Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
1140-1500 – Seminar
Leader: Dr Laura Cleaver
To be prepared for death was to lead a pious life; the Book of Hours (also known
as a Primer) provided a way to follow the church programme of daily devotion
whilst going about daily life, and therefore suitably prepared the reader for their
deaths. It usually took the form of both text and image combined to enrich the
spiritual life of the owner by providing them with lectio divina, or ‘prayerful
reading’3 involving meditation on images, which became popular among the late
medieval laity. The Book of Hours has come to be known as the ‘Medieval
Bestseller’ because of its contemporary popularity.4 Margaret Aston has named
this phenomenon of increased consciousness and use of devotional text and
image which occurred in the later Middle Ages “devotional literacy”.5 The closest
that most laypeople could come to possessing literary copies of the word of God
2 Of The Imitation of Christ: In Three Books, Thomas à Kempis translated by John Payne,
(William Storer, 1822) p.42-43
3 ‘Reading and meditation in the Middle Ages: Lectio divina and books of hours’, Laura
Sterponi, Text & Talk 28–5 (Mouton de Gruyter, 2008), p. 671
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Alice White – HI5042: Gothic Art: Image and Imagination in Europe, c.1140-1500 – Seminar
Leader: Dr Laura Cleaver
was via the Book of Hours. Death was not merely an end to life but continued to
the journey of the soul through purgatory and resurrection of the body at the last
judgement, and therefore it was necessary to prepare for using a Book of Hours
as a map guiding the reader on how to undertake this spiritual journey and reach
the aspired to place in heaven.
Some examples are lavishly decorated using the most expensive materials
available. Examples such as the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry
demonstrate how Books of Hours could be used to serve the material purpose of
status symbols. Despite this, they are not merely reflections of vanity and
affluence. Devotion in the Middle Ages was often associated with display and
luxury, for instance in public processions and pilgrimages, and the richer
examples of Books of Hours are a reflection of this. They are not necessarily less
sincere because of their elaborate nature. Spending money on devotion can be
seen as a route to dying well and getting into heaven. The example of the De
Brailes Hours (ff. 97v.-98r. and 101r.) shows this, where the burgess purchases a
chalice for the Church which is then added to the good side of the scales when
5 Margaret Aston, ‘Devotional Literacy’ in Lollards and Reformers: Images and Literacy in
Late Medieval Religion, History Series, no. 22 (London: Hambledon Press, 1984), 101-33.
As quoted in ‘The Neville of Hornby Hours and the Design of Literate Devotion’, Kathryn
A. Smith, The Art Bulletin, Vol. 81, No. 1 (Mar., 1999, College Art Association), p.72
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Alice White – HI5042: Gothic Art: Image and Imagination in Europe, c.1140-1500 – Seminar
Leader: Dr Laura Cleaver
weighing his soul in judgement, outbalancing the evil side being pulled down by
a devil.
The more elaborate examples have somewhat shaped the popular image of
Books of Hours as possessions only of the very elite,7 but Books of Hours were
produced to cater for different economic statuses, particularly following the
advent of the printing press in the mid-fifteenth century. For many, the ‘Book of
Hours was often the first and only book an individual owned in his or her
lifetime.’8 This enormous popularity was due not only to the attractive designs of
images within the books, but also because they made religion accessible to the
layperson.
The text of the Book of Hours is based upon the ‘Little Office of Our Lady’
(Officium parvum beate Marie Virginis). Some scholars of religion have
suggested that the emphasis placed upon sin by theology resulted in the turn to
the Virgin, someone ‘more powerful than the saints and less awful than God’.9
Through the Incarnation, the Virgin linked God to mankind, thus offering hope,
and the existence of the Cult of the Virgin testifies to her perceived significance
during the Middle Ages. The Little Hours are ‘principally seen as episodes in the
life if the Virgin’,10 thus she presents a route to piety, her life bringing God to the
physical world but also to the individual reader. In interpreting the Hours as
episodes in the life of the Virgin, the reader is guided from birth to death and the
afterlife with each reading.
Furthermore, whilst Christ was a figure associated with the Last Judgement and
often depicted coldly judging souls in Apocalypse scenes, Mary offered hope of
intervention on behalf of the repentant sinner. For instance, in the De Brailes
Hours a series of miniatures tell the story of Theophilus, on whose behalf the
Virgin is depicted fighting the devil for his soul.
9 ‘Introduction’, Miracles of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Eileen Power (Kessinger Publishing,
2004) p.xiii
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Alice White – HI5042: Gothic Art: Image and Imagination in Europe, c.1140-1500 – Seminar
Leader: Dr Laura Cleaver
The Virgin Mary acts as intercessor for the reader of the Book of Hours,
particularly in the special prayers ‘Obsecro te’ and ‘O intemerata’ which appear
in nearly all examples. These prayers are a direct address from the reader to the
Virgin requesting her to intervene on their behalf with God. They end with the
plea: ‘At the end of my life show me your face, and reveal to me the day and
hour of my death.’11 This plea was granted to Theophilus in the illuminations of
the de Brailes Hours, where she is shown bearing his soul to heaven upon his
death, a visual representation of pleas to the Virgin gaining one access to
heaven. This would have offered hope to the reader that they too may be
granted clemency for their sins through their prayers to the Virgin.
Books of Hours also include Suffrages or invocations of the saints. These shorter
devotions are in accordance with Catholic theology, whereby the Virgin was
accorded hyperdulia, a higher form of worship than the other saints who instead
warrant dulia. Although less important than the Virgin, one’s patron saint was a
very important figure in medieval life and death. The prayer to one’s guardian
angel demonstrates that once again the focus is upon redemption after death
rather than a more pleasant life, requesting that ‘by the protection of thy actions
mayest thou make me at last a dweller with thee and with those on high.’12 The
saints had secured their places in heaven and were in a position to intercede for
the individual.
Maximus, the first bishop of Turin in the early fifth century advised that praying
to the martyrs served a twofold purpose both in life and death: ‘Here they keep
us from falling into sin: there they protect us from the horrors of hell.’13 Not only
does the reader of a Book of Hours desire an advocate, but furthermore a guide
in the fearful unknown existence after death. The example of Medieval Mappa
Mundi demonstrates the insidious fear of the unknown through representations
of monsters on the outskirts. This can likewise be seen in the following plea from
the Suffrage:
13 ‘Art and Death in the Middle Ages’, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, Ed. Philomena
Mariani (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000)
<http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/deth/hd_deth.htm> accessed 24/02/2010
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Alice White – HI5042: Gothic Art: Image and Imagination in Europe, c.1140-1500 – Seminar
Leader: Dr Laura Cleaver
And when I shall be drawn forth from this body at the command of God, do
not allow evil spirits to frighten me or make sport of me, nor allow me to
fall into the pit of desperation. And do not abandon me at all until thou
hast led me to the sight of almighty God.14
Just like a journey to a physical place unknown, the journey to a spiritual place
unknown was a scary concept to the reader, and the Book of Hours offers hope
of protection on this journey through the daily prayers contained within it.
This journey is depicted in many Books of Hours through the images of funeral
processions commonly found in the Office of the Dead. Such images instructed
the reader that the journey of the soul to the afterlife is mirrored by the journey
of the body to the grave, stressing the importance of a well prepared death. On
folio 61r. of the De Brailes Hours parallel is demonstrated through the example
of the death of the Virgin. Her soul ascends to heaven travelling up the right
margin as the funeral procession makes its way to the valley of Josaphat
travelling from right to left along the bas-de-page.
Many images of death can be seen in historiated initials near the beginning of
the two parts of the service for the Office of the Dead (Placebo Domino in
regione vivorum and Dirige, Domine Deus meus, in conspectus tuo viam
meam).15 This interaction between text and image demonstrated the inextricable
link between death and religion, and acted as a reminder that the reason the
reader was engaging with the text was because of their inherent mortality, with
one historiated “D” showing the skeleton sitting up in a coffin. The bas-de-page
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Alice White – HI5042: Gothic Art: Image and Imagination in Europe, c.1140-1500 – Seminar
Leader: Dr Laura Cleaver
below one historiated initial indicates the proper preparation for death in the
kneeling saint below.16
Several examples depict skeletons in conjunction with the Vigil of the Dead, a
common miniature with which to begin the Office of the Dead.17 Images of
funerals with mourners surrounding a bier encourage mourning and prayer.
Mourning is depicted in the form of the public event, which relatives would have
been obliged to enact, as a reminder of their continuing obligation to the dead
person in the form of praying for their soul.
Often, images of funerals contain pictures of books, which remind the reader that
the Book of Hours is a crucial element assisting them in a good death. This again
demonstrates the advertising the producers of the manuscripts subtly employed
to reinforce the importance of their trade to their patrons. Such images also
associated the book with redemption and the act of mourning the dead. Not
praying was not only a danger for the souls of lost relatives, but also to the
reader because it left them unprepared for their own death.
16 Images, p.4
17 Images, pp.9-16
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Alice White – HI5042: Gothic Art: Image and Imagination in Europe, c.1140-1500 – Seminar
Leader: Dr Laura Cleaver
Another depicts Job on his dunghill behind the image of the man struck down by
death, again carrying connotations of temptation and sin, as Job was tempted by
Satan, and suffered many hardships but was unwavering in his loyalty to God.
Job therefore acts as an example for the reader to follow, which is especially
pertinent as passages from the Book of Job are contained in the Office of the
Dead, and the reader is literally imitating Job by reciting his words.
Medieval Christians were often reminded that at judgement day the meek would
inherit the earth, and that God was blind to class or wealth. Similarly, many
miniatures in Books of Hours demonstrate how death is blind to class or wealth,
and depict images of death with figures from different social standings. In one,
death greets a pope, cardinal, bishop and king and in another he attacks a holy
man emerging from a church.24 This may have acted as a warning to wealthy
22 Images, p.21
23 Images, p.3
24 Images pp.19-20
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Alice White – HI5042: Gothic Art: Image and Imagination in Europe, c.1140-1500 – Seminar
Leader: Dr Laura Cleaver
patrons that their standing could not protect them spiritually, reminding the
reader of the importance of prayer and also of the invaluable service that the
manuscript makers provided.
Allegories and fables were also extremely important to the medieval reader in
achieving an understanding of the text, and offered a visual gloss; ‘they operate
differently from the text but can reinforce or inflect its meaning for the reader.’25
An example of this is the Three Living and Three Dead, reproduced in many
Books of Hours to begin the Office of the Dead. This allegory on the vanity of
earthly rank depicts three men in the prime of life who encounter three skeletons
as an abrupt reminder of mortality.26 The medieval concept of vanity was not
merely associated with conceitedness but also the idea of actions ‘devoid of real
value, idle, unprofitable’27: focussing on the worldly over spiritual was devoid of
real value, because come the resurrection men would be assigned places in
heaven based on merit. The skeletons were depicted in varying degrees of
decomposition as a demonstration of how the vigour and riches of the living are
meaningless and stripped away after death.
The Three Living and Three Dead anticipated the Dance of Death image which
also frequently appears in the borders of Books of Hours. The example in the
border surrounding and image of the Raising of Lazarus shows death reaching
out to all different members of society (rank recognisable by headwear),
reminiscent of images of death approaching different ranks as discussed above.
Some are actually fleeing into the foliage. This is appropriate for the miniature it
accompanies, as the name Lazarus can be used in two biblical contexts, as the
man raised from the dead but also in the parable of Lazarus and Dives, where a
poor man is carried to heaven and the rich man in hell begs for Lazarus to be
sent as a warning against hell to his brothers. The relationship of the two sets of
images combines to act as a reminder that a warning has already been issued in
the form of the words of the prophets: worldly status is no guarantee of
redemption.
25 ‘Reading and meditation in the Middle Ages: Lectio divina and books of hours’, Laura
Sterponi, Text & Talk 28–5 (Mouton de Gruyter, 2008), p.378
26 Images pp.24-29
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Alice White – HI5042: Gothic Art: Image and Imagination in Europe, c.1140-1500 – Seminar
Leader: Dr Laura Cleaver
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Alice White – HI5042: Gothic Art: Image and Imagination in Europe, c.1140-1500 – Seminar
Leader: Dr Laura Cleaver
Bibliography
The Hours of Jeanne d’Evreux, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
<http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/Jde/jde6.htm>
Camille, Michael, Image on the Edge: The Margins of Medieval Art, Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1992
Kamerick, Kathleen, Popular piety and art in the late Middle Ages: image worship
and idolatry in England, 1350-1500 (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002)
Mariani, Philomena (Ed.), ‘Art and Death in the Middle Ages’, Heilbrunn Timeline
of Art History, (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000)
<http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/deth/hd_deth.htm>
Power, Eileen, Miracles of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Kessinger Publishing, 2004)
Smith, Kathryn A., ‘The Neville of Hornby Hours and the Design of Literate
Devotion’, The Art Bulletin, Vol. 81, No. 1 (Mar., 1999, College Art Association)
Sterponi, Laura, ‘Reading and meditation in the Middle Ages: Lectio divina and
books of hours’, Text & Talk 28–5 (Mouton de Gruyter, 2008)
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Alice White – HI5042: Gothic Art: Image and Imagination in Europe, c.1140-1500 – Seminar
Leader: Dr Laura Cleaver
Manuscripts
New York, Columbia University, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Incunable H-
405
New York, New York Public Library, Spencer Collection, NYPL Spencer 006
Koninklijke Bibliotheek National Library of the Netherlands, The Hague, KB, 130 E
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Koninklijke Bibliotheek National Library of the Netherlands, The Hague, KB, 131 H
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Alice White – HI5042: Gothic Art: Image and Imagination in Europe, c.1140-1500 – Seminar
Leader: Dr Laura Cleaver
Koninklijke Bibliotheek National Library of the Netherlands, The Hague, KB, 133 D
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