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Outline
4.1 Introduction
4 3 Frequency
4.3
F
M
Modulation
d l i
Chapter 4.1
Introduction
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Institute of Communications Engineering
g
g
National Sun YatYat-sen University
4.1 Introduction
4.1 Introduction
Chapter 4.2
Basic Definitions
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Institute of Communications Engineering
g
g
National Sun YatYat-sen University
t 0
t 0
2t
2 dt
7
i ( t ) = 2 f c t + c
and corresponding phasor rotates with a constant angular velocity
equal to 2fc. The constant c is the value of i(t) at t=0.
There are an infinite number of ways in which the angle i(t) may
be varied in some manner with the message (baseband) signal.
signal
We shall
W
h ll consider
id only
l two
t commonly
l usedd methods,
th d phase
h
modulation and frequency modulation.
s ( t ) = Ac cos 2 f c t + 2 k f m ( ) d
0
10
c) Amplitude-modulated signal
d) Phase-modulated signal
e)) Frequency-modulated
F
d l t d signal
i l
11
From both Eqs. (4.4) and (4.7), we readily see that the
amplitude of PM and FM waves is maintained at a constant
value
l equall to
t the
th carrier
i amplitude
lit d Ac for
f all
ll time
ti t,
t
irrespective of the sensitivity factors kp and kf .
Consequently the average transmitted power of angleConsequently,
angle
modulated waves is a constant, as shown by
1
P = A2
av 2 c
(4.9)
V2
P =
R
12
Both
B
th PM and
d FM waves violate
i l t th
the principle
i i l off superposition.
iti
For example, the message signal m(t) is made up of two
different components,
components m1(t) and m2(t): m ( t ) = m1 ( t ) + m2 ( t )
Let s(t), s1(t), and s2(t) denote the PM waves produced by m(t),
m1(t),
(t) and m2(t) in accordance with Eq
Eq. (4.4),
(4 4) respectively.
respectively We
may express these PM waves as follows:
( t ) = 2 f t + k m ( t ) ( 4.4 )
i
s ( t ) = Ac cos 2 f c t + k p ( m1 ( t ) + m2 ( t ) )
s1 ( t ) = Ac cos 2 f c t + k p m1 ( t )
m ( t ) = m1 ( t ) + m2 ( t )
s ( t ) s1 ( t ) + s2 ( t )
s2 ( t ) = Ac cos 2 f c t + k p m2 ( t )
Frequency modulation
d l i offers
ff superior
i noise
i performance
f
compare to amplitude modulation,
13
14
15
The improvement
Th
i
t in
i noise
i performance
f
is
i achieved
hi d att the
th
expense of a corresponding increase in the transmission
bandwidth requirement of angle modulation.
modulation
16
17
at ,
m (t ) =
0,
t0
t<0
18
Fig 44.2
Fig.
2 Starting at time t = 0,
0 the figure displays (a) linearly increasing message signal m(t),
m(t)
(b)phase-modulated wave, and (c) frequency-modulated wave.
19
Phase Modulation:
t0
t<0
2 f c tn + k p atn = 2 f c +
t
=
+ n , n = 00,1,
1 22,
n
2
1
+n
1
tn = + n, n = 0,1,
0 1 22,
tn = 2
kp
2
2 fc + a
20
Frequency Modulation:
Ac cos ( 2 f c t + k f at 2 ) ,
s (t ) =
Ac cos ( 2 f c t ) ,
t0
t<0
f c +
tn =
+ n , n = 0,1, 2,
f + ak f + n , n = 0,1, 2,
2
2
c
1
1 + 9 + 16n , n = 0,1, 2,
4
21
1.
2.
22
s ( t ) = Ac cos 2 f c t + 2 k f m ( ) d (4.8)
Figure 4.3 Illustrating the relationship between frequency modulation and phase modulation.
(a) Scheme for generating an FM wave by using a phase modulator, (b) scheme for
generating a PM wave by using a frequency modulator
modulator.
i ( t )
fi ( t )
Unmodulated
signal
2 f c t
fc
PM signal
2 f c t + k p m ( t )
FM signal
2 f c t + 2 k f m ( )d
24
fc +
k p dm ( t )
2
dt
fc + k f m ( t )
Chapter 4.3
Frequency Modulation
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Institute of Communications Engineering
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g
National Sun YatYat-sen University
26
(4 10)
(4.10)
f = k f Am
(4.11)
(4.12)
f
=
fm
i ( t ) = 2 f c t + sin ( 2 f mt )
s ( t ) = Ac cos 2 f c t + sin ( 2 f mt )
Depending on the value of the modulation index , we may
distinguish two cases of frequency modulation:
Narrow-band
N
b d FM
FM, for
f which
hi h is
i small
ll comparedd to one radian.
di
Wide-band FM, for which is large compared to one radian.
28
(4.16)
Consider Eq
Eq. (4.16),
(4 16) which defines an FM signals resulting
form the use of sinusoidal modulating signal. Expanding this
relation,, we get
g
Assuming
A
i that
th t the
th modulation
d l ti index
i d is
i small
ll comparedd to
t
one radian, we may use the following two approximations:
cos sin ( 2 f mt ) 1
s (t )
s (t )
( 4.17 )
sin sin ( 2 f mt )
sin ( 2 f mt )
4 18 )
( 4.18
1
Ac cos ( 2 f c t ) + Ac cos 2 ( f c + f m ) t cos 2 ( f c f m ) t
2
sin sin =
29
( 4.19 )
1
cos ( ) cos ( + )
2
1
s AM ( t ) = Ac cos ( 2 f c t ) + Ac cos 2 ( f c + f m ) t + cos 2 ( f c f m ) t
2
( 4.20 )
For example,
F
l if s(t)
( ) iis an angle-modulated
l
d l d signal,
i l andd c(t)
( ) iis the
h
receiver oscillator, having phase noise n(t), then when
translating the signal from fc to fb (see section 33.7),
7) the output is
s ( t ) c ( t ) = Ac cos 2 f c t + ( t ) cos 2 ( f c fb ) t + n ( t )
Ac
cos ( 2 f b + ( t ) n ( t ) ) + cos ( 2 ( 2 f c fb ) + ( t ) + n ( t ) )
=
2
A
c cos 2 fb + ( t ) n ( t )
2
where the high frequency term has been removed by a band-pass
band pass
filter centered around fb.
Thus the phase noise of the oscillator directly affects the
information component of the angle-modulated signal.
32
s ( t ) = Ac cos 2 f c t + sin ( 2 f mt )
( 4.16 )
s ( t ) = Re Ac exp ( j 2 f c t + j sin ( 2 f mt ) )
( 4.21)
= Re s ( t ) exp ( j 2 f c t )
where s ( t ) = Ac exp j sin ( 2 f mt ) periodic function
33
series as follows:
s ( t ) = cn exp ( j 2 nf mt )
(4 23)
(4.23)
n=
cn = f m
1 2 fm
1 2 f m
x = 2 f mt
= f m Ac
s ( t ) exp ( j 2 nf mt ) dt
1 2 fm
1 2 f m
exp j sin ( 2 f mt ) j 2 nf mt dt
Ac
cn =
exp j ( sin x nx ) dx
2
1
=
i x nx ) dx
d
cn = Ac J n ( )
n( )
exp j ( sin
2
nth order Bessel function of the first kind.
s ( t ) = Ac Re J n ( ) exp j 2 ( f c + nf m ) t
n=
34
(4.24)
(4 26)
(4.26)
(4 28)
(4.28)
(4 31)
(4.31)
2 n=
In Figure 4.6 we have plotted the Bessel function Jn() versus the
modulation
d l ti index
i d for
f different
diff
t positive
iti integer
i t
values
l
off n.
Jn ( )
n =
n > 2
2
0,
J n2 ( ) = 1
36
(4.34)
(4.35)
2. For the special case of small compared with unity, only the Bessel
coefficients J0() and J1() have significant values (see 4.34),
4 34) so that
the FM signal is effectively composed of a carrier and a single pair
of side frequencies at fc fm.
(This situation corresponds to the special case of narrowband FM
that was considered previously)
37
38
Consider first the case when the frequency of the modulating signal
is fixed, but its amplitude
p
is varied, p
producingg a corresponding
p
g
variation in the frequency deviation f.
Consider next the case when the amplitude of the modulating signal
is fixed; that is, the frequency deviation f is maintained constant,
andd the
h modulation
d l i frequency
f
fm is
i varied.
i d
39
FIGURE4.77 Discrete
FIGURE4
Di
t amplitude
lit d spectra
t
of an FM signal, normalized with
respect to the carrier amplitude, for the
case of sinusoidal modulation of fixed
frequency and varying amplitude. Only
the spectra for positive frequencies are
shown
shown.
40
Chapter 4.4
4 4
PhasePhase
-locked Loop
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Institute of Communications Engineering
g
g
National Sun YatYat-sen University
4.4 Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
4.4 Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
We assume that initially we have adjusted the VCO so that when the
control voltage is zero, two conditions are satisfied:
1 The frequency of the VCO in precisely set at the unmodulated carrier
1.
frequency fc.
2. The VCO output has a 90
90-degree
degree phase
phase-shift
shift with respect to the
unmodulated carrier wave.
46
4.4 Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
Suppose then that the input signal applied to the phase-locked loop
is an FM signal defined by
s ( t ) = Ac sin 2 f c t + 1 ( t )
(4.59)
r ( t ) = Av cos 2 f c t + 2 ( t )
(4.61)
where Av is the amplitude. With a control voltage v(t) applied to a
VCO input, the angle 2 ( t ) is related to v(t) by the integral
t
2 ( t ) = 2 kv ( t ) dt
(4.62)
where kv is the frequency sensitivity of the VCO,
VCO measured in Hertz
per volt.
0
47
4.4 Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
The time-varying
Th
ti
i phase
h
angle
l 1(t)
( ) characterizing
h
t i i s(t)
( ) may bbe ddue
to modulation by a message signal m(t) as in Eq. (4.60), in which
case we wish to recover 1(t) in order to estimate m(t).
m(t)
4.4 Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
49
50
e ( t ) = 1 ( t ) 2 ( t )
= 1 ( t ) 2 k ( )d
0
(4.64)
The loop filter operates on the input e (t) to produce an output v(t)
defined by the convolution integral
( t ) = e ( )h ( t ) d
51
(4 65)
(4.65)
Using Eqs. (4.62) to (4.64) to relate e(t) and 1(t), we obtain the
following nonlinear integro
integro-differential
differential equation as descriptor of the
dynamic behavior of the phase-locked loop:
de ( t )
d1 ( t )
2 K 0 sin e ( ) h ( t )d
dt
dt
where K0 is a loop
loop-gain
gain parameter defined by
K 0 = km k Ac A
(4.66)
(4.67)
Equation (4.66)
(4 66) suggest the model shown in Figure 4.17
4 17 for a phase
phaselocked loop.
IIn thi
this model
d l we have
h
also
l included
i l d d the
th relationship
l ti hi between
b t
v(t)
(t)
and e(t) as represented by Eqs. (4.63) and (4.65).
52
= 1 ( t ) 2 k ( )d
0
=1 ( t ) 2 k
= 1 ( t ) 2 K 0
( t ) = e ( )h ( t ) d , e ( t ) = km Ac A sin e ( t )
km Ac A sin e ( k ) h ( k ) dkd
sin e ( k ) h ( k ) dkd
( K 0 =k km Ac A )
=1 ( t ) 2 K 0 sin e ( k ) h ( k )d dk
0
e ( t ) 1 ( t ) 2 ( t )
=
t
t
t
( t ) 2 K 0 sin e ( k ) 0 h ( k )d dk
= 1
t
t
(by using the Leibniz integral rule)
b ( )
a ( )
b ( )
b( )
a ( )
f ( x, )
f ( x, )dx =
f (b( ),
) )
f (a( ),
) ) +
dx)
a ( )
t
h ( k )d
1 ( t )
=
2 K 0 sin e ( k ) 0
dk
t
t
( t )
= 1
2 K 0 sin e ( k ) h ( t k )dk
t
53
We see that the model resembles the block diagram of Figure 4.17.
The multiplier at the input of the phase-locked loop is replaced by a
subtracter and a sinusoidal nonlinearity, and the VCO by an
integrator.
The sinusoidal nonlinearity in the model of Figure 4.17 greatly
increases the difficulty of analyzing the behavior of the phase-locked
loop It would be helpful to linearize this model to simplify the
loop.
analysis.
54
When the phase error e(t) is zero, the phase-locked loop is said to
be in phase
phase-lock
lock. When e(t) is at all times small compared with
one radian, we may use the approximation
sin e ( t ) e ( t )
((4.68))
which is accurate to within 4 percent for e(t) less than 0.5 radians.
We may represent the phase
phase-locked
locked loop by the linearized model
shown in Figure 4.18a.
According to this model, the phase error e(t) is related to the input
phase 1(t) by the linear integro
integro-differential
differential equation
de ( t )
d1 ( t )
+ 2 K 0 ( )h ( t ) d =
(4 69)
(4.69)
dt
dt
Transforming Eq. (4.69) into the frequency domain and solving for
e( f ), the Fourier transform of e( f ), in terms of 1( f ), the
Fourier transform of 1(t), we get
1
e ( f ) =
1 ( f )
1+ L ( f )
(4.70)
q ((4.70)) is defined by
y
The function L(( f ) in Eq.
L ( f ) = K0
H(f )
jf
where H( f ) is the transfer function of the loop filter.
56
(4.71)
Suppose that for all values of f inside the baseband we make the
magnitude of L( f ) very large compared with unity. Then from
Eq. 4.70 we find that e( f ) approaches zero. That is, the phase of
the VCO becomes asymptotically equal to the phase of the
incoming signal. Under this condition, phase-lock is established,
and the objective
j
of the phase-locked
p
loop
p is thereby
y satisfied.
(4 72)
(4.72)
F | L( f ) | >> 11:
For
V(f)
jf
1 ( f )
k
H(f )
jf
(4.73)
(4.74)
(4.75)
1 d1 ( t )
(4.76)
(t )
2 k dt
Thus, provided that the magnitude of the open-loop transfer
function L( f ) is very large for all frequencies of interest, the
phase locked loop may be modeled as a differentiator with its
phase-locked
output scaled by the factor 1/2kv, as in Figure 4.18b.
Time-Domain:
L ( f ) = K0
58
Figure 4.18 Models of the phase-locked loop. (b) Simplified model when the loop gain is
very large compared to unity.
(t )
kf
m (t )
(4.77)
k
E
Equation
i (4.77)
(4 77) states that
h when
h the
h loop
l
operates in
i its
i phaseh
locked mode, the output v(t) of the phase-locked loop is
approximately the same,
same except for the scale factor kf / kv, as the
original message signal m(t).
59
60
The hold-in
Th
h ld i frequency
f
range refers
f to
t the
th range off frequencies
f
i for
f
which the loop remains phase-locked to the input signal.
Supplementary Material:
Analysis of PLL Using Laplace
Transform
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Institute of Communications Engineering
g
g
National Sun YatYat-sen University
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
Assuming
A
i that
th t the
th input
i t to
t the
th PLL is
i the
th sinusoid
i
id xc(t)=
(t)
Accos(2fct+) and the output of the VCO is e0(t)= -Avsin(2fct+),
where represents the estimate of , the product of two signals is:
ed ( t ) = xc ( t ) e0 ( t ) = Ac cos ( 2 f c t + ) Av sin 2 f c t +
= 12 Ac Av sin 12 Ac Av sin 4 f c t + +
63
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
The loop filter is a low-pass filter that responds only to the lowfrequency component 0.5AcAvsin( - ) and removes the
component at 2fc.
The
h output off the
h loop
l
filter
fil provides
id the
h controll voltage
l
ev(t)
()
for the VCO.
Th VCO iis a sinusoidal
The
i
id l signal
i l generator
t with
ith an instantaneous
i t t
phase given by
t
2 f c t + ( t ) = 2 f c t + K v ev ( )d
dt
t
64
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
By
y neglecting
g
g the double-frequency
q
y term resulting
g from the
multiplication of the input signal with the output of the VCO, the
phase detector output is:
ed ( ) = K d sin
where = is the phase error and Kd is a proportionality
constant.
In normal operation, when the loop is tracking the phase of the
i
incoming
i carrier,
i the
th phase
h
error is
i small.
ll As
A a result,
lt
sin
65
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
66
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
Ed ( s ) = K d ( s ) ( s ) = K d ( s )
Ev ( s ) = F ( s ) E d ( s )
(s) =
K v Ev ( s )
(s)
(s)
Kv Kd F ( s )
s + Kv Kd F ( s )
KF ( s ) / s
1 + KF ( s ) / s
The p
phase error transfer
f function:
f
He ( s )
(s) (s)
(s)
(s)
(s)
= 1
67
(s)
(s)
= 1 H (s) =
s
s + Kv Kd F ( s )
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
The VCO control-voltage/input-phase transfer function:
Ev ( s ) sH ( s )
K d sF ( s )
Hv (s) =
=
=
(s)
Kv
s + Kv Kd F ( s )
It is
i convenient
i to write
i the
h closed-loop
l dl
transfer
f function
f
i in
i
terms of the open-loop transfer function, which is defined as:
Gop ( s )
Kv Kd F ( s )
Gop ( s )
H (s) =
s
1 + Gop ( s )
K=KvKd is the open-loop
p
p dc ggain.
By appropriate choice of F(s), any order closed-loop transfer
function can be obtained.
For second-order passive loops, the transfer function is:
1+ 2s
1+ 2s
F (s) =
H (s) =
1 1s
1 + ( 2 + 1 K ) s + ( 1 K ) s 2
68
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
Second-order
Second
order phase
phase-locked-loop
locked loop filters
69
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
70
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
n = K 1 and = n ( 2 + 1 K ) 2
K
s
+
(
)
n
n
n
H (s) =
s 2 + 2 n s + n2
71
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
73