks connected in parallel
118
1PU
V1
V2
V0
I1
I2
Z1
I0
Z2
Z0
119

+
Vl = 1
Z1sl
Z1tl
Z1Ll
V1=1-I1Z1
I1
Z2sl
Z2tl
Z2Ll
Z0Ll
Vr = 1
Z1m
Z 2l
Z2Lr
Z0tl
Z1h
Z1sr
V2= -I2Z2
I2
Z0sl
Z 1l
Z1Lr
Z2h
Z2sr
Z2m
V0= -I0Z0
Z 0l
Z0Lr
I0
Z0h
Z0sr
Z 0m
Sequence Network Connection for Phase to Phase to Ground Fault
120
Two Phase to Ground Fault Vectors

Ic
Vc
Ib
Va
Vb
121
Other Conditions
Fault calculations and symmetrical
components can also be used to evaluate:
Open pole or broken conductor
Unbalanced loads
Load included in fault analysis
Transmission line fault location
For these other network conditions, refer to

references.
122
References
Circuit Analysis of AC Power Systems, Vol. 1 &
2, Edith Clarke
Electrical Transmission and Distribution
Reference Book, Westinghouse Electric Co.,
East Pittsburgh, Pa.
Symmetrical Components, Wagner and Evans,
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.
Symmetrical Components for Power Systems
Engineering, J. Lewis Blackburn, Marcel
Dekker, Inc.
123
The end
Jon F. Daume
Retired!
124
Theory Track
Transmission Protection Theory
Transmission System
Protection
Hands-On Relay School
Jon F. Daume
March 14-15, 2011
1
Discussion Topics
Protection overview
Transmission line protection
Phase and ground fault protection

Line differentials
Pilot schemes
Relay communications
Automatic reclosing
Breaker failure relays

Special protection or remedial action schemes
Power Transfer
Vs
Vr
P = Vs Vr sin / X
Transmitted Power
Power Transfer
0.5
0
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
Angle Delta
Increase Power Transfer

Increase transmission system operating
voltage
Increase angle
Decrease X
Add additional transmission lines
Add series capacitors to existing lines
Power Transfer During Faults

Power Transfer
Transmitted Power
1.2
Normal
1LG
0.8
LL
0.6
LLG
0.4
3 Phase
0.2
0
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
Angle Delta
6
Vs
Vr
Power Transfer
1.2
1
5
Power
0.8
4
0.6
P1
0.4
P2
A
6
0.2
1
0
0
30
60
90
Angle Delta
120
150
180
7
System Stability
Relay operating speed

Circuit breaker opening speed
Pilot tripping
High speed, automatic reclosing
Single pole switching
Special protection or remedial action
schemes
IEEE Device Numbers

Numbers 1 - 97 used
21 Distance relay
25 Synchronizing or synchronism check
device
27 Undervoltage relay
32 Directional power relay
43 Manual transfer or selector device
46 Reverse or phase balance current relay
50 Instantaneous overcurrent or rate of rise
relay (fixed time overcurrent)
(IEEE C37.2)
IEEE Device Numbers

51
52
59
62
63
67
79
81
86
87
AC time overcurrent relay

AC circuit breaker
Overvoltage relay
Time delay stopping or opening relay
Pressure switch
AC directional overcurrent relay
AC reclosing relay
Frequency relay
Lock out relay
Differential relay
(IEEE C37.2)
10
Relay Reliability
Overlapping protection
Relay systems are designed with a high level
of dependability
This includes redundant relays
Overlapping protection zones
We will trip no line before its time

Relay system security is also very important
Every effort is made to avoid false trips
11
Relay Reliability
Relay dependability (trip when required)
Redundant relays
Remote backup
Dual trip coils in circuit breaker
Dual batteries
Digital relay self testing
Thorough installation testing
Routine testing and maintenance
Review of relay operations
12
Relay Reliability
Relay security (no false trip)
Careful evaluation before purchase
Right relay for right application
Voting
2 of 3 relays must agree before a trip
Thorough installation testing

Routine testing and maintenance
Review of relay operations
13
Transmission
Line Protection
14
Western Transmission System

Voltage, kV
Northwest
WECC
115 - 161
27400 miles
48030 miles
230
20850 miles
41950 miles
287 - 345
4360 miles
9800 miles
500
9750 miles
16290 miles
260 - 500 DC
300 miles
1370 miles
Northwest includes Oregon, Washington, Idaho,

Montana, northern Nevada, Utah, British Columbia
and Alberta.
WECC is Western Electricity Coordinating Council
which includes states and provinces west of Rocky
Mountains.
15
Transmission Line Impedance

Z ohms/mile = Ra + j (Xa + Xd)
Ra, Xa function of conductor type, length
Xd function of conductor spacing, length
Ra
j(Xa+Xd)
16
Line Angles vs. Voltage

Z = [Ra2 + j(Xa+Xd)2]
= tan-1 (X/R)
Voltage Level
Line Angle ( )
7.2 - 23 kV
20 - 45 deg.
23 - 69 kV
45 - 75 deg.
69 - 230 kV
60 - 80 deg.
230 - 765 kV
75 - 89 deg.
17
Typical Line Protection
18
Distance Relays
(21, 21G)
19
Distance Relays
Common protective relay for non radial
transmission lines
Fast and consistent trip times
Instantaneous trip for faults within zone 1
Operating speed little affected by changes
in source impedance
Detect multiphase faults

Ground distance relays detect ground
faults
Directional capability
20
CT & PT Connections
V Phase
I Phase
21
3V0
3I0 = Ia + Ib + Ic
67N
I Polarizing
21
Instrument Transformers
Zsecondary = Zprimary x CTR / VTR
The PT location determines the point from
which impedance is measured
The CT location determines the fault
direction
Very important consideration for
Transformer terminated lines
Series capacitors
Use highest CT ratio that will work to

minimize CT saturation problems
22
Saturated CT Current
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-0.017
0.000
0.017
0.033
0.050
0.06
23
Original Distance Relay

True impedance characteristic
Circular characteristic concentric to RX axis
Required separate directional element

Balance beam construction
Similar to teeter totter
Voltage coil offered restraint
Current coil offered operation
Westinghouse HZ
Later variation allowed for an offset circle
24
Impedance Characteristic
X
Directional
25
mho Characteristic
Most common distance element in use
Circular characteristic
Passes through RX origin
No extra directional element required
Maximum torque angle, MTA, usually set

at line angle,
MTA is diameter of circle
Different techniques used to provide full

fault detection depending on relay type
Relay may also provide some or full
protection for ground faults
26
3 Zone mho Characteristic

X
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1
3 Zone Distance Elements Mho Characteristic
27
Typical Reaches
21 Zone 1 85-90%
21 Zone 2 125-180%, Time Delay Trip
21 Zone 3 150-200%, Time Delay Trip
67 Ground Instantaneous Overcurrent
67 Ground Time Overcurrent
67 Ground Time Permissive Transfer Trip Overcurrent
Typical Relay Protection Zones
28
Coordination Considerations,
Zone 1
Zone 1
80 to 90% of Line impedance

Account for possible errors
Line impedance calculations
CT and PT Errors
Relay inaccuracy
Instantaneous trip
29
Coordination Considerations
Zone 2
125% or more of line impedance
Consider strong line out of service
Consider lengths of lines at next substation
Time Delay Trip

> 0.25 seconds (15 cycles)
Greater than BFR clearing time at remote bus
Must be slower if relay overreaches remote zone
2s.
Also consider load encroachment

Zone 2 may be used with permissive
overreach transfer trip w/o time delay
30
Zone 3
Greater than zone 2
Consider strong line out of service
Consider lengths of lines at next substation
Time Delay Trip

> 1 second
Greater than BFR clearing time at remote bus
Must be longer if relay overreaches remote zone
3s.
Must consider load encroachment

31
Zone 3 Special Applications
Starter element for zones 1 and 2
Provides current reversal logic for permissive
transfer trip (reversed)
May be reversed to provide breaker failure
protection
Characteristic may include origin for current
only tripping
May not be used
32
Problems for Distance Relays
Fault in front of relay

Apparent Impedance
Load encroachment
Fault resistance
Series compensated lines
Power swings
33
3 Phase Fault in Front of Relay

No voltage to make impedance
measurement-use a potential memory
circuit in distance relay
Use a non-directional, instantaneous
overcurrent relay (50-Dead line fault relay)
Utilize switch into fault logic
Allow zone 2 instantaneous trip
34
Apparent Impedance
3 Terminal lines with apparent
impedance
Fault resistance also looks like an
apparent impedance
Most critical with very short or
unbalanced legs
Results in
Short zone 1 reaches
Long zone 2 reaches and time delays
Pilot protection may be required

35
Apparent Impedance
Bus A
Zb = 1 Bus B
Za = 1 ohm
Ia = 1
Ic = Ia + Ib = 2
Z apparent @
Bus A = Za +
ZcIc/Ia
= 3 Ohms
Zc = 1
Ib = 1
Bus C
Apparent Impedance
36
Zone 1
Set to 85 % of actual impedance to nearest
terminal
Zone 2
Set to 125 + % of apparent impedance to
most distant terminal
Zone 2 time delay must coordinate with all
downstream relays
Zone 3
Back up for zone 2
37
Load Encroachment
Z Load = kV2 / MVA
Long lines present biggest challenge
Heavy load may enter relay characteristic
Serious problem in August, 2003 East

Coast Disturbance
NERC Loading Criteria
150 % of emergency line load rating
Use reduced voltage (85 %)
30 Line Angle
Z @ 30 = Z @ MTA cos (MTA -30 ) for mho
characteristic
38
Load Encroachment
NERC Loading Criteria
Applies to zone 2 and zone 3 phase distance
Other overreaching phase distance elements
All transmission lines > 200 kV

Many transmission lines > 100 kV
Solutions
Dont use conventional zone 3 element
Use lens characteristic
Use blinders or quadrilateral characteristic
Tilt mho characteristic toward X axis
Utilize special relay load encroachment
characteristic
39
Load Encroachment
X
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1
Load
Area
R
Load Consideration with Distance Relays
40
Lens Characteristic
Ideal for longer transmission lines

More immunity to load encroachment
Less fault resistance coverage
Generated by merging the common area
between two mho elements
41
Lens Characteristic
42
Tomato Characteristic
May be used as an external out of step
blocking characteristic
Reaches set greater than the tripping
elements
Generated by combining the total area of
two mho elements
43
Quadrilateral Characteristic
High level of freedom in settings
Blinders on left and right can be moved in
or out
More immunity to load encroachment (in)
More fault resistance coverage (out)
Generated by the common area between

Left and right blinders
Below reactance element
Above directional element
44
X
45
Special Load Encroachment

X
Zone 4
Zone 2
Zone 1
46
Fault Resistance
Most severe on short lines
Difficult for ground distance elements to
detect
Solutions:
Tilt characteristic toward R axis
Use wide quadrilateral characteristic
Use overcurrent relays for ground faults
47
Fault Resistance
X
Zone 3
Zone 2
Rf
Zone 1
R
Fault Resistance Effect on a Mho Characteristic
48
Series Compensated Lines

Series caps added to increase load
transfers
Electrically shorten line
Negative inductance
Difficult problem for distance relays
Application depends upon location of
capacitors
49
Series Caps
Zl
21
Zc
Zl > Zc
21
50
Series Caps
Bypass MOD
Isolating MOD
Isolating MOD
Bypass Breaker
Discharge Reactor
Triggered Gap
Capacitor (Fuseless)
Damping Circuit
Metal-Oxide Varistor (MOV)
Platform
Main Power Components for EWRP Series Capacitors
51
Zone 1
80 to 90% of compensated line impedance
Must not overreach remote bus with caps in
service
Zone 2
125% + of uncompensated apparent line
impedance
Must provide direct tripping for any line fault
with caps bypassed
May require longer time delays
52
Power Swing
Power swings can cause false trip of 3
phase distance elements
Option to
Block on swing (Out of step block)
Trip on swing (Out of step trip)
Out of step tripping may require special breaker
Allows for controlled separation
Some WECC criteria to follow if OOSB

implemented
53
Out Of Step Blocking

X
OOSB Outer Zone
OOSB Inner Zone
Zone 2
t = 30 ms?
Zone 1
Typical Out Of Step Block Characteristic
54
Ground Distance
Protection
and Kn
(21G)
55
Fault Types
3 Phase fault
Positive sequence impedance network only

Positive and negative sequence
impedance networks in parallel

Positive, negative, and zero sequence
impedance networks in series
Phase to phase to ground fault

Positive, negative, and zero sequence
impedance networks in parallel
56
Sequence Networks
57
What Does A Distance Relay

Measure?
Phase current and phase to ground
voltage
Zrelay = VLG/IL (Ok for 3 phase faults only)
Phase to phase current and phase to

phase voltage
Zrelay = VLL/ILL (Ok for 3 phase, PP, PPG
faults)
Phase current + compensated ground

current and phase to ground voltage
Zrelay = VLG/(IL + 3KnI0) (Ok for 3 phase, 1LG,
PPG faults)
58
Kn - Why?
Using phase/phase or phase/ground
quantities does not give proper reach
measurement for 1LG fault
Using zero sequence quantities gives the
zero sequence source impedance, not the
line impedance
Current compensation (Kn) does work for
ground faults
Voltage compensation could also be used
but is less common
59
Current Compensation, Kn
Kn = (Z0L - Z1L)/3Z1L
Z0L = Zero sequence transmission line impedance
Z1L = Positive sequence transmission line
impedance
IRelay = IA + 3I0(Z0L- Z1L)/3Z1L = IA + 3KnI0

ZRelay = VA Relay/IRelay = VA/(IA + 3KnI0) = Z1L
Reach of ground distance relay with current
compensation is based on positive sequence line
impedance, Z1L
60
Current Compensation, Kn
Current compensation (Kn) does work for
ground faults.
Kn = (Z0L Z1L)/3Z1
Kn may be a scalar quantity or a vector quantity
with both magnitude and angle
Mutual impedance coupling from parallel

lines can cause a ground distance relay to
overreach or underreach, depending upon
ground fault location
Mutual impedance coupling can provide
incorrect fault location values for ground
faults
61
Ground Fault
Protection
(67N)
62
Ground Faults
Directional ground overcurrent relays
(67N)
Ground overcurrent relays
Time overcurrent ground (51)
Instantaneous overcurrent (50)
Measure zero sequence currents

Use zero sequence or negative sequence
for directionality
63
Typical Ground Overcurrent

Settings
51 Time overcurrent
Select TOC curve, usually very inverse

Pickup, usually minimum
Time delay >0.25 sec. for remote bus fault
50 Instantaneous overcurrent
>125% Remote bus fault
Must consider affects of mutual coupling

from parallel transmission lines.
64
Polarizing for Directional

Ground Overcurrent Relays
I Residual and I polarizing
I Polarizing: An autotransformer neutral CT

may not provide reliable current polarizing
I Residual and V polarizing

I Residual 3I0 = Ia + Ib + Ic
V Polarizing 3V0 = Va + Vb + Vc
Negative sequence
Requires 3 phase voltages and currents
More immune to mutual coupling problems
65
Current Polarizing
H1
CT
X1
Y1
H2
X2
Y2
X3
Y3
H3
H0X0
I Polarizing
Auto Transformer Polarizing Current Source
66
Voltage Polarizing
Ea
Eb
Ec
3 VO Polarizing Potential
67
Mutual Coupling
Transformer affect between parallel lines
Inversely proportional to distance between
lines
Only affects zero sequence current

Will affect magnitude of ground currents
Will affect reach of ground distance relays
68
Mutual Coupling
3I0, Line #1
Line #1
3I0, Line #2
Line #2
69
Mutual Coupling vs. Ground

Relays
Taft
Garrison
Taft
Garrison
645 Amps
1980 Amps
645 Amps
1315 Amps
1LG Faults With Mutual Impedances

Taft
Garrison
920 Amps
920 Amps
Garrison
Taft
1370 Amps
260 Amps
1LG Faults Without Mutual Impedances
70
Other Line
Protection Relays
71
Line Differential
87
87
72
Line Differential Relays

Compare current magnitudes, phase, etc.
at each line terminal
Communicate information between relays
Internal/external fault? Trip/no trip?
Communications dependant!
Changes in communications paths or
channel delays can cause potential
problems
73
Phase Comparison
Compares phase relationship at terminals
100% Channel dependant
Looped channels can cause false trips
Nondirectional overcurrent on channel

failure
Immune to swings, load, series caps
Single pole capability
74
Pilot Wire
Common on power house lines
Uses metallic twisted pair
Problems if commercial line used
Requires isolation transformers and protection
on pilot wire
Nondirectional overcurrent on pilot failure

Newer versions use fiber or radio
Generally limited to short lines if metallic
twisted pair is used
75
Pilot Wire
76
Current Differential
Similar to phase comparison
Channel failure?
Distance relay backup or
Non directional overcurrent backup or
No backup must add separate back up
relay
Many channel options

Changes in channel delays may cause
problems
Care required in setting up digital channels
77
Current Differential
Single pole capability
3 Terminal line capability
May include an external, direct transfer trip
feature
Immune to swings, load, series caps
78
Transfer Trip
79
Direct Transfer Trip

Line protection
Equipment protection
Transformer terminated lines
Line reactors
Breaker failure
2 or more signals available

Analog or digital tone equipment
80

Protective Relay
Protective Relay
Tone 1 Xmit
Tone 1 Rcvd
Tone 2 Xmit
Tone 2 Rcvd
PCB Trip Coil
PCB Trip Coil
81
Direct Transfer Trip Initiation
Zone 1 distance
Zone 2 distance time delay trip
Zone 3 distance time delay trip
Instantaneous ground trip
Time overcurrent ground trip
BFR-Ring bus, breaker & half scheme
Transformer relays on transformer
terminated lines
Line reactor relays
82
Permissive Transfer Trip

Permissive Relay
Permissive Relay
Tone 2 Xmit
Tone 2 Xmit
Tone 2 Rcvd
Tone 2 Rcvd
PCB Trip Coil
PCB Trip Coil

Permissive Transfer Trip
83
Permissive Keying
Zone 2 instantaneous
Permissive overcurrent ground (very
sensitive setting)
PCB 52/b switch
Current reversal can cause problems
84
PRT Current Reversal

Ia
I Fault, Line AB
Ic
Ib
I Fault, Line CD
Id
Fault near breaker B. Relays at B pick up

Relays at B key permissive signal to A, trip breaker B instantaneously
Relays at A pick up and key permissive signal to B.
Relays at C pick up and key permissive signal to C.
Relays at D block
85
PRT Current Reversal

Ia
I Fault, Line AB
Ic
I Fault, Line CD
Id
Breaker B opens instantaneously. Relays at B drop out.

Fault current on line CD changes direction.
Relays at A remain picked up and trip by permissive signal from B.
Relays at C drop out and stop keying permissive signal to C.
Relays at D pick up and key permissive signal to D.
86
Directional Comparison
Blocking
Overreaching relays
Delay for channel time
Channel failure can allow overtrip
Often used with On/Off carrier
87
Directional Comparison
Forward
Relay
TD
Reverse
Relay
Reverse
Relay
Forward
Relay
Block Xmit
Block Xmit
Block Rcvd
Block Rcvd
Time Delay
PCB Trip Coil
Time Delay
TD
PCB Trip Coil
Directional Comparison Blocking Scheme
88
Directional Comparison Relays

Forward relays must overreach remote
bus
Forward relays must not overreach remote
reverse relays
Time delay (TD) set for channel delay
Scheme will trip for fault if channel lost
Scheme may overtrip for external fault on
channel loss
89
Tone Equipment
Interface between relays and
communications channel
Analog tone equipment
Digital tone equipment
Security features
Guard before trip
Alternate shifting of tones
Parity checks on digital
90
Tone Equipment
Newer equipment has 4 or more
channels
2 for direct transfer trip
1 for permissive transfer trip
1 for drive to lock out (block reclose)
91
Relay to Relay Communications

Available on many new digital relays
Eliminates need for separate tone gear
8 or more unique bits of data sent from
one relay to other
Programmable functions
Each transmitted bit programmed for specific
relay function
Each received bit programmed for specific
purpose
92
Telecommunications
Channels
Microwave radio
Analog (no longer available)
Digital
Other radio systems

Dedicated fiber between relays
Short runs
Multiplexed fiber
Long runs
SONET Rings
93
Telecommunications
Channels
Power line carrier current
On/Off Carrier often used with directional
comparison
Hard wire
Concern with ground mat interconnections
Limited to short runs
Leased line
Rent from phone company
Considered less reliable
94
Automatic Reclosing (79)

First reclose ~ 80% success rate
Second reclose ~ 5% success rate
Must delay long enough for arc to
deionize
t = 10.5 + kV/34.5 cycles
14 cycles for 115 kV; 25 cycles for 500 kV
Must delay long enough for remote

terminal to clear
1LG Faults have a higher success rate
than 3 phase faults
95
Automatic Reclosing (79)

Most often single shot
Delay of 30 to 60 cycles following line trip
is common
Checking:
Hot bus & dead line
Hot line & dead bus
Sync check
Utilities have many different criteria for

transmission line reclosing
96
More on Reclosing
Only reclose for one line to ground faults
Block reclose for time delay trip (pilot
schemes)
Never reclose on power house lines
Block reclosing for transformer fault on
transformer terminated lines
Block reclosing for bus faults
Block reclosing for BFR
Do not use them
97
Breaker Failure
Relay
(50BF)
98
Breaker Failure
Stuck breaker is a severe impact to
system stability on transmission systems
Breaker failure relays are recommended
by NERC for transmission systems
operated above 100 kV
BFRs are not required to be redundant by
NERC
99
Breaker Failure Relays

1. Fault on line
2. Normal protective relays detect fault and
send trip to breaker.
3. Breaker does not trip.
4. BFR Fault detectors picked up.
5. BFR Time delay times out (8 cycles)
6. Clear house (open everything to isolate
failed breaker)
100
Breaker Failure Relay

Protective Relay
PCB Trip
Coil #1
BFR Fault
BFR Retrip Detector
TD
PCB Trip
Coil #2
BFR Time
Delay, 8~
TD
Trip
86
Block Close
Typical Breaker Failure Scheme with Retrip
101
Typical BFR Clearing Times

Proper Clearing:
0 Fault occurs
+1~ Relays PU, Key TT
+2~ PCB trips
+1~ Remote terminal clears
Failed Breaker:
0 Fault occurs
+1~ BFR FD PU
+8~ BFR Time Delay
+1~ BFR Trips 86 LOR
+2~ BU PCBs trip
+1~ Remote terminal clears
3-4 Cycles local clearing

time
4-5 Cycles remote clearing
time
12-13 Cycles local back up

clearing time
13-14 Cycles remote
backup clearing
102
Remedial Action
Schemes (RAS)
aka: Special
Protection Schemes
103
Remedial Action Schemes
Balance generation and loads

Maintain system stability
Prevent major problems (blackouts)
Prevent equipment damage
Allow system to be operated at higher
levels
Provide controlled islanding
Protect equipment and lines from thermal
overloads
Many WECC & NERC Requirements
104
Remedial Action Schemes

WECC Compliant RAS
Fully redundant
Annual functional test
Changes, modifications and additions must be
approved by WECC
Non WECC RAS

Does not need full redundancy
Local impacts only
Primarily to solve thermal overload problems
105
Underfrequency Load Shedding
Reduce load to match available generation

Undervoltage (27) supervised (V > 0.8 pu)
14 Cycle total clearing time required
Must conform to WECC guidelines
4 Steps starting at 59.4 Hz.
Restoration must be controlled
Must coordinate with generator 81 relays
Responsibility of control areas
106
Undervoltage Load Shedding

Detect 3 Phase undervoltage
Prevent voltage collapse
Sufficient time delay before tripping to ride
through minor disturbances
Must Conform to WECC Guidelines
Primarily installed West of Cascades
107
Generator Dropping
Trip generators for loss of load
Trip generators for loss of transmission
lines or paths
Prevent overloading
108
Reactive Switching
On loss of transmission lines
Trip shunt reactors to increase voltage
Close shunt capacitors to compensate for loss
of reactive supplied by transmission lines
Close series capacitors to increase load
transfers
Utilize generator var output if possible
Static Var Compensators (SVC) provide high
speed adjustments
109
Direct Load Tripping

Provide high speed trip to shed load
May use transfer trip
May use sensitive, fast underfrequency (81)
relay
Trip large industrial loads
110
Other RAS Schemes

Controlled islanding
Force separation at know locations
Load brake resistor insertion

Provide a resistive load to slow down
acceleration of generators
Out of step tripping

Force separation on swing
Phase shifting transformers

Control load flows
111
Typical RAS Controller
112
Typical RAS Controller Outputs

Generator tripping
Load tripping
Controlled islanding and separation (Four
Corners)
Insert series caps on AC Intertie
Shunt capacitor insertion
Shunt reactor tripping
Chief Jo Load Brake Resister insertion
Interutility signaling
AGC Off
113
Chief Jo Brake
1400 Megawatts @ 230 kV
114
RAS Enabling Criteria
Power transfer levels

Direction of power flow
System configuration
Some utilities are considering automatic
enabling/disabling based on SCADA data
Phasor measurement capability in relays
can be used to enable RAS actions
115
RAS Design Criteria

Generally fully redundant
Generally use alternate route on
telecommunications
Extensive use of transfer trip for signaling
between substations, power plants, control
centers, and RAS controllers
116
UFOs vs. Power Outages
117
the end
Jon F. Daume
retired
March 15, 2011
118
Transmission System Faults and

Event Analysis
Fault Analysis Theory
and
Modern Fault Analysis Methods
Presented by:
Matthew Rhodes
Electrical Engineer, SRP
1
Transmission System Fault

Theory
Symmetrical Fault Analysis
Symmetrical Components
Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis using
sequence networks
Lecture material originally developed by
Dr. Richard Farmer, ASU Research
Professor
Symmetrical Faults
Faults
Shunt faults:
Three phase
Line to line
Line to ground
2 Line to ground
a
b
c
a
b
c
c
b
a
a
b
c
Faults
Series faults
One open phase:
a
b
c
a
b
c
2 open phases
Increased phase
impedance
a
b
c
5
Why Study Faults?

Determine currents and voltages in the
system under fault conditions
Use information to set protective devices
Determine withstand capability that
system equipment must have:
Insulating level
Fault current capability of circuit breakers:
Maximum momentary current
Interrupting current
6
Symmetrical Faults
L
i(t)
AC
2V sin( t + )
e(t ) =
Fault at t = 0
2V
t=0
7
Symmetrical Faults
For a short circuit at generator terminals at t=0
and generator initially open circuited:
di
e ( t ) = Ri + L
dt
(L is considered constant)
di
2VSin(t + ) = Ri + L
dt
by using Laplace transforms i(t) can be found
Symmetrical Faults
2V
[ Sin(t + ) Sin( )e t / T ]
i (t ) =
Z
Where:
Z = R 2 + (L) 2 = R 2 + X 2
= Tan
T=
i(t ) =
2I
= Tan
L
X
=
R R
ac
Where: Iac
X
R
Note that for a 3phase system will be

different for each
phase. Therefore, DC
offset will be different
for each phase
Time Constant
[ Sin ( t + ) Sin ( ) e t / T ]
= ac RMS fault current at t=0
(Examples)
i(t ) =
2I
ac
[ Sin ( t + ) Sin ( ) e t / T ]
= = 90
e(t)
2V
= 90 o
t=0
2 I ac
Idc = 0
iac
10
i(t ) =
2I
2V
ac
[ Sin ( t + ) Sin ( ) e t / T ]
= 90 o
=0
e(t)
t=0
iac
2 I ac 0
2 I ac 0
idc
11
i(t ) =
= 90 o
=0
2I
ac
[ Sin ( t + ) Sin ( ) e t / T ]
iac
2 I ac 0
2 I ac 0
2 2 I ac 0
idc
i (t )
t
12
Symmetrical Faults
Iac and Idc are independent after t = 0
2V
[ Sin(t + / 2) + e t / T ]
i (t ) =
Z
I
RMS
dc
ac
= 2I
+I
aco
dc
t T
e
Substituting:
2t T
2
2
T
I
(max)= (I
+ 2I )e
= I 1+ 2e
RMS
ac
ac
ac
13
Asymmetry Factor
IRMS(max) = K() Iac
Asymmetry Factor = K()
4 x
r
K ( ) = 1 + 2e
Where:
= number of cycles T = X / 2 fR
(Example 7.1)
14
Example 7.1
R = 0.8
CB
+
AC
XL = 8
Fault at t = 0
V = 20 kVLN
Fault at a time to produce maximum DC offset

Circuit Breaker opens 3 cycles after fault inception
Find:
1. Iac at t = 0
2. IRMS Momentary at
= 0.5 cycles
3. IRMS Interrupting Current

15
Example 7.1
a.
b.
I AC (0) =
20
0.8 + 8
2
K ( 0 .5 ) = 1 + 2 e
= 2.488kARMS
4 ( .5
10
= 1.438
I momentary = (1.438)( 2.488) = 3.577 KA

c.
K ( 3 ) = 1 + 2e
4 ( 3
10
= 1.023
I Interrupting = (1.023)( 2.488) = 2.545 KA

16
AC Decrement
In the previous analysis we treated the
generator as a constant voltage behind a
constant impedance for each phase. The
constant inductance is valid for steady state
conditions but for transient conditions, the
generator inductance is not constant.
The equivalent machine reactance is made
up of 2 parts:
a) Armature leakage reactance
b) Armature reaction
17
(See Phasor Diagram)
AC Decrement
R
XL
EI
XAR
Load
Steady state model of generator

XL is leakage reactance
XAR is a fictitious reactance and XAR>> XL
XAR is due to flux linkages of armature current with the field
circuit. Flux linkages can not change instantaneously.
Therefore, if the generator is initially unloaded when a fault
occurs the effective reactance is XL which is referred to as
Subtransient Reactance, x.
18
I=IL
+
EI
XL
XAR
Armature Reaction
Field
Flux
Load
Loaded Generator
EI
Resultant
Field
jILXAR(t)
ET
IL
jILXL
19
I=0
+
E = E = E = ET0
XL
XAR=0
ET0
Unloaded Generator
Armature Reaction = 0
Field
Flux
Resultant
Field
t=0E
ET0
20
I=0
+
E = E = E = ET0
XL
XAR
Faulted Generator
t=0
Field
Flux
Resultant
Field
ET0 = 0
21
I = I
XL
+
E = E = E = ET0
XAR=0
Field
Flux
Resultant
Field
t=0+
E = jIXL
ET = 0
I
22
I = I
XL
+
E = E = E = ET0
XAR
t 3Cyc.
Field
Flux
Resultant
Field
E = jI(XL + XAR)
ET = 0
I
23
I=I
XL
+
E = E = E = ET0
XAR
t =
Field
Flux
Resultant
Field
E = jI(XL + XAR)
ET = 0
I
24
AC Decrement
As fault current begins to flow, armature reaction will
increase with time thereby increasing the apparent
reactance. Therefore, the ac component of the fault
current will decrease with time to a steady state
condition as shown in the figure below.
2I2I"
2I '
2I
25
AC Decrement
For a round rotor machine we only need to
consider the direct axis reactance.
2I"=
2I '=
2I =
2E"
X "d
2E'
X 'd
2E
X
d
Subtransient
Transient
Synchronous
(steadystate)
26
AC Decrement
Can write the ac decrement equation
i (t ) = 2 ( I " I ' )e
ac
T "d
+ ( I ' I )e T 'd + I ][Sin( t + )]
E " = E '= E = ET
Td:
For an unloaded generator

(special case):
Subtransient time constant

(function of amortisseur winding X/R)
Td: Transient time constant

(function of field winding X/R)
Look at equation for t=0 and t=infinity
27
AC Decrement
i (t ) = 2 ( I " I ' )e
ac
T "d
+ ( I ' I )e T 'd + I ][Sin( t + )]
For t = 0
iac (max) = 2[( I " I ' ) + ( I ' I ) + I ] = 2 I "

For t =
iac (max) = 2[0 + 0 + I ] = 2 I

28
ac and dc Decrement
Transform ac decrement equation to phasor form
_
t
t
I ac = ( I " I ' )e T " d + ( I ' I )e T ' d + I ] /
dc decrement equation:
I dc =
2 I " Sin ( ) e
Where TA = Armature circuit time constant

(Example 7.2)
29
Example 7.2
R=0
CB
+
AC
xd =.15pu Td = .035 Sec.

xd = .24pu Td = 2.0 Sec.
xd = 1.1pu
TA = 0.2 Sec.
V = 1.05 pu
Fault at t = 0
500 MVA, 20kV, 60 Hz Synchronous Generator

No load when 3-phase fault occurs
Breaker clears fault in 3 cycles.
Find: a) I, b) IDC(t)
c) IRMS at interruption d) Imomentry (max)
30
Example 7.2
1 t .035 1
1 t 2 1
1
+
I AC ( t ) = 1.05
e
e
1.1
.24 1.1
.15 .24
I DC ( t ) max = 2 I " e
.2
I Base
500
=
= 14.434 KA
20 3
E " 1.05
I"=
=
= 7.0 puI DC
= 101kA
x" d .15
I DC ( t ) max = 2 (7)e
.2
= 9.9e
.2
a
b
31
Example 7.2
Part c: Find IRMS at interruption (3 cycles)
3
t=
= 0.05 sec .
60
1 .05 .035 1
1 .05 2 1
1
I AC ( t ) = 1.05
+
+
e
e
1.1
.24 1.1
.15 .24
I AC (.05) = 1.05[(2.5 )(.24) + ( 3.258)(.975) + .909] = 4.92 pu

I DC (.05) = 9.9e
.05
.2
= 7.71 pu
I RMS (.05) = 4.92 2 + 7.712 = 9.146 pu = 132kA
32
Example 7.2
Part d: Find IMomentary(max) at t = cycle
.5
t=
= .0083 sec
60
1 .0083 .035 1
1 .0083 2 1
1
+
I AC ( t ) = 1.05
+
e
e
1.1
.24 1.1
.15 .24
I AC (.0083) = 1.05[(2.5 )(.79) + ( 3.258)(.996) + .909] = 6.43 pu
I DC = 9.9e
.0083
.2
= 9.5 pu
I RMS = 6.43 + 9.5 = 14.9 pu = 215kA

2
d
33
Turbine
Gen.
Energy
34
Superposition for Fault Analysis
35
Superposition for Fault Analysis

Bus 1
New representation:
IF
IG
Bus 2
IM
Bus 1
IG1
IF1
IM1
IG = IG! + IG2 = IG1+ IL IM = IM1 IL

Example 7.3
IG2
IF = IG1 + IM1
IL
IF2=0
36
Example 7.3
For the system of Slide 35 and 36 the generator is operating
at 100 MVA, .95 PF Lagging 5% over rated voltage
Part a: Find Subtransient fault current magnitude.
From Slide 36
VF
1.05
1.05
I F1"=
=
=
= j 9.08 pu
(.15)(.505) j .116
Z TH
j
.655
Part b: Neglecting load current, find Generator and
motor fault current.
.505
I G 1 " = j 9.08
= j 7 pu
.655
I M 1 " = j 9.08 ( j 7 ) = j 2.08 pu
37
Example 7.3
Part c: Including load current, find Generator and
motor current during the fault period.
I Load
S * 1/ cos .95 1/ 18 o
o
= * =
=
=
.
952
/
18
= IG2 = I M 2
o
1.05
1.05 / 0
V
I G " = j 7 + .953 / 18 = 7.35 / 83 pu

o
I M " = j 2.08 .952 / 18 = 2.00 / 243 pu

o
38
Z Bus Method
For Z bus method of fault studies the
following approximations are made:
Neglect load current
Model series impedance only
Model generators and synchronous
motors by voltage behind a reactance for
the positive sequence system
39
2
J 0 . 305
J 0 . 15
AC
J 0 .2
IF
-VF
+
AC
Eg
-
+
AC
40
Z Bus Method
For the circuit of Figure 7.4d (Slide 36 & 40)
Y 11 Y 12 E
I1
I = Y Y E
21 22
2
Injected
node
currents
[matrix
1
2
Node
voltages
Y-bus]
nodal
admittance
Premultiplying both sides by the inverse of [Y-bus}
E1 Z 11
E = Z
2 21
Z 12 I 1
Z 22 I 2
Pre-fault [Z-Bus] Injected

node
=[Y-Bus]-1 node
Current
Voltage
-IF1
0
For a fault
at Bus 1
E1 = Z11 ( I F 1 )
VF
E1
=
I F1 =
Z11
Z11
41
Z-Bus Method
For a fault at Bus 1
E 1 = Z 11 ( I
IF1
I
F 1
VF
E1
=
=
Z 11
Z 11
=
V
Z
F 1
F
11
where:
IF1 = Fault current at bus 1

VF = Prefault voltage of
the faulted bus (Bus 1)
42
Z-Bus Method
For N bus system, fault on Bus n
-VF
E1 Z 11
E Z
2 21
E3 Z 31
=
E N Z n1
. .

E N Z N 1
I Fn
VF
=
Z nn
Z 12
Z 22
Z 13
Z 23
Z 1n
Z 2n
Z 32
Z 33
Z 3n
Z n2
.
Z n3
.
Z nn
,
ZN2
Z N3
Z Nn
. Z 1N 0
. Z 2 N 0
. Z 3N 0
. Z nN I Fn
.
. .
. Z NN 0
Where: VF = Pre-fault voltage at faulted bus

Znn = Thevinen impedance
43
Z-Bus Method
After IFn is found the voltage at any bus can be
found from:
E1 = Z1n (-Ifn) E2 = Z2n(-Ifn) Etc.
If voltage at each bus is found, current through
any branch can be found:
I12 = (E1 - E2) / 12 Etc/
Note: 12 is series impedance between Bus1
and Bus 2, not from Z-Bus.
(Example 7.4)
44
Example 7.4
For the system of Figure 7.3 (Slide 40) using the Z-bus
method find:
a) Z bus
b) IF and I contribution from Line for Bus 1
fault
c) IF and I contribution from Line for Bus 2
fault
1
2
Y12 = -j3.28
Y10 = -j6.67
Y20 = -j5
IF
45
Example 7.4
j 9.95 j 3.28
[YBus ] =
j
3
.
28
j
9
.
95
[Z Bus ] = [Ybus ]
j .1156
=
j .046
E1 j .1156
E = j .046
2
j .046
j .139
j .046 I 1 -IF
j .139 I 2 0
E1 = ( j .1156) I 1
-VF
-IF
VF
IF "=
= j 9.08
j .1156
46
Example 7.4
Find: Line current
E1 j .1156
E = j .046
2
j .046 I 1
j .139 I 2
For fault at Bus 1: E1 = E11+ E12 = 0

E2 = E21 + E22 = VF + (j.046)I1
E2 = 1.05 + (j.046)(j9.08) = .632 /0o
I 21
E 2 E1 .632 0
=
=
= j 2.07
Z 21
j .305
b
47
Example 7.4
1
2
Y12 = -j3.28
Y10 = -j6.67
Y20 = -j5
IF
Find IF and I contribution from Line for Bus 2 fault
E1 j .1156
=
-VF E 2 j .046
IF2
j .046 I 1
j .139 I 2
1.05
=
= j 7.55 pu
j .139
- I F2
E1 = VF + ( j .046)( I F ) = 1.05 + ( j .046)( j 7.55) = .703 / 0 o

E1 E 2 .703 0
=
= j 2.3 pu
I 12 =
c
48
Z 12
j .305
Z-Bus Method
[Z-Bus] = [Y-Bus]-1
Will not cover formation of [Z-Bus] or [Y-Bus]
[Z-Bus] can be considered a fictitious circuit
which has the appearance of a rake. See
Figure 7.6 on Page 371.
49
Z-Bus Rake equivalent
Example: Fault at Bus n

IF = In =
VF
Z nn
E1 = VF ( Z 1n )( I n )
Etc.
50
Class Problem 1
For the given Bus Impedance matrix(where
subtransient reactances were used) and a
pre-fault voltage of 1 p.u.:
a. Draw the rake equivalent circuit
b. A three-phase short circuit occurs at bus
2. Determine the subtransient fault
current and the voltages at buses 1, 2,
and 3 during the fault.
.12 .08 .04

Zbus = j .08 .12 .06 pu
.04 .06 .08
51
52
Symmetrical Components is often referred to
as the language of the Relay Engineer but it
is important for all engineers that are
involved in power.
The terminology is used extensively in the
power engineering field and it is important
to understand the basic concepts and
terminology.
53
Used to be more important as a calculating
technique before the advanced computer age.
Is still useful and important to make sanity
checks and back-of-an-envelope calculation.
We will be studying 3-phase systems in
general. Previously you have only considered
balanced voltage sources, balanced impedance
and balanced currents.
54
Ib
bb
Ia
a
Vb
Va
ZY
ZY
n
Vc
Vb
ZY
Va
Vc
Ic
Balanced load supplied by balanced voltages results
in balanced currents
This is a positive sequence system,
In Symmetrical Components we will be studying
55
unbalanced systems with one or more dissymmetry.
For the General Case of 3 unbalanced voltages
VC
6 degrees of freedom
VA
VB
Can define 3 sets of voltages designated as positive
sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence
56
Common a operator identities
a =1/120o
a2 = 1/240o
a3 = 1/0o
a4 = 1/120o
1+a+a2 = 0
(a)(a2) = 1
57
Positive Sequence
VC1
VA1
120o
120o
120o
VA1 = VA1
VB1 = a2 VA1
VC1 = a VA1
VB1
a is operator 1/120o
58
Negative Sequence
VB2
VA2
120o
120o
120o
VC2
VA2 = VA2
VB2 = aVA2
VC2 = a2 VA2
a is operator 1/120o
59
Zero Sequence
VA0
VB0
VC0
VA0 = VB0 = VC0
60
Reforming the phase voltages in terms of the symmetrical
component voltages:
VA = VA0 + VA1 + VA2
VB = VB0 + VB1 + VB2
VC = VC0 + VC1 + VC2
What have we gained? We started with 3 phase voltages
and now have 9 sequence voltages. The answer is that the 9
sequence voltages are not independent and can be defined
in terms of other voltages.
61
Rewriting the sequence voltages in term of the Phase A
sequence voltages:
VA = VA0 + VA1 +VA2
Drop A
VB = VA0 + a2 VA1 + aVA2
VC = VA0 + aVA1 +a2 VA2
VA = V0 + V1 +V2
VB = V0 + a2 V1 + aV2
VC = V0 + aV1 +a2 V2
Suggests matrix notation:

VA
V0
VB = 1
a2
V1
VC
a2
V2
[VP] =
[A]
[VS]
62
We shall consistently apply:
[VP] = Phase Voltages
[VS] = Sequence Voltages
1 1 1
[A] = 1 a2 a
1 a a2
[VP] = [A][VS]
Pre-multiplying by [A]-1
[A]-1[VP] = [A]-1[A][VS]= [I][VS]
[VS] = [A]-1 [VP]
63
Operator a
a = 1 /120o = - .5 + j .866
a2 = 1 / 240o = - .5 - j.866
a3 = 1 / 360o = 1
a4 = 1 / 480o = 1 / 120o = a
a5 = a2 etc.
1 + a + a2 = 0
a - a2 = j 3
1 - a2 = 3 /30o
1/a = a2 Relationships of a can greatly expedite calculations
( Find [A]-1)
64
Inverse of A
1 1
[A] = 1 a 2
1 a
a
2
a
1 1
T
Step 1:
[
A] = 1 a 2
Transpose
1 a
1
a
a 2
Step 2: Replace each element by its minor

1
2
2
2
a a aa
1 aa
2
2
a 1
2 a a a 1
2
2
a 1 a 1
3 a a
65
Inverse of A
1
2
2
2
a a aa
1 aa
2
2
a 1
2 a a a 1
2
2
1
a
a
3 aa
Step 3: Replace each element by its cofactor

1
2
3
a a a a a a
2
2
a 1 1 a
2 a a
2
2
1
a
a
3 aa
66
Inverse of A
a a a a a a
2
2
a 1 1 a
2 a a
2
2
1
a
a
3 aa
1 1
[A] = 1 a 2
1 a
a
2
a
Step 4: Divide by Determinant
D = 1(a a ) + 1(a a ) + 1(a a ) = 3(a a )

2
a 1
a 1 a a 1
=
=a 2
=a
2
2
a 1
aa
aaa
2
1 a 1 1 a 1
2
= =a
=
2
aa
a 1 a a
67
Inverse of A
[A]
1 1
1
= 1 a
3
2
1 a
1
2
a
a
68
Previous relationships were developed for voltages.
Same could be developed for currents such that:
IA
[IP] = IB
IC
I0
[IS] = I1
I2
[IP] = [A] [IS]
[IS] = [A]-1 [IP]
1 1 1
[A] = 1 a2 a
1 a a2
[A]-1
1 1 1
= 1/3 1 a a2
1 a2 a
69
Significance of I0
I0
I1
I2
1 1 1
= 1/3 1 a a2
1 a2 a
IA
IB
IC
I0 = 1/3 ( IA + IB + IC)
IA
In = IA + IB + IC = 3 I0
IC
In
IB
For a balanced system I0 = 0

For a delta system I0 = 0
(Examples 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3)
70
Example 8.1
277 / 0 o 277 a
o
[V P ] = 277 / 120 = 277a 2 b
277 / 120 o 277a c
Find [VS] (Sequence
voltages)
1 1
V0
277
1
[VS ] = V1 = [ A] [VP ] = 1 a
3
V2
1 a 2
1 1 0 0
o
2 2
a a = 277/ 0 1

a a 0 2
71
Example 8.2
Y connected load with reverse sequence
10 / 0 o
1 a
o
[I P ] = 10/ 120 = (10) a b
10 / 120 o
a 2 c
Find IS
(Sequence Currents)
1 1
10
1
[I S ] = [ A] [I P ] = 1 a
3
1 a 2
1 1 0 0
2
a
a =
0
1

a a 2 10 / 0 o 2
72
Ia = 10 /
0o
Example 8.3
I0
[I S ] = I 1 = [ A]1 [I P ]
I 2
Ic = 10
/120o
In
Ib =
o
1 1
10
[I S ] = 1 a
3
1 a 2
1 1 a
a 2 0 b

a a c
2
o
a
3.33 / 60 0
1+ a
10
10

o
[I S ] = 2 = 2 = 6.67 / 0 1
3
3
2
o
2
1
a
a
3
.
33
/
60
+
I n = 3 I 0 = 10 / 60 o
73
Sequence Impedance for

Shunt Elements
Sequence Networks of balanced Y elements( Loads, Reactors,
IA
capacitor banks, etc.)
IC
VA
ZY
VC
VB
IB
ZY
n
ZY
Zn
.
VA = IAZy + (IA + IB +IC) Zn = (ZY + Zn)IA + ZnIB + ZnIC
VB = ZnIA + (ZY + Zn)IB + ZnIC
VC = ZnIA + ZnIB +(ZY + Zn)IC
74

Shunt Elements
Zn
Zn IA
VA ZY +Zn
V = Z
Z
Z
Z
I
+
n
Y
n
n
B
B

VC Zn
Zn
ZY +Zn IC
[VP] = [ZP] [IP]
(1)
Transform to sequence reference frame. We know:
[VP] = [A] [VS] and [IP] = [A] [IS], Substitute in(1)
[A][VS] = [ZP][A][IS] premultiply both sides by [A]-1
[VS] = [A]-1[ZP][A][IS] = [ZS][IS]
where: [ZS] = [A]-1[ZP][A]
75

Shunt Elements
Zn 1 1 1
Z00 Z01 Z02 1 1 1 ZY +Zn Zn
Z Z Z = 11 a a2 Z
1 a2 a
Z
Z
Z
+
[ZS] = 10 11 12
n
Y
n
n
3
Z20 Z21 Z22 1 a2 a Zn
Zn ZY +Zn1 a a2
0
ZY + 3 Z n
[Z S ] = 0
0
0
ZY
0
0
Z Y
0
1
2
76

Shunt Elements
V 0 Z Y + 3 Z n
V =
0
1

V 2
0
0
ZY
0
0 I0
0 I 1
Z Y I 2
V0 = Z00 I0 where: Z00 = ZY +3 Zn

V1 = Z11 I1
V2 = Z22 I2 where Z11 = Z22 = ZY
Systems are uncoupled: Zero sequence currents only
produce zero sequence voltages. Positive sequence
currents only produce positive sequence voltages, etc.
77

Shunt Elements
We can form sequence circuits which represent the equations:
V0
I0
3 Zn
Zero sequence circuit Zn

only in zero Sequence No
neutral: Zn = infinity Solid
ground: Zn = 0
Positive sequence circuit
ZY
V1
I1
ZY
V2
I2
ZY
Negative sequence circuit

78

Shunt Elements
Delta connected shunt element
IA
.
A
Z
Z
IB
B
Z
C
IC
Sequence circuits
V0
I0
ZY
open
V1
I1
V2
I2
Z/3
Z/3
79

Shunt Elements
For the general case: [ZS] = [A]-1[ZP][A]
Z 00 Z 01 Z 02
1 1 1 Z AA Z AB Z AC 1 1 1
1
Z
1 a 2 a
2
=
Z
Z
1
a
a
Z
Z
Z
11
12
BB
BC
10
BA
3
Z 20 Z 21 Z 22
1 a 2 a Z CA Z CB Z CC 1 a a 2
If there is symmetry: ZAA = ZBB = ZCC and ZAB = ZBC = ZCA
we could perform multiplication and get:
0
0
Z AA + 2 Z AB
[Z S ] = 0
Z AA Z AB
0
0
0
Z AA Z AB
We see that: Z11 = Z22 and Z00 > Z11
80
Series Element Sequence Impedance

IA
ZAB
IB
VA
VB
n
IC
ZBC
VC
VAA
ZAA
VBB
ZCA
ZBB
VAA
VB
ZCC
V A V A' Z AA
V V = Z
B'
BA
B
VC VC ' Z CA
VC
Z AB
Z BB
Z CB
VA
Z AC I A
Z BC I B
Z CC I C
81

Matrices in compact form
[VP]-[VP] = [ZP] [IP]
We can transform to the symmetrical component reference frame:
[VS] - [VS] = [ZS] [IS] where:
[ZS] = [A]-1[ZP][A]
If ZAA = ZBB = ZCC and ZAB = ZBC = ZCA ,
[ZS] will be the diagonal matrix:
Z0
[Z S ] =
Z1
Z 2
82

The sequence circuits for series elements are:
V0
I0
Z0
V 0
o n0
V1
I1
Z1
V 1
o n1
V2
I2
Z2
o n2
V 2
83

We have quickly covered the calculation of
Positive and Negative sequence parameters for
3-phase lines. To determine the zero sequence
impedance we need to take the effect of the
earth into account. This is done by using
Carsons Method which treats the earth as an
equivalent conductor.
84
Rotating Machine Sequence Networks

ZK
ZAC
ZCA
+ EC
-
IC
ZBC
n
ZCB
EA +
ZAB
EB
ZK
ZK
ZBA
IA
eA = Em Cos t
eB = Em Cos(t 120o)
eC = Em Cos(t + 120o)
In phasor form:
EA= ERMS / 0 = E
EB = ERMS /-120o = a2 E
o = a E
E
=
E
/120
C
RMS
IB
B
85

EA= ERMS / 0 = E
EB = ERMS /-120o = a2 E or
EC = ERMS /120o = a E
[E ] = [ A] [E ]
1
Sg
Pg
[E ]
Pg
1 1
1
= 1 a
3
2
1 a
E a
= a 2 E b
aE c
1 E
a 2 a 2 E =
a aE
0 0
E
1
0 2
Therefore, only the positive sequence system has a

generator voltage source.
86

ZK
ZAC
ZCA
+ EC
-
IC
EA
ZBC
n
ZCB
IA
ZK
ZAB Z
BA
ZAB = ZBC = ZCA = ZR

ZBA = ZCB = ZAC = ZQ
EB
ZK
IB
Machine is not passive:

Mutual Reactances: ZAB ZBA , etc.
87

From the machine diagram we can write:
EA Z K + Z N
E = Z + Z
N
B Q
E C Z R + Z N
ZR + ZN
ZK + ZN
ZQ + Z N
ZQ + Z N I A
Z R + Z N IB

Z K + Z N I C
[E PG ] = [Z PG ][I P ]
ZG0
[Z SG ] = [ A]1 [Z PG ][ A] = 0
0
Z G1
0
0 0
0 1 uncoupled
Z G 2 2
Where: ZG0 = ZK + ZR + ZQ
ZG1 = ZK + a2 ZR + a ZQ
ZG2 = ZK + a ZR + a2 ZQ
88

Generator sequence circuits are uncoupled
I0
ZG0
3Zn
V0
+
EG1
ZG1
I1
V1
ZG2
I2
Generator
Terminal
Voltages
V2
89

Sequence impedances are unequal
ZG1 varies depending on the application
a) Steady state, power flow studies: ZG1 = ZS(synchronous)
b) Stability studies
ZG1 = Z (transient)
c) Short circuit and transient studies: ZG1 = Z (subtransient)
Motor circuits are similar but there is no voltage

source for an induction motor.
(Example 8.6)
90
Example 8.6
- [ EP ] +
[ IP ]
Z L = 1.0 / 85o
Load
Z = 30 / 40o
Unbalanced Source
277 / 0o a
o
[EP ] = 260/ 120 b
295/ 115o c
Find phase Currents [ IP ]
ZY =
= 10 / 40 o = 7.66 + j 6.43
Z L = 1/ 85 o = .087 + j .996
Z 0 = Z 1 = Z 2 = Z Y + Z L = 7.747 + j 7.426 = 10.72 / 43.7 o
91
Example 8.6
- [ EP ] +
[ IP ]
277 / 0o
o
[EP ] = 260/ 120
295/ 115o
1 1
[E S ] = [ A]1 [E P ] = 1 1 a
3
1 a 2
Z L = 1.0 / 85o
Load
Z = 30 / 40o
1 277 / 0 o 15.91/ 62.1o 0
2
o
o
a 260 / 120 = 277.1/ 1.77 1
a 295 / 115 o 9.22 / 216.6 o 2
92
I0
10.72
/43.7o
+
15.91
/62.1o
Example 8.6
I1
10.72
/43.7o
+
277.1 /1.77o
I2
+
9.22
/216.6o
I0 = 0
10.72
/43.7o
277 / 1.77 o
I1 =
10.72 / 43.7 o
I 1 = 25.84 / 45.5 o A
9.22 / 216.6 o
I2 =
10.72 / 43.7 o
I 2 = 0.86 / 172.9 o A
93
Example 8.6
0
o
[I S ] = 25.84/ 45.5 1
o
0.86 / 172.9 2
Amps
25.17 / 46.7 o a
o
[I P ] = [ A][I S ] = 25.72/ 196.4 b
26.64 / 73.8 o c
Amps
How would you do problem without Symmetrical Components?

94
Transformer Connections for Zero Sequence

P
Ic
Ia
Ib
I
C
IB
IA
Ia + Ib + Ic is not necessarily 0 if we only

look at P circuit but Ia = nIA Ib = nIB and
Ic = nIC Therefore since IA + IB + IC = 0 ,
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 and I0 = 0
No zero sequence
Q0
P0
Z0
current flow
through
95
transformer
n
0

P
Ic
Ia
Ib
IC
IB
IA
Ia + Ib + Ic is not necessarily 0 and IA + IB + IC is not

necessarily. Therefore I0 is not necessarily 0,
P0
I0
I0 can flow through the transformer.

Q0
Z0
n0
96

P
IA Q
Ic
P0
Ib
Ic/n
IB
Ic/n
IC
Ia Ib/n
Ia + Ib + Ic is not necessarily 0 and Ia/n + Ib/n + Ic/n is

not necessarily 0 but IA + IB + IC = 0
I0
Q0 Provides a zero sequence
Z0
current source
n0
97

P
IA Q
Ic/n
Ic
Ib
Ia
Ib/n
IB
I
Ic/
n
C
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 Ia/n + Ib/n + Ic/n is not necessarily 0,
but IA + IB + IC = 0
No zero sequence current
flow
P0
Q0
Z0
n0
98

P
P
Ia
Ib
Ic
IA
IB
IC
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
P0
IA + IB + IC = 0
No zero sequence current
flow
Q0
Z0
n0
99
Power
In
Sequence
Networks
For a single phase circuit we know that:
S = EI* = P + jQ
In a 3-phase system we can add the power in
each phase such that:
SP = EAIA* + EBIB* + ECIC*
Written in matrix form
[S P ] = [E A
EB
I A *
E C ] I B *
I C *
100
Power in Sequence Networks

From our previous definitions:
[SP] = [EP]T [IP]* (1)
If we want the apparent power in the
symmetrical component reference frame, we
can substitute the following:
[EP] = [A][ES]
[EP]T =[ES]T [A]T
[IP] = [A][IS]
[IP]* = [A]*[IS]*
Into (1) resulting in [SP] = [ES]T [A]T[A]*[IS]*

which results in: [SP] = 3[ES]T [IS]* = 3[SS]
Where: [SS] = E0I0* + E1I1* + E2I2*
101
Class Problem 2
One line of a three-phase generator is open
circuited, while the other two are shortcircuited to ground. The line currents are:
Ia=0, Ib= 1500/90 and Ic=1500/-30
a. Find the symmetrical components of
these currents
b. Find the ground current
102
Class Problem 3
The currents in a delta load are:
Iab=10/0, Ibc= 20/-90 and Ica=15/90
Calculate:
a. The sequence components of the delta
load currents
b. The line currents Ia, Ib and Ic which feed
the delta load
c. The sequence components of the line
currents
103
Class Problem 4
The source voltages given below are applied
to the balanced-Y connected load of 6+j8
ohms per phase:
Vag=280/0, Vbg= 290/-130 and Vcg=260/110
The load neutral is solidly grounded.
a. Draw the sequence networks
b. Calculate I0, I1 and I2, the sequence
components of the line currents.
c. Calculate the line currents Ia, Ib and Ic
104
Unsymmetrical Faults
105
Phase and Symmetrical Component

Relationship
Phase Reference Frame
IA
IB
IC
V
VB
V
A
n
C
Symmetrical Components Reference Frame
n0
n1
n2
I0
I1
I2
V0
V1
V2
106
Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis

For the study of unsymmetrical faults some, or
all, of the following assumptions are made:
Power system balanced prior to fault
Load current neglected
Transformers represented by leakage
reactance
Transmission lines represented by series
reactance
107
Assumptions Continued
Synchronous machines represented by constant
voltage behind reactance(x0, x1. x2)
Non-rotating loads neglected
Small machines neglected
Effect of Y transformers may be included
108
Faulted 3-Phase Systems

Sequence networks are uncoupled for normal system
conditions and for the total system we can represent 3
uncoupled systems: positive, negative and zero.
When a dissymmetry is applied to the system in the form
of a fault, we can connect the sequence networks
together to yield the correct sequence currents and
voltages in each sequence network.
From the sequence currents and voltages we can find the
corresponding phase currents and voltages by
transformation with the [A] matrix
109
Faulted 3-Phase Systems

To represent the dissymmetry we only need to
identify 2 points in the system: fault point
and neutral point:
f0
EF0
IF0
Zero
System
f1
f2
IF1
EF1
Positive
System
IF2
EF2
Negative
System
n2
n0
n1
The sequence networks are connected together from
knowledge of the type of fault and fault impedance
Example 9.1
110
Example 9.1
Bus 1
Bus 2
X1=X2 =20
AC
100MVA
13.8kV
X=0.15pu
X2 = 0.17pu
X0 =0.05pu
100MVA
13.8:138kV
X = 0.1pu
X0 = 60
AC
100MVA
138:13.8kV
X = 0.1pu
Prefault Voltage = 1.05

pu
100MVA
13.8kV
X=0.20pu
X2 = 0.21pu
X0 =0.05pu
Xn = 0.05pu
Draw the positive, negative and zero sequence

.
diagrams for the system on 100MVA, 13.8 kV base in
the zone of the generator
Line Model:
ZB =
(138)2
100
190.4
Z1 = Z 2 =
j 60
j 20
= j 0.315 pu
= j 0.105 pu Z 0 =
190.4
190.4
111
Example 9.1
1
j.05
J0.315
AC
J0.1
J0.1
.
AC
J0.1
j.15
AC
1
j.15
J0.1
J0.105
J0.1
AC
+
AC
1.05 /
1
j.17
n0
1.05 / 0o
0o
J0.1
n1
J0.105
J0.1
.
J0.2
AC
AC
2
.
J0.21
AC
AC
.
AC
AC
112
n2
Example 9.1
Reduce the sequence networks to their
thevenin equivalents as viewed from Bus 2
1
j.05
AC
J0.315
J0.1
J0.1
.
AC
J0.1
AC
j.15
n
0
Zero Sequence Thevenin Equivalent

from Bus 2
f0
J0.25
n0
113
Example 9.1
1
j.15
J0.1
J0.105
J0.1
AC
+
AC
1.05 /
0o
1.05 / 0o
.
J0.2
AC
AC
n1
Positive Sequence Thevenin Equivalent
from Bus 2
f1
Z thev
j (.455)(.2)
=
= j .139
.655
J0.139
+
1.05 / 0 o
n1
114
Example 9.1
1
j.17
J0.1
J0.105
J0.1
2
.
J0.21
AC
AC
.
AC
AC
n2
Negative Sequence Thevenin Equivalent
from Bus 2
f2
Z thev
j (.475)(.21)
=
= j .146
.685
J0.146
n2
115
Single Line-to-Ground Fault

A
B
C
IF Z EF
An F A
I FA
[I FP ] = 0
0
IF
B
IFC
1 1
[I FS ] = [ A]1 [I FP ] = 1 1 a
3
1 a 2
EFA = IFA ZF
EF0 + EF1 + EF2 = (IF0 + IF1 + IF2) ZF
1 I FA
I FA
1
a 2 0 = I FA
a 0
I FA
IF0 = IF1 = IF2

EF0 + EF1 + EF2 = 3IF0 ZF
116

3ZF
f0
IF0
f1
IF1
EF Zero
0
System
n0
f2
IF2
EF1 Positive
System
n1
EF2 Negative
System
n2
117

f0
EF0
EF1
EF2
IF0
Zero
System
n0
IF1 f1
Positive
System
n1
IF2
f2
Negative
System
3 ZF
n2
118
Example 9.3
For the system of Example 9.1 there is a bolted SingleLine-to-Ground fault at Bus 2.
Find the fault currents in each phase and the phase
voltages at the fault point.
f1
f0
IF0
IF1
J0.25
n0
IF 0 = IF1 = IF 2
J0.139
+
1.05 / 0 o
n1
f2
IF2
J0.146
n2
1.05 / 0 o
=
= j1.96
j .25 + j .139 + j .146
119
Example 9.3
IF0 = IF1 = IF2 = -j1.96
f1
f0
EF0
J0.25
n0
EF1
J0.139
+
1.05 / 0 o
n1
f2
EF2
J0.146
n2
VF 0 = ( j1.96)( j .25) = .491 pu

VF 1 = 1.05 ( 1.96)( j .139) = .777 pu
VF 2 = ( j1.96)( j .146) = .286 pu
120
Example 9.3
[I FP ] = [ A][I FS ]
I FA 1 1
I = 1 a 2
FB
I FC 1 a
1 j1.96 j 5.88 pu a
0
a j1.96 =

b
0
a 2 j1.96
c
[E FP ] = [ A][E FS ]
E FA 1 1
E = 1 a 2
FB
E FC 1 a
0
1 .491
a
a .777 = 1.179 / 231o pu b
2
o
a .286 1.179 / 128.7 pu c
Note: Unfaulted phase voltages are higher

than the source voltage.
121
Example 9.3a
Bus 1
IL
Bus 2
AC
AC
IF
I F 0 j1.96
I = j1.96
F1
I F 2 j1.96
I FA j 5.88 pu
I =
0
FB
0
I FC
SLG
Fault
.
Find fault current in the transmission line, I L

1) Find ILS
2) Find ILP
122
Zero Sequence
1
j.05
AC
J0.315
J0.1
I L0 = 0
J0.1
2(f0)
-j1.96
AC
J0.1
.
AC
j.15
n
0
I L0 =0
123
Positive Sequence
1
j.15
J0.1
J0.105
e j30 : 1
AC
+
AC
1.05 /
j.455
I T1
2
f1
j .2
-j1.96
n1
.2
= ( j1.96)
= j .6
.655
I L1
e j30 : 1
SLG
1.05 / 0o
0o
n1
IT 1
J0.1
.
J0.2
AC
AC
I T1
f1 -j1.96
n1
I L1 = 0.6 / 60
124
Negative Sequence
1
j.17
J0.1
J0.105
J0.1
e -j30 : 1
AC
SLG
.
J0.21
AC
.
AC
n2
j.475 2
I T2
j .2
f2 -j1.96
n2
IT 2
.21
= ( j1.96)
= j .6
.685
I L2
I T2
e -j30 : 1
f2 -j1.96
n2
I L 2 = 0.6/ 120o
125
Example 9.3a
Bus 1
IL
Bus 2
AC
AC
IF
0 . 0
[I LS ] = .6/ 60 o 1
.6 / 120 o 2
1 1
[I PL ] = [ A][I PS ] = 1 a 2
1 a
SLG
Fault
0
1
j1.039 pu a
a .6 / 60 o =
0
b

a 2 .6 / 120 o j1.039 pu c
126
Line to Line Fault

A
B
C
IFA
0
[I FP ] = I FB
I FB
IFB
EF
nA
EF
B
IFC
EF
ZF
1 1
[I FS ] = [ A]1 [I FP ] = 1 1 a
3
1 a 2
E FA
[E FP ] = E FB
E FB I FB Z F
1 1
[EFS ] = 1 1 a
3
1 a 2
0
1 0
1
2
a
I FB =
j 3 I FB
3
a I FB
j 3 I FB
IF0 = 0
IF1 = IF2
I F 1 = j 3 I FB so I FB =
EFA
1
EFA + 2 EFB I FB Z F
= 1 E E a2 I Z
a 2
EFB
FB
FB F
3 FA
EFA EFB aI FB Z F
a EFB I FB Z F
a2 a
EF1 EF 2 =
IFBZF = ( j 3)IFBZF = j 3IFBZ F= IF1 ZF
3
EF1 = EF2 + IF1ZF
0
1
2
127
IF1
j 3
Line to Line Fault

ZF
f0
EF0
IF0
Zero
System
n0
IF1
f1
EF1 Positive
System
n1
IF2
f2
EF Negative
System
2
n2
128
Example 9.4
For the system of Example 9.1 there is a bolted

Line-to-Line fault at Bus 2.
Find the fault currents in each phase and the phase
voltages at the fault point.
f1
f2
f0
IF1 J0.139
IF1
+
J0.146 E =E
IF0 J0.25 E
F1
F2
F0
1.05 / 0 o
n2
n0
n1
1.05 / 0 o
IF1 = IF 2 =
= j 3.69 pu
IF0 = 0
j .139 + j .146
E F 1 = E F 2 = I F 2 ( j .146 ) = ( j 3.69 )( j .146 ) = 0.537 pu
EF 0 = 0
129
Example 9.4
I FA 1 1
I = 1 a 2
FB
I FC 1 a
1 0
0
0
a

a j 3.69 = j 3 ( j 3.69) = 6.39 pu b
2
a j 3.69 j 3 ( j 3.69) 6.39 pu c
E FA 1 1
E = 1 a 2
FB
E FC 1 a
1 0 1.07 pu a
a .537 = .537 pu b

2
a .537 .537 pu c
130
2 Line to Ground Fault

A
B
C
IFA
EF
nA
IFA = 0 = IF0 + IF1 + IF2

IFB
EF
B
IFC
ZF
EF
E FA
E FA
[E FP ] = E FB = ( I FB + I FC )Z F
E FC ( I FB + I FC )Z F
Since IFA = 0, IFB + IFC = 3IF0

1 1
[EFS ] = 1 1 a
3
1 a 2
1 EFA EFA / 3 + 2 I F 0 Z F
a 2 3I F 0 Z F = EFA / 3 I F 0 Z F

a 3I F 0 Z F EFA / 3 I F 0 Z F
0
1
2
EF0 EF1 = 3 IF0 ZF so EF0 = EF1 + 3IF0 ZF and EF1 = EF2

131
2 Line to Ground Fault
3ZF
f0
EF0
IF0
Zero
System
n0
IF1
f1
EF1 Positive
System
n1
IF2
f2
EF2 Negative
System
n2
132
Example 9.5
For the system of Example 9.1 there is a 2-line-toground bolted fault at Bus 2.
a) Find the fault currents in each phase
b) Find the neutral current
c) Fault current contribution from motor and generator
Neglect delta-wye transformers
Bus 1
IL
Bus 2
AC
AC
IF
.
2LG
Fault
133
Example 9.5
f1
f0
IF0
J0.25
n0
IF1 =
f2
IF1
J0.139
+
1.05 / 0 o
-
n1
IF2
J0.146
n2
1.05
= j 4.547 pu
(.146)(.25)
j .139 + j
.146 + .25
I F 0 = ( I F 1 )
.146
= j1.674 pu
.146 + .25
I F 2 = I F 0 I F 1 = j1.674 ( j 4.547) = j 2.873 pu
134
Example 9.5
1 1
[I FP ] = 1 a 2
1 a
This image cannot currently be display ed.
1 j1.674
0
a
a j 4.547 = 6.9 / 158.7 o pu b
2
o
a j 2.873 6.9 / 21.3 pu c
I Fn = 3 I F 0 = ( 3)( j1.674) = j 5.02 pu
135
Example 9.5
I GF 0 = 0
I MFO = I F 0 I GF 0 = j1.674 0 = j1.674 pu
j.455 2 j .2
I T1
-j4.547
f1
I GF !
.2
= ( j 4.547 )
= j1.39
.655
n1
I MF 1 = I F 1 I GF 1 = j 4.547 ( j1.39) = j 3.16 pu

j.475
2 j .2
I T2
J2.87
f2 3
n2
I GF 2
.21
= ( j 2.8773)
= j .88
.685
I MF 2 = I F 2 I GF 2 = j 2.873 j .88 = j1.993 pu

136
Example 9.5
1 1
[I GFP ] = 1 a 2
1 a
1 0 j .51 pu
a j1.39 = 1.98 / 172.6 o pu
a 2 j .88 1.98 / 7.4 o pu
1 1
[I MFP ] = 1 a 2
1 a
1 j1.674 j .504 pu
o
a j 3.16 = 5.0 / 153.1 pu
2
o
a j1.99 5.0 / 26.9 pu
137
Example 9.6
Find the fault current contribution from the generator
considering the delta-wye transformer phase shift.
Example 9.5 results
1
j.05
AC
I L0 = 0
J0.315
J0.1
J0.1
2
X
J0.1
2LG .
J1.674 j.1
5
AC
AC
n
0
-j1.39 1
j.15
AC
J0.105
e -j30 : 1
AC
J0.1
1.39/ -60o
AC
1.05 /
-j1.39 2
J0.1
X
-j3.16
.
j30
e :1
2LG J0.2
+
0o
1.05 /
0o
AC
n1
138
Example 9.6
Example 9.5 results
j.88
j.17
.88/ 60o
J0.1
J0.105
e j30 : 1
AC
j.88
e -j30 : 1
J0.1
2
X
2LG
AC
J1.99
AC
Bus 1
.
J0.21
IGP
AC
1 1
[I GP ] = 1 a 2
1 a
n2
IL
Bus 2
X
2LG
Fault
1 0 j .51 pu a
.
o.
a j1.39 = 1.98 / 173 pu b

2
o
a j .88 1.98 / 7 pu c
M
AC
139
T1
Bus 1
Class Problem 5
Bus 3 T3
LINE 1-3
G1
G3
AC
AC
LINE 1-2
Bus 2
LINE 2-3
T4
T2
G4
G2
The system data in p.u. based on SB = 100MVA, VB = 765kV for the lines are:
G1: X1=X2=.18, X0=.07
T1: X=.1
LINE 1-3: X1=X2=.4
G2: X1=X2=.2, X0=.10
T2: X=.1
LINE 1-2: X1=X2=.085 X0=.256
G3: X1=X2=.25, X0=.085
T3: X=.24
LINE 2-3: X1=X2=.4
G4: X1=.34, X2=.45, X0=.085
T4: X=.15
a)
X0=.17
X0=.17
From the perspective of Bus 1, draw the zero, positive and negative sequence networks.
b) Determine the fault current for a 1 L-G bolted fault on Bus 1.
140
Modern Fault Analysis

Methods
141
Modern Fault Analysis Tools

Power Quality Meters (Power Quality Alerts)
Operations Event Recorder (ELV, Electronic
Log Viewer)
Schweitzer Relay Event Capture
Schweitzer Relay SER (Sequential Events
Record)
142
Modern Fault Analysis Example:

Line current diff with step distance
First indication of an event - Power Quality

alert email notifying On-Call Engineer that
there was a voltage sag in the area. This event
was a crane contacting a 69kv line. Time of
event identified.
143
Modern Fault Analysis Example

Event Log Viewer stores breaker operation
events. Search done in ELV using time from
PQ Alert and breakers identified where trip
Ferris and Miller breakers
occurred.
operated.
144

Next the line relays (SEL-311L) at the two
substations are interrogated for a possible event
at this time.Ferris and Miller triggered an
Reclosing enabled at Miller,
event record at this time (HIS additional record is the uncleared
command used in SEL relay) fault after reclosing.
Use command EVE C 1 to capture the event you desire. The C

gives you the digital elements as well as the analog quantities.
145

If the fault distance is not reasonable from the
relays, i.e. the fault distances from each end is
longer then the line length, the fault magnitude
can be modeled in Aspen to determine fault
distance by running interim faults. This
discrepancy in distance can result from tapped
load or large infeed sources.
146

Event capture file is opened in SEL-5601 to
view waveforms and digital elements of event.
Miller initial fault:
147

Unknown
source voltage
Ferris initial fault:
148

Miller reclose operation:
149

This SEL-311L setup is a current differential
with step distance protection.
Analysis from line relay SER to ensure proper
relaying operation:
Question, why didnt Z1G pickup?
150
Questions
151

Symmetrical Componet Fauly Calculation

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Theory Track

Transmission Protection Theory

Power System Problems

Balanced & Unbalanced Systems

Balanced & Unbalanced Systems

Sequence Currents for

Phase Values From Sequence

Phase Values From Sequence

Sequence Values From Phase

Zero Sequence Filter

Zero Sequence Current Filter

Zero Sequence Voltage Filter

Negative Sequence Filter

Ia0 = Ib0 = Ic0

Ic1 is rotated +120

Ic2 is rotated -120

Reconstruct Phase Currents

Positive, Negative, and Zero

Impedance Networks & Fault Type

Calculations are easier

Ohms law still works

Base kVA or MVA

Base Ohms, Amps

Base Ohms, Amps (100 MVA Base)

Ohms to Per Unit

Per Unit to Real Stuff

Converting Between Bases

Zhx = Vh /Ih = Zh + Zx /N2

Equivalent Transformer - Impedance in %

Zero sequence connection depends upon

Sequence Network Connections

Delta Wye Transformer

Delta Wye Transformer

Three Winding Transformer

Problem - Generator Data

Problem - Transformer Data

Three winding transformer nameplate values

Positive & Negative Sequence

Z1 = Ra + j (Xa + Xd) /mile

Positive & Negative Sequence

Zero Sequence Line Impedance

Zero Sequence Line Impedance

Transmission Line Example

Transmission Line Example

GMD = 3(dabdbcdac) = 3(23x23x46)

Transmission Line Example

Z1 Line = (4.52 + j 39.03)100/2302

Transmission Line Example

Transmission Line Example

Long Parallel Lines

Mutual Impedance Example

Mutual Impedance Example

Mutual Impedance Model

Mutual Impedance Model

Mutual Impedance Fault Example

1LG Faults With Mutual Impedances

1LG Faults Without Mutual Impedances

Transmission Line Data

Fault Calculations and

Why We Need Fault Studies

Fault Study Assumptions

Positive Sequence Network

Negative Sequence Network