1

Q8B095 THE FALL OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

20 credits
Autumn Semester 2003/4
Convener and lecturer: Dr John Rich
Seminar tutors:
Dr Doug Lee (doug.lee@nottingham.ac.uk)
Dr John Rich (john.rich@nottingham.ac.uk)

Please note that the information contained in this booklet is provisional: dates and times of classes
in particular may be changed. It is your responsibility to ensure that you are aware of such
changes by regular consultation of the noticeboards in the Department of Classics.
This module booklet does not repeat information that has been given in the Department of
Classics Undergraduate Handbook, available online at http:/nottingham.ac.uk/classics/.
Everything in that document, so far as it is relevant, applies to this module, unless it is explicitly
superseded here.

MODULE AIMS, CONTENT AND ROLE

This 20-credit Level B module is designed for second and third year students in Ancient History,
Classical Civilization and Classics, and for students taking other degree courses, for whom some
knowledge of Roman history may be an advantage, but is not essential. The module examines the
upheavals and eventual collapse of the Roman Republic in the period from c. 133 BC to the
outbreak of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey in 49 BC. Attention is paid both to the
course of events and to broader topics and longer-term trends. Students taking the module will
be expected to study not only modern discussions but also the ancient sources, read in translation.
For those who have taken those modules, the module will build on the study of Roman
Republican history begun in the Level 1 modules Q81002 Introduction to the Roman World and
Q81312 Writing Roman History.
(Note. This is the first time that the module has been offered in this 20-credit form. It replaces two
10-credit modules, which were last taught in successive semesters in 1999-2000: Q8B094 The
Republic in Crisis: Rome and Italy 151-89 BC and Q8B095 The Fall of the Republic: Rome and
Italy 88-49 BC).

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MODULE OBJECTIVES
On successful completion of this module you should have:
acquired a sound knowledge of
C
the Roman political system and its workings in a period of important political change
C
social developments and social conflicts in the late Roman Republic
C
the collapse of the Roman Republic and its causes
developed skills, including:
subject-specific
C
understanding and evaluation of historical source material
C
understanding and evaluation of modern historical writing
C
understanding and analysis of historical issues
C
oral discussion of historical evidence and issues
C
exposition in writing of historical evidence and issues
transferable
C
evaluation of evidence
C
analysis and deployment of data and argument
C
contribution to discussion in a small group
C
clear exposition in writing of complex issues

TEACHING AND STUDY METHODS

Teaching for the module is by a combination of lectures and seminars.
Lectures (Dr Rich): Tuesday 12.00 Economics and Geography A48
Friday 1.00 Portland LTC11
For schedule of lecture topics see below.
Seminars: All students will be assigned at the first lecture to a seminar group for which the
seminar tutor will be either Dr Lee or Dr Rich (venues and times to be announced). For schedule
of seminar topics see below.
Attendance at seminars is obligatory. Students who are unable to attend a meeting of their
seminar group must get in touch with their seminar tutor to explain their absence. All students
must read the designated sources and are recommended to do further appropriate preparatory
reading for each session to enable them to participate in the discussion at the seminars (please
bring the designated sources with you to the seminars).
All students taking this module must own a copy of the following texts: Appian, Civil Wars
(Penguin); Plutarch, Roman Lives (Oxford, Worlds Classics). Students are also strongly
recommended to own their own copies of Sallust, The Jugurthine War and the Conspiracy of
Catiline (Penguin) and Suetonius, Lives of the Caesars (Oxford, Worlds Classics). Other
recommended purchases are listed in the bibliography below. Students who took the module
Q81312 Writing Roman History should already possess copies of all the above texts except for
Appian.

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ASSESSMENT
The assessment for this module is 50% by an essay and 50% by a two-hour examination.
(a) The essay must be on one of the titles listed below and must be submitted by 2.00 p.m. on
Monday, 10 November. It should be approximately 3,000 words long; essays over 3,600 words
long will be subject to a penalty of 5 marks. Bibliographies listing ancient sources and modern
works consulted should be added at the end of the essay. The essay must be word-processed,
using double-spacing; the pages must be numbered, and a word-count must be included.
The essay will be marked anonymously. A standard cover sheet (available from the table outside
the Departmental Secretary=s office) must be completed and attached to the front of the essay.
No indication of your identity should be given on the essay except on the sealable flap of the
coversheet.
The essay must be securely fastened with a staple. Before submitting the essay you must take a
copy of it, which you must retain and produce on request. To submit the essay you must deposit
it in the essay box in the Departmental Office.
(b) The examination will be held sometime in the designated examination period: the exact date,
time and place will be announced in due course by the Examinations Office. You will be required
to write two essays from a choice of at least six (33.3 marks each) and answer questions on two
passages from a choice of six (16.6 marks each). Some of the essay questions will deal with
specific events and personalities, and others will be concerned with broad themes and designed
to test your knowledge and understanding of the period as a whole: you will be expected to
answer one question of each type. A model examination paper is given below.
The passages for comment will be taken from the following texts: Appian, Civil Wars 1.7-2.35;
Sallust, Jugurthine War 27-43, 63-65, 84-6 (Penguin edn, pp. 63-79, 99-102, 116-22); Plutarch,
Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus, Marius 1-14, 27-46, Sulla 1-10, 30-38, Pompey 1-30, 4259, Caesar 1-14, 21, 28-32; Suetonius, Caesar 1-33; other sources issued on handouts.
For further information and advice on all matters relating to coursework and examinations see the
Classics Undergraduate Handbook.

ESSAY TITLES
All students taking this module must submit an essay on one of the following titles by 2.00 pm
on Monday, 10 November.
1

Examine the political significance of the office of tribune of the plebs in the period 133 to
91 BC. What motivated those tribunes who engaged in political activity, and what
consequences did their activity have for the Republic?

How would you account for the demand for land distribution in the period 133-91 BC?
Why were some politicians so keen to gratify it and others to oppose it? How effective

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were the land distribution measures and what consequences did they have?
3

Examine the part played by the Italian allies in Roman politics in 133-91 BC and the
origins of the Social War. What were the rebels grievances and aims?

Examine the character and political significance of the Roman army in the later second
century BC. Was there a manpower shortage?

LECTURE SCHEDULE
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6
L7
L8
L9
L10
L11
L12
L13
L14
L15
L16
L17
L18
L19

Tues 30 Sept
Fri 3 Oct
Tues 7 Oct
Fri 10 Oct
Tues 14 Oct
Fri 17 Oct
Tues 21 Oct
Fri 24 Oct
Tues 28 Oct
Fri 31 Oct
3-7 Nov
Tues 11 Nov
Fri 14 Nov
Tues 17 Nov
Fri 21 Nov
Tues 25 Nov
Fri 28 Nov
Tues 1 Dec
Fri 5 Dec
Mon 8 Dec

Introduction
Roman political life in the mid-second century BC
Tiberius Gracchus, land and manpower
The tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus
From Tiberius to Gaius Gracchus (132-121 BC)
Gracchan issues: the land and the allies, the equites and the courts
Marius and the Jugurthine War
Marius, the Cimbri and Saturninus
The origins of the Social War
Social War and civil war (91-82 BC)
Classics Reading Week
Sulla and his settlement
The collapse of the Sullan settlement and the rise of Pompey, 78-67 BC
Pompey=s absence and return: Roman politics, 66-60 BC
The dominance of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus, 59-55 BC
The approach to civil war, 54-49 BC
Political life in the Late Republic
The urban poor
The army and the land
The fall of the Roman Republic

SEMINAR TOPICS
S1

The tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus

14-17 Oct

What were the problems which Tiberius Gracchus was seeking to address with his agrarian law,
and what were his motives for proposing it? How far was he justified in acting as he did during
his tribunate, and how revolutionary was his conduct?
Sources: Appian, Civil Wars 1.7-17; Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus; handouts for Lectures 3-4.
Modern discussions: bibliography below, sections 3.2-3.
S2

The career of Marius to 100 BC

28-31 Oct

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What sort of background did Marius come from, and what were his personal qualities? How
would you account for his rise to his first consulship in 107 and then to successive consulships
in 104-100 BC? What was the nature of his relationship with Saturninus? What military
innovations did he carry out, and how significant were they?
Sources: Plutarch, Marius 1-31; Sallust, Jugurthine War, especially 63-5, 84-6 (Penguin pp. 99102, 116-22); Appian, Civil Wars 1.28-33; handouts for Lectures 7-8.
Modern discussions: bibliography below, section 3.5.
S3

The Sullan settlement and the rise of Pompey, 83-66 BC

17-21 Nov

What were the aims of Sulla's settlement, and why did it break down?
How would you account for the rise of Pompey?
Sources: Plutarch, Sulla 31-34, Pompey 1-30; Appian, Civil Wars 1.97-108, 121; handouts for
Lectures 11-12.
Modern discussions: bibliography below, sections 3.8-9.
S4

The career of Caesar to the outbreak of civil war in 49 BC

25-28 Nov

What were the main stages in Caesars political advancement and how did he achieve them? What
were his political aims and how far did he pursue policies or principles? How far was he
responsible for the outbreak of the civil war?
Sources: Suetonius, Caesar 1-33; Plutarch, Caesar 1-14, 21, 28-32; Appian, Civil Wars 2.8-33;
handouts for lectures 13-15.
Modern discussions: bibliography below, sections 3.10-11.
S5

Roman political life in the Late Republic

1-5 Dec

How did men succeed in elections in the Late Republic? To what extent and why was political
competition becoming more intense?
What was meant by the terms optimates and populares and how important was the
conflict between them?
How important a part did the Roman people play in the political struggles of the Late
Republic?
Sources: handouts for lectures 16-17.
Modern discussions: bibliography below, sections 3.12-13.

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MODEL EXAMINATION PAPER (adapted from those set for the 10-credit modules Q8B0945 in 2000/1)
Answer ONE question from each section. Each question carries equal marks.
SECTION A
1

Answer the questions set on TWO of the following passages:

(a)

A tribune, he said, is sacred and inviolable, in so far as he is a dedicated champion of

the people. But if he changes, if instead he injures you, the Roman people, checks your
strength, and reduces the power of your vote, he has deprived himself of his office by
failing to do the job he was appointed to do.
Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus 15.2
How well founded was this justification for Tiberius Gracchus conduct?

(b)

Marius enlisted recruits not in the traditional manner nor on the basis of the propertyqualification, but taking any citizen who chose to volunteer, property-less men (capite
censi) for the most part. Some said that he did this through lack of good men, others
because of a desire to curry favour, since that class had given him honour and rank, and
in fact to one who aspires to power the poorest man is the most helpful, since he has no
regard for his property, having none, and considers anything honourable for which he
receives pay.
Sallust, Jugurthine War 86.2-3
What was the significance of this levy, and how satisfactory is Sallusts account of it?

(c)

In this way, although equestrians and senate were at odds with each other, they were
united in their enmity towards Drusus, and only the common people were pleased with the
colonies. And even the Italians, in whose interests chiefly Drusus was carrying out these
schemes, were apprehensive about the colonial law, because they expected that the land
belonging to the Roman state which was still unallocated, and which was being farmed
either clandestinely or after forcible seizure, would at once be taken away from them, and
that trouble would occur over their own land.
Appian, Civil Wars 1.36
What was the younger Drusus trying to achieve and why did he fail?

(d)

Pompey retained command of his army and negotiated to get sent out to help Metellus.
Even though Catulus gave him a direct order, he refused to disband his army, but
remained under arms near the city, constantly finding new excuses, until the senate ratified
a motion proposed by Lucius Philippus and gave him the command.
Plutarch, Pompey 17
Discuss the significance of this episode in the rise of Pompey and the light which it sheds
on his success.

(e)

When quaestor he made the customary funeral speech from the Rostra in honour of his
aunt Julia ..., and, while eulogizing Julias maternal and paternal ancestry, did the same
for the Caesars too. Her mother, he said, was a descendant of kings, namely the Marcii

7
Reges, a family founded by King Ancus Marcius; and her father, of gods - since the Julii
(of which we Caesars are a branch) reckon descent from the Goddess Venus.
Suetonius, Julius Caesar 6
After the death of his aunt Julia, the wife of Marius, he made a brilliant public speech in
praise of her in the forum, and was bold enough to display in the funeral procession
images of Marius himself. These had not been seen since the time that Sulla came into
power, Marius and his friends having been branded as public enemies.
Plutarch, Caesar 5
Discuss the significance of this episode for Caesars early career in the light of these two
versions.
(f)

The first - and obvious - point is to cultivate the senators and equites Romani, and the
energetic and influential in all the other orders. .... Then you must take stock of the entire
city, all the collegia, districts and neighbourhoods; if you enlist their leaders in your
friendship you will easily secure the rest of the common people through them. Next see
that you keep in your mind and memory the whole of Italy divided up and categorised by
tribe, so that you can make sure there is no Italian town ... where you do not have
sufficient support; you must look for and search out men from every area, must get to
know them, solicit and strengthen their support, and see that they canvass for you in their
neighbourhoods and behave almost as candidates on your behalf.
Commentariolum Petitionis 29-31
What light does this passage shed on the means by which election success could be
achieved in late Republican Rome?

SECTION B
2

Were the Gracchi idealistic reformers?

How would you account for the rise of Marius?

Why did Sullas settlement collapse?

Caesar could not endure an equal or Pompey a superior (LUCAN). How satisfactory is
this explanation of the outbreak of the civil war?

SECTION C
6

Were the conflicts between optimates and populares in this period really just struggles for
personal advancement?

Who were the equites and what role did they play in the political conflicts of this period?

How important a part did urban violence play in the collapse of the Roman Republic?

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Contents
page
1

General
1.1
General histories
1.2
Roman political life
1.3
Biographies
1.4
Other studies

8
9
10
10

Sources
2.1
Late Republican writers
2.2
Later writers
2.3
Other sources, sourcebooks

11
12
12

Topics
3.1
The Roman political system in the second century BC
13
3.2
Agrarian change and manpower problems in the second century BC
14
3.3
The tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 BC
15
3.4
From the death of Tiberius Gracchus to the death of Gaius Gracchus
16
3.5
Roman politics, 121-91 BC
16
3.6
The Italian allies, the origins of the Social War and the rebels aims in the War
17
3.7
The Equites and the criminal courts
18
3.8
The Civil Wars of the Eighties and the Dictatorship of Sulla
19
3.9
The Rise of Pompey and the Collapse of the Sullan Settlement
19
3.10 Roman Politics in the Sixties BC
20
3.11 From Caesar's Consulship to the Outbreak of Civil War (59-49 BC)
20
3.12 Roman Political Life in the Late Republic
21
3.13 The Urban Plebs in the Late Republic
22
3.14 The Army and the Land
23

Note. The following list is very lengthy. It should be used selectively for general reading for the
module and to prepare for seminars, the coursework essay and the exam. Particularly important
works are identified by asterisks. Works cited in sections 1-2 are cited in section 3 in abbreviated
form.

1
1.1

GENERAL

General histories

The following are good introductory surveys which briefly discuss the period studied in this
module in the course of wider accounts of Roman history:
J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray, The Roman World (Oxford, 1986)
T. Cornell and J. F. Matthews, Atlas of the Roman World (London, Phaidon: 1982)

9
The following are both stimulating short accounts of the period, which is everyone is
recommended to read:
*P. A. Brunt, Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic (London, Chatto: 1971), chs. 4-6
*M. H. Crawford, The Roman Republic (London, Fontana: 2nd edn, 1992), chs. 5-15
H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero (London, Routledge: 5th. edn., 1982), remains a very
useful textbook. Chs. 1-7, 9-10 cover the period.
D. Shotter, The Fall of the Roman Republic (London, Routledge: 1994) is a rather pedestrian
survey.
*The second edition of the Cambridge Ancient History, volume IX, The Last Age of the Roman
Republic 146-43 BC (1994), is now the standard history of the period. Chs. 1-7, 9-10 cover
Roman political history, and there are important studies of aspects of Roman society in chs. 1619. (NB the first edition of this volume (1932) has long been outdated and is now effectively
superseded.)

1.2

Roman political life

*M. Beard and M. Crawford, Rome in the Late Republic (London, Duckworth: 2nd edn, 1999)
is not a narrative history, but a stimulating introduction to Roman politics and society in the
period.
*J. R. Patterson, Political Life in the City of Rome (London, Duckworth: 1999) is a good, short
introduction to the working of the Roman political system set against the topography of the city
of Rome.
A. W. Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (1999) is a reliable guide to the workings
of the political system.
There are two lively essays on the politics of the Late Republic, by T. P.Wiseman and J. Paterson,
in T. P. Wiseman (ed.), Roman Political Life 90 BC-AD 69 (Exeter University Press, 1985).
L. R. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1964), chs. 1-5 is an excellent account of the
workings of the political system in the Late Republic. Chs. 6-8 remain a useful account of the
political history of the 60's and 50's.
M.I. Finley, Politics in the Ancient World (1983) has many acute remarks about the Roman
political system in contrast with those of Greek cities, especialy on popular participation.
F. Millar, The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic (1998) argues for the importance of popular
participation in the politics of the Late Republic. For a critique of this view see H. Mouritsen,
Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (2001).
For further information on voting and assemblies see E. S. Staveley, Greek and Roman Voting
and Elections (1972); L. R. Taylor, Roman Voting Assemblies (1973); A. Yakobson, Elections

10
and Electioneering in Rome (1999).
On the growth of political violence see A. W. Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome (Oxford,
1968; revised edition, 1999); W. Nippel, Public Order in Ancient Rome (Cambridge, 1995), esp.
Ch. 2.
T. R. S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic (1951-2, 1986) gives a complete
listing of the magistrates with summaries of their activities and the sources: this is an invaluable
work of reference.
See further below topics 3.1, 10

1.3

Biographies

For the earlier part of the period, the following bibliographies are particularly useful: A. E. Astin,
Scipio Aemilianus (1967); D. Stockton, The Gracchi (1979); R. J. Evans, Gaius Marius: A
Political Biography (1994); A. Keaveney, Sulla: The Last Republican (1982).
The best biography of a politician of the Late Republic remains *M. Gelzer, Caesar: Politician
and Statesman (Eng. trans., 1968), an excellent, detailed narrative account of the period.
Also recommended for the Late Republic are: C. Meier, Caesar (1995); T. N. Mitchell, Cicero:
the Ascending Years (1979), Cicero: the Senior Statesman (1991); R. Seager, Pompey, A
Political Biography (2nd edn, 2002); D. Stockton, Cicero, A Political Biography (1971); W. J.
Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (1999).
There are further biographical studies for Cicero (E. Rawson, and others), Crassus (F. E. Adcock,
B. Marshall, A. M. Ward), Lucullus (A. Keaveney), and Pompey (J. Leach, P. Greenhalgh).

1.4

Other studies

*K. Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (1978), ch.1, 'Conquerors and slaves: the impact of
conquering an empire on the political economy of Italy', is a very stimulating account of some of
the central themes of the module, which everyone should read.
*'The Fall of the Roman Republic', ch. 1 in P. A. Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic and
Related Essays (Oxford, 1988), is a very important discussion of why the Republic fell, which
everyone should read before completing the module. The volume also contains several other
important studies, notably ch. 5, 'The Army and the Land in the Roman Revolution' and the
studies of the Roman political system in chs 6-9.
E. S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974) is a very long-winded attempt
to minimize the strains in the Roman political system in the Late Republic and to argue that the
outbreak of civil war was an accident (cf. the review by M. H. Crawford, in Journal of Roman
Studies 66 [1976], 214-7). However, its surveys of various aspects of the period 78-49 BC are

11
often very useful. Also useful for the earlier part of our period is Gruens Roman Politics and the
Criminal Courts, 149-78 BC (1968).
W. V. Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327-70 BC (Oxford, 1979), chs. 1-2 is
good on the role of war and the profits of war in Roman life.
P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC-AD 14 (Oxford, 1971, rev. repr. 1987) is the fundamental
work of reference on manpower and a host of related issues.

2
2.1

SOURCES

Late Republican writers

*CICERO's letters and speeches are a rich source of contemporary material for the politics of the
later part of the period, and his writings contain many allusions to earlier events.
Selected works available in various volumes in Penguin Classics volumes (e.g. Selected
Letters, Selected Political Speeches) or in Oxford Worlds Classics (Defence Speeches). The
standard editions and translations of the letters are those by D. Shackleton Bailey. Translations
of all Ciceros works are available in the Loeb Classical Library. Lacey and Wilson, Res Publica
(below, 2.3) is a good collection of material from Cicero on Roman politics and society.
*SALLUST (prob. 86-35 B.C.) retired from politics to write history from a moralizing and to
some extent popularis perspective. His monographs on The Jugurthine War and The Catilinarian
Conspiracy are the earliest Roman historical works to survive intact and provide important,
though partisan, information on the politics of the period. Available in Penguin Classics;
recommended buy.
The Penguin edition unfortunately does not include the chapter divisions normally used
for reference; they are, however, on the headers at the top of each page.
Note the general reflections on Roman politics at Jug. 41-42 (Penguin pp. 77-9, Cat. 37-9
(Penguin pp. 203-5).
Sallusts last work, the Histories, was a large-scale annalistic history of the period from
78 BC to the mid-sixties. Some of the surviving fragments give important information on the
politics of the 70's; they include speeches. Selection available in translation in Lactor no. 6;
complete two-volume translation by P. McGushin.
CAESAR, The Gallic Wars and The Civil Wars are mainly accounts of his military campaigns,
but contain some important sections on political developments. The poetry of CATULLUS vividly
illuminates upper-class life in the last years of the Republic.

12
2.2

Later writers

For continuous narratives of events we depend on writers living long after the Late Republic,
several of them writing in Greek rather than Latin. These writers drew on lost historical accounts:
their sources may have included the lost books of Livys history and (at least for the fifties BC)
Asinius Pollios history of the civil wars. However, our sources selected, shaped and interpreted
their material in accordance with their own objectives. The following writers are particularly
important sources for the period:
*APPIAN (mid-2nd century A.D.) was an Alexandrian Greek with a post in the imperial civil
service. He wrote a history of Rome in Greek arranged not in the traditional year-by-year fashion,
but by regions and wars, including.five books on The Civil Wars. Our period is covered in Civil
Wars 1.7-2.33: this forms our main narrative account down to c. 70 BC, and a useful brief
narrative thereafter. Everyone must own Appian, Civil Wars (Penguin Classics).
*PLUTARCH (c.A.D.50-120). Wrote lives of famous Greeks and Romans in comparative pairs,
in Greek. Everyone must own the Oxford Worlds Classics volume Plutarch, Roman Lives,
which includes the lives of the Gracchi, Marius, Sulla, Pompey and Caesar. (Further lives, such
as Cicero, Crassus, available in Penguin Classics editions.)
*SUETONIUS (writing in the early second century) wrote biographies of the emperors in Latin,
beginning with Julius Caesar. His life of Julius Caesar is a major source for Caesar and the Late
Republic (the best available translation is the Oxford Worlds Classics volume Suetonius, Lives
of the Caesars; recommended buy).
CASSIUS DIO (sometimes referred to as Dio Cassius or just Dio) wrote a history of Rome,
arranged year by year, in Greek in the early third century AD. Books 36-40 dealing with the
period BC 69-50 survive largely intact and are the fullest surviving narrative account of the
period. Translation available in Loeb Classical Library edition of Dio's Roman History, vol. 3.

2.3

Other sources, sourcebooks

In addition to the continuous narratives listed above, a wide variety of different source material
is available. This is most easily accessed through sourcebooks. The two most important
sourcebooks for this period (both good buys) are:
*D.L. Stockton, From the Gracchi to Sulla, in the Lactor series: a very valuable
collection of translated sources for 133-80 B.C.
*W. K. Lacey and B. W. G. Wilson, Res Publica: Roman Politics and Society
according to Cicero (repr. Bristol University Press): an excellent selection of source material
(mostly from Cicero) on political and social life in the Late Republic.
Other useful sourcebooks include:
N. Lewis and M. Reinhold, Roman Civilization, vol. 1: much useful material on the
Republic, as also in A. H. M. Jones, A History of Rome through the Fifth Century vol.1.
J. Sabben-Clare, Caesar and Roman Politics 60-50 BC: a detailed collection of sources
for political developments in the 50's.

13
Lactor no. 7, Roman Politics, another useful collection of source material on political life
in the Late Republic.
The standard work of reference on the coinage is M. H. Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage
(Cambridge, 1972). For a good brief account see A. Burnett, Coinage in the Roman World
(London, 1987).
There are a number of good handbooks on art and architecture, e.g. A. Boethius, Etruscan and
Early Roman Architecture (1978).
You may also be able to access some of the ancient sources for the period on the internet.

TOPICS

Note. Other works cited in the previous two sections will also be found useful for many of these
topics. Works already cited there may be referred to here in abbreviated form.

3.1

The Roman political system in the second century BC

Sources:
No one should miss the survey of the Roman constitution by a well-informed Greek writing in the
mid-second century BC in *Polybius Book 6, especially 11-18, 51-7 (helpful notes in F. W.
Walbank's Commentary). On the early career of Scipio see Polybius 31.22-30, 35.4.
(Livy, Books 31-45 gives much valuable information on politics in the period 200-167)
Bibliography:
See also general works on the Roman political system cited at 1.2 above.
The following are good discussions of the Roman political system:
*A. E. Astin, 'Roman government and politics, 200-134 B.C.', in Cambridge Ancient
History VIII, 2nd. edn., ch. 6 (pp. 163-196)
*F. G. B. Millar, 'The political character of the classical Roman Republic, 200-151 BC',
Journal of Roman Studies 74 (1984), 1-19
J. A. North, 'Democratic politics in Republican Rome', Past & Present 126 (1990), 3-21.
A. W. Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (1999).
On the impact of new wealth see W. V. Harris, War and Imperialism in Republican Rome 327-70

14
B.C., ch. 2.
On the question how exclusive the Roman governing class was see Brunt, Journal of Roman
Studies 72 (1982), 1-12 and M.K. Hopkins, Death and Renewal (1983), 31-119. The classic study
of the Roman governing class, from which Brunt, Hopkins and Millar have recently reacted is M.
Gelzer, The Roman Nobility (first published 1912; English trans., 1969).
A. E. Astin, Scipio Aemilianus (1967), chs. 2-14 is an excellent discussion of new trends in the
mid-second century BC and of the role of Scipio Aemilianus.
On the controversial activities of tribunes in the years before 133 see *L.R.Taylor, 'Forerunners
of the Gracchi', Journal of Roman Studies 52 (1962), 19 ff.

3.2

Agrarian change and manpower problems in the second century B.C.

Sources:
The chief sources on the agrarian crisis are *Appian, Civil Wars 1.7ff; *Plutarch, Tiberius
Gracchus 8ff. They appear to draw on a common (unknown) source.
Cato, On Agriculture, the earliest Roman agricultural handbook, is a key document on agrarian
change (translation in Loeb Classical Library; well discussed by A.E.Astin, Cato the Censor
(1978), ch.11). Extracts from these and other sources: Frank, Economic Survey of Ancient Rome
I.158-75, 232-35, Lewis and Reinhold I.227ff, 441ff.; Jones I.103ff; Stockton, From the Gracchi
to Sulla 1-4.
Bibliography:
**M.K. Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves (1978), ch.1 is a challenging treatment of the whole
problem, which everyone should read. Other valuable treatments of the impact of empire on the
free poor are A.E. Astin, Scipio Aemilianus (1967), ch.13: Brunt, Social Conflicts 1-42, 60ff;
Crawford, Roman Republic ch.9; D. Stockton, The Gracchi (1979), 6ff., 206 ff.; Cambridge
Ancient History , 2nd edn, VIII.232 ff., 495 ff., *IX.53 ff., 600 ff.
All these works discuss agrarian change. This topic has been illuminated by field surveys and villa
excavations in Etruria and elsewhere. Discussions include: D.W. Rathbone, 'The Development of
Agriculture in the "Ager Cosanus" during the Roman Republic: Problems of Evidence and
Interpretation', Journal of Roman Studies 71 (1981), 10-23; K. Greene, The Archaeology of the
Roman Economy (1986), chs. 4-5; T.W.Potter, Roman Italy (1987), ch.5; G. Barker and J. Lloyd,
Roman Landscapes (1992), esp. chs. 16 ff.; N. Morley, Metropolis and Hinterland: The City of
Rome and the Italian Economy 200 BC - AD 200 (1996), ch. 4. On the Southern Etruria survey
see Potter, The Changing Landscape of Southern Etruria (1979), 120-37.
For further discussions of the problems of the levy, taking the view that there came to be a
shortage of assidui (men with the property qualification), see E. Gabba, Republican Rome, the
Army and the Allies, ch.11; P.A.Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C.- A.D.14, ch.22; Harris, War

15
and Imperialism in Republican Rome 44-50.
*J.W. Rich, 'The Supposed Roman Manpower Shortage of the late second century B.C.', Historia
22 (1983), 287-331 [further copy in Short Loan Collection], challenges the traditional
interpretation of the crisis, arguing that there was no shortage of assidui.
In general on agriculture and military service see now N. Rosenstein, Republican Rome in K.
Raaflaub and N. Rosenstein, War and Society in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds (1999), 193216. In general on the army in this period see L. J. F. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army
ch. 2.
On building at Rome in the second century B.C. see F. Coarelli, Papers of the British School at
Rome 45 (1977), 1-23, who explodes the theory of an 'urban crisis' put forward by H.C. Boren,
American Historical Review 63 (1958), 89ff. (reprinted in R. Seager (ed.), The Crisis of the
Roman Republic).

3.3

The tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 BC

Sources:
Appian, Civil Wars 1.7-17; Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus; Stockton, From the Gracchi to Sulla
1-20.
Bibliography:
*A.E.Astin, Scipio Aemilianus (1967), chs.15-16.
*E.Badian, 'Tiberius Gracchus and the Beginning of the Roman Revolution', in H. Temporini
(ed.), Aufstieg und Niedergang der rmischen Welt I.1.668-731 (copy in Short Loan Collection;
important on the constitutional issues)
*D.Stockton, The Gracchi (1979), chs.1-4.
*Cambridge Ancient History 2nd edn, IX.40-77 (A. W. Lintott).
[A.H.Bernstein, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus: Tradition and Apostasy is only to be used with
caution. D.C.Earl, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus is unfortunately not in the Library].
M.G.Morgan and J.Walsh, 'Ti.Gracchus, the Numantine affair and the Deposition of M.Octavius',
Classical Philology 73 (1978), 200-9.
On the issues addressed by Tiberius Gracchus= agrarian law see above section 3. The law is
discussed in the context of Roman arrangements for public land by D. J. Gargola, Land, Laws and
Gods: Magistrates and Ceremony in the Regulation of Public Lands in Republican Rome (1995),
ch. 8.

16

3.4

From the death of Tiberius Gracchus to the death of Gaius Gracchus (132-121 BC)

Sources:
Appian, Civil Wars 1.18-28; Plutarch, Gaius Gracchus; Stockton, From the Gracchi to Sulla
22-57.
(The text of an extortion law almost certainly that of Gaius Gracchus, survives. For recent
editions with translation and commentary see A. W. Lintott, Judicial Reform and Land Reform
in the Roman Republic (1992) 10 ff., 73 ff.; M. H. Crawford, Roman Statutes I.39 ff)
Bibliography:
*D.Stockton, The Gracchi chs.5-8.
*Cambridge Ancient History 2nd edn, IX.77-86 (A. W. Lintott).
There are important discussions of various aspects of Gaius' activity in the following works by
E.Badian: Foreign Clientelae 174-91, 299-301; Roman Imperialism in the late Republic 44-50;
Publicans and Sinners ch.3.
*On the corn law see P.Garnsey, Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World (1988),
182-97 or his article (with D.Rathbone) in Journal of Roman Studies 75 (1985), 20-6.
On the Italian allies see A. Keaveney, Rome and the Unification of Italy (1987), 47-75 and the
other works cited at section 3.6 below.
A.N.Sherwin White, 'The Lex Repetundarum and the Political Ideas of Gaius Gracchus', Journal
of Roman Studies 72 (1982), 18-31 discusses what can be learned about his political programme
from the text of Gaius' extortion law. On the equites and the courts see further section 3.7 below.

3.5

Roman politics, 121-91 BC

Sources:
Sallust, Jugurthine War, especially 20-43, 63-65, 84-86
Plutarch, Marius 1-32
Appian, Civil Wars 1.28-33, 55-78
Stockton, From the Gracchi to Sulla.
Some fragments of the laws of the period suggest that Saturninus and Glaucia were more
responsible reformers that the literary sources allow. Of these the most impressive is the law about

17
piracy and other matters affecting the eastern provinces: see M. H. Crawford, Roman Statutes
I.231 ff. (text, translation and commentary).
For the land law of 111 BC see Lintott, Judicial Reform and Land Reform in the Roman
Republic 34 ff., 171 ff.; Crawford, Roman Statutes I.39 ff., 113 ff.
Bibliography:
See also below topics 3.6-7.
R. J. Evans, Gaius Marius: A Political Biography (Pretoria, 1994). This supersedes the
unsatisfactory earlier biography by T. F. Carney (1961).
Cambridge Ancient History 2nd edn, IX.86-103 (A. W. Lintott).
.
*A.N.Sherwin-White, Journal of Roman Studies 46 (1956), 1-5 is important on Marius' career
down to 100 B.C.
For important discussions by E. Badian see his Foreign Clientelae, 193-240 and 'Marius and the
Nobles' in Durham University Journal 56 (1964), 141ff.. Note also his remarks in Historia 11
(1962), 214-9 (reprinted in Seager, Crisis of the Roman Republic 20-5) and his very speculative
account of Marius' political position after 100 B.C. in Historia 6 (1957), 318ff. (reprinted in
Badian, Studies in Greek and Roman History (1964), 34-70).
In general on political life in this period see the very important paper by F. Millar, 'Politics,
Persuasion and the People before the Social War (150-90 BC)', Journal of Roman Studies 76
(1986), 1-11.
The account of the period in E.S. Gruen, Roman Politics and the Criminal Courts (1968),
chs.4-7, is useful.
In general on Marius and the army see L. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army (1984),
chs.1-2. On the significance of the enrolment of capite censi see E. Gabba, Republican Rome,
the Army and the Allies, ch.1; P.A. Brunt, Italian Manpower, ch.22; *J.W. Rich, Historia 32
(1983), 287-332, esp. 323ff. (challenging orthodoxy).

3.6

The Italian allies, the origins of the Social War and the rebels aims in the war

Sources:
The Italian issue in Roman politics: Appian, Civil Wars 1.18 ff, 34ff; Stockton, From the Gracchi
to Sulla 26ff., 115ff.
In general on the Italian allies see the source material in *K. Lomas, Roman Italy 338 BC- AD
200 (1996); also Lewis and Reinhold I.76-88, 157, 161-5.

18
Bibliography:
The most valuable treatments of the Italian allies, the origins of the Social War and the rebels
aims in the war are now:
*P.A. Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic and related Essays 93-143 (a revised
version of his article in Journal of Roman Studies 55 (1965), 90-109).
A.N. Sherwin-White, The Roman Citizenship (2nd ed. 1973), ch.5.
*H. Mouritsen, Italian Unification: A Study in Ancient and Modern
Historiography (1998), 109 ff. This is a challenging critique of traditional views, minimizing the
extent to which the allies had become romanized or sought the citizenship. See the review by G.
Bradley, Journal of Roman Archaeology 15 (2002), 401-6.
*M. Pobjoy, The first Italia, in E. Herring and K. Lomas, The Emergence of State
Identities in Italy in the First Millenium BC (2000), 187-211.
Other useful discussions include:
E. Badian, Foreign Clientelae, chs. 6,8-9
E. T. Salmon, The Making of Roman Italy (1982), chs 3-5.
E. Gabba, Republican Rome, Army and the Allies, ch.3.
A. Keaveney, Rome and the Unification of Italy (1987), 1-113 (focuses on Roman
politics).
Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edn, vol. VIII, chs 7, 13, vol. IX.104 ff. (E. Gabba, J.-P.
Morel).
J.-M. David, The Roman Conquest of Italy (1994).
T.W.Potter, Roman Italy (1987) is a good broad survey of Italy throughout the Roman period.
On particular regions see E.T. Salmon, Samnium and the Samnites (1967); W.V. Harris, Rome
in Etruria and Umbria (1971); M.W. Frederiksen, Campania (1984); K. Lomas, Rome and the
Western Greeks 350 BC - AD 200 (1993). On Roman colonization see E.T. Salmon, Roman
colonization under the Republic (1969). In general on the Italian alliance in the second century
BC see also A. J. Toynbee, Hannibals Legacy (1965), vol. 2, esp. ch. 4 (good map of the
political organization of Italy in back pocket).
On Italian numbers see P.A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C.- A.D.14, pp. 44 ff (interpreting
the evidence of Polybius 2.23-24). For the possibility that the allies (unlike Roman citizens) may
still have had to pay taxes to maintain their troops see C. Nicolet, Papers of the British School
at Rome 46 (1978), 1-11. On the ratio of allied to citizen troops see Brunt, Italian Manpower
677-686; Rich, Historia 1983, 321-3.

3.7

The Equites and the criminal courts

*P.A.Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic and related Essays chs.3-4, a revised version of his
paper in R. Seager (ed.), The Crisis of the Roman Republic 83ff.
*E.Badian, Publicans and Sinners (1972).
A. W. Lintott, Judicial Reform and Land Reform in the Roman Republic (1992), ch. 2.

19

E.S. Gruen, Roman Politics and the Criminal Courts (1968)

T.P.Wiseman, 'The Definition of 'Eques Romanus' in the Late Republic and Early Empire',
Historia 19 (1970), 67-83.

3.8

The civil wars of the Eighties and the dictatorship of Sulla

Sources: Plutarch, Sulla; Appian, Civil Wars 1.55 ff; select sources in D. L. Stockton, From the
Gracchi to Sulla (Lactor no. 13). Selections from Cicero's speech For Roscius of Ameria,
delivered under Sulla's dictatorship in Lacey and Wilson, Res Publica 17-31.
*R. Seager, 'Sulla', in Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edn, vol. IX, ch. 6.
E. Badian, Lucius Sulla, the Deadly Reformer (Sydney, 1970).
E. Badian, Foreign Clientelae (264 - 70 BC) (Oxford, 1958), 233 ff.
A. Keaveney, Sulla, the Last Republican (1982).
NB Brunt, Social Conflicts 120 ff on Sulla's reforms.

3.9

The rise of Pompey and the collapse of the Sullan Settlement

Sources: Plutarch, Pompey 1-26; Appian, Civil Wars 1.105-24; Sallust, fragments of the
Histories in Lactor no. 7 or in the translation by P. McGushin; Cicero, First Verrine. Selections
in Lacey and Wilson, Res Publica 34-70.
*R. Seager, 'The rise of Pompey', in Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edn, vol. IX, ch. 7.
R. Seager, Pompey, A Political Biography chs 1-3.
Badian, Foreign Clientelae 265-84.
E. S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic ch. 1.
On Pompey's first consulship see the important discussions by A. N. Sherwin-White, 'Violence
in Roman politics', Journal of Roman Studies 46 (1956), 5-9 (reprinted in R. Seager (ed.), The
Crisis of the Roman Republic [1973], 155-9) and D. L. Stockton, 'The first consulship of
Pompey', Historia 22 (1973), 205-18.

20
3.10

Roman politics in the Sixties BC

Contemporary sources: *Cicero's letters - fewer surviving than for later periods, but there are
important letters on his campaign for the consulship and on events in 62-60 (e.g. Penguin Selected
Letters nos. 3-4, 7-11).
Among Cicero's speeches note those on Pompey's command in 66 and on the agrarian law
in 63.
The principal sources on Catiline's conspiracy are Sallust's monograph and Cicero's
speeches (selections in Lacey and Wilson ch 3).
Later sources: *Suetonius, Julius Caesar 1-19; Plutarch's lives, esp. that of Caesar; Dio books
36-37.
Sourcebook: good selections in Lacey and Wilson, Res Publica 71-163.
*T. P. Wiseman, 'The Senate and the populares, 69-60 BC', in Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd
edn, vol. IX, ch. 9.
*Gelzer, Caesar ch. 2.
Seager, Pompey chs 4, 6-7.
Stockton, Cicero chs 3-7.
Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic 62-90, 416-33 (on Catiline).
On the political situation at the start of the year 63 see A. Drummond, >Tribunes and tribunician
programmes in 63 BC=, Athenaeum 87 (1999), 121-67. On Catiline see R. Syme, Sallust (1964),
chs 6-8.

3.11

From Caesar's consulship to the outbreak of civil war (59-49 BC)

Contemporary sources: *Cicero's letters are a rich source, particularly on events in 57-56
leading up to the conference of Luca and on the lead-up to the civil war from 51 (note especially
the letters written by Caelius to Cicero who was absent in Cilicia). A selection in *Penguin,
Selected Letters, esp. nos. 23, 25-6, 28, 38, 43, 56, 59-61.
Cicero's speeches made after his recall in 57 have much information on events in 58-56,
though focused mainly on his own concerns.
Caesar's point of view is presented in Gallic Wars 8.49-54 (by his lieutenant Hirtius) and
Civil Wars 1.1-11, 85.
Later sources: *Suetonius, Julius Caesar 20-33; relevant parts of Plutarch's lives, especially
those of Caesar and Pompey; Appian, Civil Wars 2.10-33; Dio, books 38-40.
Sourcebook: J. Sabben-Clare, Caesar and Roman Politics 60-50 BC.

21
*T. P. Wiseman, 'Caesar, Pompey and Rome, 59-50 BC', in Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edn,
vol. IX, ch. 10.
*Gelzer, Caesar chs. 3-4.
R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939), ch 3.
Seager, Pompey chs 8-12.
On Clodius see Tatum, The Patrician Tribune chs 5-8, and also below section 6.
For doubts about the authenticity of the later sources' account of the conference at Luca see A.
M. Ward, 'The conference of Luca: did it happen?', American Journal of Ancient History 5 (1980)
48-63.
The events leading up to the civil war have generated a huge bibliography. In addition to the
works cited above see e.g. *Gruen, Last Generation ch. 11; *D.Stockton, 'Quis iustius induit
arma?', Historia 24 (1975) 232-259; R.J.Rowland, 'Caesar's fear of prosecution in 49 B.C.',
Liverpool Classical Monthly 2 (1977) 165-6; P. A. Brunt, 'Cicero's Officium in the Civil War',
Journal of Roman Studies 76 (1986) 12-32.

3.12

Roman political life in the Late Republic

See also 1.2, 3.1 above.

Sources: see Lacey and Wilson, Res Publica chs. 5-6.
On elections see above all Cicero's speeches For Murena and For Plancius and the
Commentariolum Petitionis, which purports to be a letter to Cicero from his brother Quintus
advising him on his campaign for the consulship and is translated as A Short Guide to
Electioneering (Lactor no. 3). (Handout to be issued).
On optimates and populares see above all Cicero, For Sestius 94 ff. and Sallust,
Catilinarian Conspiracy 37-39.
*For good modern discussions see works cited in section 1.2 above, especially L. R. Taylor, Party
Politics in the Age of Caesar; Beard and Crawford, Rome in the Late Republic chs 4-5; Wiseman,
Roman Political Life chs 1-2; *J. R. Patterson, Political Life in the City of Rome (London,
Duckworth: 1999); *Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic ch 1 (and more detailed discussions
in chs 6-9).
On electoral corruption see A. W. Lintott, 'Electoral bribery in the Roman Republic', Journal of
Roman Studies 80 (1990), 1-16; A. Yakobson, 'Petitio et Largitio: Popular participation in the
centuriate assembly of the Late Republic', Journal of Roman Studies 82 (1992), 32-52. In general
on elections see A. Yakobson, Elections and Electioneering in Rome (1999), and other works
cited in 1.2 above.
On the Roman nobility and the sources of their electoral dominance see the classic study by M.

22
Gelzer, The Roman Nobility; but for criticisms of his approach see Brunt, Journal of Roman
Studies 72 (1982), 1-12 and in his The Fall of the Roman Republic; M. K. Hopkins, Death and
Renewal (1983), ch. 2.
On political ideology see C. Wirszubski, Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome during the Late
Republic and Early Principate (1950), esp. ch 2; Brunt, The Fall of the Roman Republic chs 1
and 6. On the meaning of the term popularis see R. Seager, Classical Quarterly 22 (1972), 32838.
On the city of Rome in the Late Republic see J. E. Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City (1988),
ch. 3.
On popular participation in politics and on violence in Roman political life see works cited in next
section.

3.13

The urban plebs in the Late Republic

*N. Purcell, 'The city of Rome and the plebs urbana in the late Republic', in Cambridge Ancient
History, 2nd edn, vol. IX, ch. 17.
*P. A. Brunt, 'The Roman Mob', Past and Present 35 (1966), 3ff., reprinted in M.I.Finley (ed.),
Studies in Ancient Society (1974), 74-102.
Gruen, Last Generation of the Roman Republic 358-65, 433ff.
*F. Millar, The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic (1998) argues for the importance of popular
participation in the politics of the Late Republic. For a powerful critique of this view see *H.
Mouritsen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (2001).
On violence see A. W. Lintott, Violence in Republican Rome (1968; 2nd edn 1999), especially
chs. 6 and 12; *W. Nippel, 'Policing Rome', Journal of Roman Studies 74 (1984), 20-29, and
Public Order in Ancient Rome (1995).
On the activity of Clodius see *A. W. Lintott, 'P. Clodius Pulcher - Felix Catilina', Greece and
Rome 14 (1967), 157-69; W. Rundell, >Cicero and Clodius: the question of credibility=,
Historia 28 (1979), 301-28; W. J. Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher
(1999).
P. J. J. Vanderbroeck, Popular Leadership and Collective Behaviour in the Late Roman Republic
(ca.80-50 BC) (1988) is turgid, but collects useful information.
On the living conditions of the poor see Z. Yavetz, 'The Living Conditions of the Urban Plebs in
Republican Rome', Latomus 17 (1958), 500-17 (repr. in Seager, The Crisis of the Roman
Republic 162-184); A. Scobie, >Slums, sanitation and mortality in the Roman world=, Klio 68
(1986), 399-433.

23
On the problems of the food-supply see *P. Garnsey, Famine and Food-Supply in the GraecoRoman World (1988), ch. 13.
On freedmen see S. Treggiari, Roman Freedmen during the Late Republic (1969).

3.14

The army and the land

*P. A. Brunt, 'The army and the land in the Roman Revolution', ch. 5 of his The Fall of the
Roman Republic, a revised version of his article in Journal of Roman Studies 52 (1962), 69-86.
Gruen, Last Generation of the Roman Republic 365 ff.
L. de Blois, The Army and Politics in the First Century BC (1987) (tends to exaggerate the
professionalization of the late republican army).
On veteran settlement see Brunt, Italian Manpower chs. 18-19; *M. K. Hopkins, Conquerors and
Slaves 64ff.; L. J. F. Keppie, Colonization and Veteran Settlement in Italy 47-14 BC (1983).
In general on the army in this period see L. J. F. Keppie, The Making of the Roman Army ch. 4.
On numbers and terms of service see Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 BC - AD 14 chs. 22ff.
On the society and economy of Italy in the late Republic see C. Nicolet in Cambridge Ancient
History, 2nd edn, vol. IX, ch. 16.
See also works cited at 3.2 above.