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Notes on Continuum
Damage Models
Notes on Continuum Damage Mechanics
E.W.V CHAVES and J. OLIVER (2013)
1.1 Introduction
The term Continuum Damage Mechanics has been used to models materials which are
characterized by loss of stiffness, i.e. by a decrease in their stiffness modulus. Damage
models have also been used to simulate different materials (fragile and ductile), which are
fundamentally characterized by irreversible material degradation. Physically speaking, we
can describe the degradation of mechanical material properties as processes in which the
initiation and growth (propagation) of micro-defects such as micro pores and microcracks
take place.
In the pioneering work of Kachanov (1958) the concept of effective stress was introduced,
and by using continuum damage he solved problems related to creep in metals. Rabotnov
(1963) gave the problem physical meaning by suggesting we measure how the sectional area
has reduced by means of the damage parameter. Nowadays, Continuum Damage
Mechanics has become an important tool and is a consistent theory based on irreversible
thermodynamic processes (the Clausius-Duhem inequality). Thermodynamic formalism
was developed by Lemaitre&Chaboche (1985) and among important contributors to our
knowledge about damage mechanics we can include: Mazars (1986), Mazars&PijaudierCabot (1985), Chaboche (1979), Simo&Ju (1987 a,b), Ju(1989), Oliver et al. (1990) and Oller
et al. (1990).
The continuum damage models, from a computational point of view, are very attractive
since these present simple algorithms and are satisfactory for solving large problems.
In this chapter we will present some basic damage models used to study the failure
mechanism after which we can develop more complex ones.
material point
micro
crack
- effective stress
- apparent stress
(11.1)
The equation (11.1) can also be rewritten without altering its outcome as follows:
=
s
s
ss
s s
=
+ 1 = 1
= 1 d
s
s
s
s
(11.2)
sd
represents the amount of the original section which is corrupted,
s
sd = 0
sd
=0=
s
sd = s
sd
= 1 = 0 - The section is completely damaged.
s
The amount s d depends on the stress state or indirectly on . The dimensionless ratio
s
sd
represents the damage variable and is denoted by d = d . Then, the equation in (11.2)
s
s
= (1 d )
0 d 1
(11.3)
=E
where E is Youngs modulus. Then, by substituting (11.3) into (11.4) we can obtain the
constitutive equation for stress in the one-dimensional isotropic damage model:
= (1 d ) E
0 d 1
(11.5)
We can now verify that as the damage variable evolves, the state no longer returns to its
original value. Physically speaking, we can interpret this as once the material has suffered
damage this will be permanent. Hence, we can conclude that d 0 , which characterizes an
irreversible process. Now, the equation in (11.5) can still be written as:
= E sec_d
E sec_d = (1 d ) E
with
(11.6)
where E sec_d is the damage secant stiffness modulus with which we can observe that the damage
variable can be interpreted as a measure of the loss of stiffness modulus of the material.
In general, materials have a yield stress that separates the elastic (reversible process) from
the inelastic zone (irreversible process). In the strain space, we can represent the elastic
limit by the variable 0 , (see Figure 11.2), in which the damage process has not yet begun,
i.e.:
d =0
if
< 0
(11.7)
s d = 0
= (1 d ) E
(0 d 1)
if
d =0
(11.8)
< 0
Now, by starting from the above equation we can obtain the energy equation in the system
as follows:
Y = = (1 d ) E
1
2
1
2
Y = (1 d )Y e
(11.9)
=Y e
Loading(damage)
Elastic limit
1
0
E sec_d = (1 d ) E
effective stress
= (1 d )
(11.10)
or explicitly as follows:
Y = (1 d ) Y e = (1 d ) : C e :
1
2
(11.11)
where Y e ( ) is the elastic strain energy density, which is a function of strain only, and C e
is the elasticity tensor (or elastic stiffness tensor).
1.2.2.2 Internal Energy Dissipation and the Constitutive Equations
The damage model has thermodynamic consistency, and so, entropy inequality is fulfilled.
One way to express this entropy inequality is by means of the alternative form of the
Clausius-Planck inequality, (see Chapter 5), which is expressed by:
J
m3
Dint = : D h T + Y 0
(11.12)
Note that the terms : D , h T , Y have the unit of energy per unit volume (density
energy). In a small deformation regime D holds, and by considering the isothermal
process we have T = 0 , so, the equation in (11.12) becomes:
Dint = : Y 0
(11.13)
Y Y
: +
d
Y (, d ) =
(11.14)
Then, the rate of change of the free energy Y = Y (, d ) can be evaluated as follows:
Next, by substituting (11.14) into the internal energy dissipation given in (11.13) we obtain:
Dint = : Y (, d ) = :
Y Y
Y Y
d 0
d =
:
:
d
d
(11.15)
Note that the above inequality must hold for any admissible thermodynamic process, so, let
Y
must also be true for any process. Additionally, if we have a process such that , the
Y
only way for the entropy inequality to be satisfied is when =
holds with which we
obtain the constitutive equation for stress. Thus, the entropy inequality becomes:
Y
Y
Y
d 0
d =
Dint = :
d
d
=0
(11.16)
Y
= Y e , thus
d
Dint = Y e d 0
(11.17)
d 0
(11.18)
where by definition Y e 0 . Then, to satisfy the inequality (11.17), the rate of change of the
damage parameter must satisfy:
Then, by means of thermodynamic considerations we can draw the conclusion that:
=
d 0
(11.19)
We can also express the rate of change of the Helmholtz free energy by means of the
equation in (11.11), i.e.:
Y = Y e (1 d ) d Y e = (1 d ) : C e : d Y e = : d Y e
(11.20)
Next, the rate of change of the elastic strain energy, Y e = 12 : C e : , was obtained as
follows:
1
Y e = ( : C e : + : C e : + : C e : )
(11.21)
where C e = 0 , since C e is constant, and as the elasticity tensor features major symmetry
e
( C eklij = C ijkl
), the equation in (11.21) becomes:
1
1
e
e
e
kl )
kl + ij C ijkl
kl ) = ( kl C eklij ij + ij C ijkl
Y e = ( ij C ijkl
2
e
= ij C ijkl
kl = : C e : = : =
(11.22)
1
:
(1 d )
Y ( , d )
(1 d ) 1 pq C epqkl kl = (1 d ) 1 C epqkl pq kl
=
ij
ij
ij
2
2
pq
1
= (1 d ) C epqkl kl
+ pq kl
ij
ij
2
1 pq + qp
[1 ( kl + lk )]
1
= (1 d ) C epqkl kl 2
+ pq 2
2
ij
ij
1
1
1
= (1 d ) C epqkl kl d pi d qj + d qi d pj + pq d ki d lj + d li d kj
2
2
2
1 1
1
1
e
e
= (1 d ) kl C ijkl
+ C ejikl + pq C epqij + C epqji = (1 d ) kl C ijkl
+ pq C epqij
2 2
2
2
[(
)]
(11.23)
where we have taken into account the minor symmetry of the elasticity tensor, i.e.
e
C ijkl
= C ejikl , C epqij = C epqji . Note also that the indexes p , q are dummy indexes, so we can
exchange them for k and l without altering the expression. Additionally, by taking into
e
account the major symmetry of the elasticity tensor, C ijkl
= C eklij , we obtain:
e
ij = (1 d ) C ijkl
kl
(11.24)
Y ( , d )
= (1 d ) C e : = (1 d )
(11.25)
(11.26)
and C e is the elasticity tensor (fourth-order definite positive tensor) which contains the
elastic mechanical properties. Remember that C e can be represented in terms of the Lam
constants ( l , m ) as follows:
C e = l1 1 + 2 m I
e
C ijkl
= ld ij d kl + m d ik d jl + d il d jk
(11.27)
where 1 is the second-order unit tensor, and I I sym is the symmetric fourth-order unit
tensor, whose components are expressed in terms of the Kronecker delta ( d ij ) as follows:
1
(1) ij = d ij =
0
if
if
i= j
i j
sym
I ijkl
(I) ijkl = ijkl =
1
d ik d jl + d il d jk
2
(11.28)
Then, by analyzing the constitutive equation in (11.25) we can put in evidence the
following sentences:
Since the damage parameter is a scalar, the stiffness degradation is isotropic;
We can calculate the stress immediately once we know the current values of
(strain) and d (internal variable);
We can interpret the equation in (11.25) as the sum of elastic and inelastic parts, i.e.:
e
e
= (1 d ) C e : = C
: = e i
: d
C
elastic
inelastic
(11.29)
We can then define the elastic-damage secant stiffness tensor for the isotropic damage
model as:
C sec_d = (1 d ) C e
(11.30)
Let us now consider a uniaxial case, (see Figure 11.4), where the material is loaded until the
stress state reaches the point P represented in Figure 11.4, after which unloading occurs,
with the unloading path being that indicated by the slope E sec_d = (1 d ) E defined in
Figure 11.4.
1.2.2.3 Ingredients of the Damage Model
The damage constitutive model is completely determined when the damage variable d t is
known at each time step t of the loading/unloading process. Then, we can define the
following elements of the constitutive equation:
The damage surface and damage criterion. The damage surface defines the elastic
limit, and the damage criterion establishes when the material is in a loading or in a
elastic process, and;
Dissipated energy
E
1
E sec_d = (1 d ) E
The norm is a measure of distance and so is a scalar. Next, we will define a simple norm in
the stress space denoted by t (equivalent stress), and in the strain space denoted by t .
The latter is also known as the equivalent strain:
1
e
e
: Ce :
;
e 1 =
= Ce = : C : = 2
C
t =
t = (1 d )t
(11.31)
Note that t and t are surface equations (ellipsoids) that characterize the stress state at
the current point (see Figure 11.5). The proof of (11.31) now follows:
t = : C e : = (1 d ) : = (1 d )2 : = (1 d ) :
1
t = (1 d )t (11.32)
t = :C : = :
e
In order to better describe material behavior, others norms will be introduced (see
subsection 11.2.4).
The Damage Criterion
Next we will define the damage criterion in the stress and strain space:
F (t , q ) = t q (r ) 0 and G(t , r ) = t r 0
stress space
strain space
(11.33)
starts to fail (initial damage) when the energy norm exceeds the value r0 . Later we will
relate the variables r and q to the damage variable.
2
t = (1 d )t
G(t , r ) = 0
t
F (t , q ) = 0
1
3
E := { G(t , r ) 0 }
(11.34)
E := { F (t , q) 0 }
(11.35)
When it holds that F (t , q) = 0 , in the stress space, the stress state is on the surface as
indicated in Figure 11.5(b).
The stress space ( E ), (see Eq. (11.35)), can be decomposed into the inner domain
int (E ) (when the stress state is inside the surface), and other by the surface itself, E .
We can define then the elastic region in strain and stress respectively as:
intE := { G(t , r ) < 0 }
intE := { F (t , q ) 0 }
(11.36)
E := { G(t , r ) = 0 }
E := { F (t , q ) = 0 }
(11.37)
E = int (E ) E
int (E ) E =
(11.38)
Note that int (E ) is the same as F (t , q) < 0 which describes the elastic region, and E
is the damage surface. Note that when the stress state is at a point inside of the space E it
will also be inside the space E , and when the stress state is on the surface E it will also
be on the surface E . Hence, we can use either the stress or strain space to describe how
the damage evolves, proof of which follows:
t q(r ) 0
(1 d )t (1 d )r 0
t r 0
(11.39)
10
Said damage evolves when the norm t exceeds the maximum value reached by r . Then,
considering (11.33) and (11.31) we can also conclude that:
q (r ) = (1 d )r
(11.40)
In uniaxial cases, damage starts when t exceeds the first damage threshold value r0 .
Then, from the equation in (11.31) and by means of Figure 11.2, we can obtain:
t = : C e : uniaxial
t = 0 E 0 = 0 E =
t r0 = 0
r0 =
Y
E
E=
Y
E
(11.41)
Y
E
2( r ( 2 ) r0 )
3( r (3) t )
4( r ( 4 ) t
)
5( r (5) r ( 4 )
)
t
2
r0
6
5
2
1
t
=0
>0 r
r
3
2
4,
r0
t
r0
r3
r4 = r5
11
The constitutive equation described above uses three types of variables, namely: the free
variable { } ; the internal variable {r}; the dependent variables {Y (, r ), (, d ), d (r )} .
Now, to establish how the internal variable r evolves, let us take the example described in
Figure 11.6. As we can observe, the discretized r between points 2-3 and 3-4 are positive
and between points 1-2 and 4-5 are equal to zero, so we can conclude that r is a
monotonically increasing function, i.e.:
(11.42)
r 0
Graphically, we can see in Figure 11.6 how the variables r and t evolve. Furthermore,
we can also verify that in the range between the points 4-6 G(t , r ) = t r < 0 holds, i.e.
there is an elastic regime.
Thus, we can establish that at time t , r t is given by the following equation:
r t = max r0 , max
t s
s( ,t ]
(11.43)
d (r )
Y
r
=
: Y e
r
(11.44)
Y
= Y e . Then, by using the above equation, the internal
d
d (r )
Y
: + Y e
r 0
r
d (r )
d (r )
Y
: + Y e
r = Y e
r 0
=
r
r
Dint = : Y (, r ) = :
(11.45)
=0
If we compare the above inequality with the one obtained in (11.17) we can conclude that:
d (r )
d =
r = H(t , d ) r
r
(11.46)
where H is the continuum hardening/softening modulus. The evolution laws for r and
for d (damage variable) are then given by:
r = z (, r )
d = z H(t , d )
(11.47)
12
G(t , r ) 0
(11.48)
(11.49)
If we are undergoing loading, this implies that z > 0 , then by means of the Kuhn-Tucker
conditions G(t , r ) = 0 must be fulfilled. Here, the value of z can be obtained by means
of the consistency condition:
G(t , r ) = G(t , r ) = 0
t = r
(11.50)
G < 0
G = 0
G = 0
z = 0
d = 0
(elastic)
z = 0
d = 0
(unloading)
d = 0
(neutral loading)
d > 0
(loading)
z = 0
z > 0
(11.51)
G (t )
, where we have introduced the scalar function G
t
F (t , q ) = F (t ) F (q ) 0
t0
;
;
t0
(11.52)
z 0
G (t , r ) 0
G (t , r )
d = z
r
(11.53)
(11.54)
(11.55)
d (r ) = 1
q(r )
r
(11.56)
13
q(r )
(11.57)
0 d 1
(11.58)
Note that with the new definition of the damage parameter given in (11.56), we can
restructure the equation in (11.46) as follows:
q(r )
r
q (r )
q (r ) r
(
)
(
)
d
r
q
r
d =
r = 1
r =
r
r
r
r
r2
(11.59)
d (r ) = 1
q(r ) H d (r )
d =
r
r2
(11.60)
q (r )
, which is the hardening/softening
r
q (r )
defines the hardening/softening parameter, thus:
r
q [r0 , a ] ;
r [r0 (d = 0), (d = 1) ) ;
q 0 = r0 =
Y
E
(11.61)
(11.62)
r0
q(r ) =
r + H d (r r ) </ 0
0
0
(11.63)
r > r0
Then, taking into account the equation in (11.56) we can still state that:
0
q
d =1 =
r
1
r r0
r0
r
H 1
d
r0
r
) >/ 1
(11.64)
r > r0
q (r )
Hd > 0
r0
Hd < 0
14
The exponential law is described by Figure 11.8. Then we can express q(r ) as follows:
q (r ) = q (q r0 )exp
r
A 1
r0
(11.65)
A>0
with
(q r ) A1 r
q (r )
= A 0 exp 0
r0
r
(11.66)
q (r )
q
q > r0
r0
q < r0
r
r0
Y (, r ) = [1 d (r )] Y e
Damage parameter
d (r ) = 1
Evolution law
q
r
with
Ye =
q [r0 , a ], a ;
Y
= (1 d ) = (1 d ) C e :
r [r0 , )
r = z
Y
r0 = r t =0 =
E
Damage criterion
G(, r ) = t r = : C e : r
Hardening Law
q = H d (r ) r
(H
= q (r ) 0
1
: Ce :
2
d [0,1]
(11.67)
(11.68)
(11.69)
(11.70)
(11.71)
(11.72)
Loading/unloading condition
G<0 ;
z G = 0
Consistency condition
z 0
15
z G = 0
(11.73)
(11.74)
d
= (1 d ) C e : d
(11.75)
b)
(11.76)
x = (1 d )
where
(11.77)
t = : C e :
t
=
=
1
: Ce :
2
1
: Ce :
1
2
) ( : C
: + : C e :
: C e : =
: C e : =
(11.78)
(11.79)
Then, taking into account the equations (11.79) and (11.75), we can find the relationship
between the rates of stress and strain change:
d 1
= (1 d ) C e : d = (1 d ) C e :
:
t t
d 1
( ) :
= (1 d ) C e
t t
(11.80)
16
d 1
( )
C tan_d = (1 d ) C e
t t
(11.81)
t t
r r
r2
r3
r
(11.82)
d q (r ) H d r
.
=
r
r2
Then, by substituting the equation in (11.82) into that in (11.81) we can obtain C tan_d in
terms of q and r :
q (r ) H d r e
e
C
C tan_d = (1 d ) C e
:
:C
(11.83)
Now, the general equation for the elastic-damage stiffness tensor C tan_d (symmetric
fourth-order tensor) is given by:
elastic with (d = 0) The elastic-damage stiffness
C e
C tan_d =
tensor for isotropic damage (11.84)
x C e K C e : : C e loading unloading
model
where, K =
r =0K=0
q(r ) H d r
and x = (1 d ) .
r3
t I = : C e : = (1 d ) :
(11.85)
We can also define the energy norm of the strain tensor (also known as the equivalent
strain), proposed by Simo&Ju(1987), (see equation (11.31)):
t I = : C e : = 2Y e
(11.86)
17
To better illustrate this model, let us consider the state of plane stress ( i 3 = 0 ). In this
case, the yield surface is represented by an ellipse, (see Figure 11.9), where Y > 0 is the
stress limit for tension and compression and the damage surface evolves symmetrically.
2
t = r0
E
1
Elastic
region
Y
b) Stress-strain curve
Figure 11.9: Damage surface in 2D and the uniaxial stress-strain curve for model I.
1.2.4.2 The Tension-Only Damage Model Model II
The tension-only damage model does not take into account failure by compression, i.e. the
material can only fail by tension and here we can define the following stress field:
+ = =
def
where =
+
2
(11.87)
0
x =
x
if x < 0
if x 0
x
Figure 11.10: Ramp function.
Now, by means of spectral representation, we can represent the stress tensor in terms of
eigenvalues (principal stresses) and eigenvectors as follows:
=
( a ) n ( a )
an
(11.88)
a =1
thus:
+ =
n ( a ) n ( a )
(11.89)
a =1
Note, the relationship between the real and effective stress remains valid, i.e.:
+ = (1 d ) +
(11.90)
18
Then, the norm for the isotropic damage model defined previously becomes:
(11.91)
t = 2Y e = : C e : = :
Next, in the tension-only damage model + , it follows that:
1
1
1
1
+ : Ce : =
+ : Ce :
2
(1 d )
(1 d )
t II = + : = + : C e : =
(11.92)
t II = + : C e :
Finally, in Figure 11.11 we can visualize the damage surface for two-dimensional cases
(2D).
1.2.4.3 The Non-Symmetrical Damage Model Model III
The non-symmetrical damage model is useful to simulate materials, such as concrete,
whose tension domain differs with respect to compression. This model uses the following
norm:
t III = q +
1 q
: Ce :
(11.94)
where the parameter q is the weight factor dependant on the stress state which is given
by:
3
q=
i =1
3
(11.95)
i =1
The parameter n is defined by means of the ratio of the compression elastic limit Yc to
the tension elastic limit Yt , i.e.:
n=
Yc
(11.96)
Yt
t = r0
E
1
Elastic region
b) Stress-strain curve.
19
Figure 11.11: Damage surface in 2D and the uniaxial stress-strain curve for model II.
Yt
t = r0
Yt
Yc
Yt
Elastic
region
Yc
a) Norm in the principal stress space-2D.
Yc = n Yt
b) Stress-strain curve.
Figure 11.12: Damage surface in 2D and the uniaxial stress-strain curve for model III.
1
E
E
1 + 2 m I 1 1
I=
1
11 +
3
(1 + )
(1 + )(1 2)
volumetric
part
(11.97)
isochoric part
(1 d ) E
(1 d ) E
E sec_d
E sec_d
11 +
I=
11 +
I
(1 + )
(1 + )(1 2)
(1 + )
(1 + )(1 2)
Note that, in this model the damage variable affects only one of the mechanical parameters,
namely, the Youngs modulus. We can also verify that the same damage parameter equally
affects both the spherical and deviatoric part:
1
C sec_d = (1 d )C e = (1 d ) 1 1 + (1 d )2 m I 1 1
3
(11.98)
Another model described by Carol et al. (1998) generalizes the isotropic damage model by
considering independent degradation of the spherical and deviatoric parts and because of
this the model requires two independent damage variables.
20
Now, the elasticity tensor components can be expressed by means of their spherical and
deviatoric parts as follows:
1
1
e
C ijkl
= d ij d kl + 2 m d ik d jl + d il d jk d ij d kl
3
2
1
3
V
D
Then, with Pijkl
= d ij d kl and Pijkl
=
(11.99)
1
V
, the above equation becomes:
d ik d jl + d il d jk Pijkl
2
e
V
D
C ijkl
= 3Pijkl
+ 2 m Pijkl
C e = 3P V + 2 m P D
(11.100)
Let us now consider that the material parameters and m can be degraded by means of
the variables d V and d D , respectively, and according to the following equations:
= (1 d V ) 0
(11.101)
; m = (1 d D )m 0
(11.102)
= 0 d ij d kl
e_D
D
C ijkl
= 2m 0 Pijkl
;
1
1
= 2m 0 d ik d jl + d il d jk d ij d kl
(11.103)
=Y
1
2
e _ vol
+Y
1
2
1
2
(11.104)
e _ dev
2
2
1
e _ vol
e
e _ vol
+ Y e _ dev
Y ( ) = Y
1
1
D
e_D
:
= : 2m P : = :C
2
2
(11.105)
1
2
Y (, d V , d D ) = : C sec_d : = : (1 d V )C e _ V + (1 d D )C e _ D :
1
1
= (1 d V ) : C e _ V : + (1 d D ) : C e _ D :
2
2
V
e _ vol
D
e _ dev
= (1 d )Y
+ (1 d )Y
= Y vol (, d V ) + Y dev (, d D )
=Y vol
=Y dev
(11.106)
21
1
1
2
2
1
1
= (1 d V ) sph : C e _ V : sph + (1 d D ) dev : C e _ D : dev
2
2
V
e _ vol
D
e _ dev
vol
= (1 d )Y
+ (1 d )Y
= Y ( sph , d V ) + Y dev ( dev , d D )
Y (, d V , d D ) = (1 d V ) : C e _ V : + (1 d D ) : C e _ D :
=Y vol
(11.107)
=Y dev
(11.108)
where sph , dev are the spherical and deviatoric effective stresses, respectively and where
the following is valid:
sph = (1 d V ) sph
= sph + dev
dev
D
dev
= (1 d )
(11.109)
e _V
sph
+ (1 d )C
D
e_D
(11.110)
dev
Then, the relationship between stress and strain in rate is given by:
= C tan _ d :
sph
dev
=C
tan _ d
=C
tan _ d
sph
sph
+C
dev
tan _ d
sph
= C tan _ d : sph
dev
= C tan _ d : dev
dev
:
(11.111)
Then, by evaluating the rate of change of the strain energy function given in (11.106),
Y = (1 d V )Y e _ V + (1 d D )Y e _ D , we can obtain:
Y = Y e _ V (1 d V ) Y e _ V d V + Y e _ D (1 d D ) Y e _ D d D
= Y e _ V (1 d V ) + Y e _ D (1 d D ) Y e _ V d V Y e _ D d D
(11.113)
: = (1 d V )C e _ V : + (1 d D )C e _ D : :
= (1 d V ) : C e _ V : + (1 d D ) : C e _ D :
(11.114)
22
(11.115)
Then, together the equations (11.115), (11.113), and the internal energy dissipation given in
(11.112), yields:
Dint = : Y 0
= (1 d V )Y e _ V + (1 d D )Y e _ D Y e _ V (1 d V ) Y e _ D (1 d D ) + Y e _ V d V + Y e _ D d D 0
= Y e _ V d V + Y e _ D d D 0
(11.116)
Since (11.116) must be satisfied for any admissible thermodynamic process, it follows that:
d V 0
d D 0
(11.117)
(11.118)
(11.119)
t V =
t D =
sph
t D
:C
e _V
dev
sph
sph
: C e _ V : sph =
sph
: sph =
sph
(11.120)
(11.121)
D
(, d V , d D ) =
: + V d +
d =
: ( + ) + V d V +
d
D
d
d
d
d D
D
(11.122)
sph
dev
=
: + V d V +
: +
d
D
d
d
sph
dev
=
+
= sph
V
d
= dev
D
d
(11.123)
d V r V d V V d V V
d V = V
t
= V r =
t V
r t
r
d D r D d D D d D D
d D = D
t
= D r =
t
t D
r
r
(11.124)
and
Then, we can express the rates of change sph and dev as follows:
23
sph
d V V
t
: + V d V = (1 d V )C e _ V : sph
sph =
d
t V
d V 1
= (1 d V )C e _ V : sph
sph :
t V t V
d V 1
= (1 d V )C e _ V
sph sph :
V
V
t t
(11.125)
sph
d V 1
sph
sph
= (1 d V )C e _ V
:
t V t V
and
D
dev
D
D
e_D
dev d
dev =
: +
d
=
(
1
d
)
C
:
t D
D
D
d
t
= (1 d D )C e _ D : dev
d D
= (1 d D )C e _ D
t D
d D
= (1 d D )C e _ D
t D
d D 1
dev :
t D t D
1
t D
1
t D
dev
dev
(11.126)
d D 1
d V 1
dev
dev
sph sph :
= (1 d D )C e _ D + (1 d V )C e _ V
D
D
V
V
t t
t t
(11.127)
d D 1
d V 1
dev
dev
sph sph
t D t D
t V t V
(11.128)