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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
NOTATION
8.0
8.1
8.2
FLEXURE
8.2.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.1.1 Stage 1 Loading
8.2.1.1.2 Stage 2 Loading
8.2.1.1.3 Stage 3 Loading
8.2.1.1.4 Stage 4 Loading
8.2.1.1.5 Stage 5 Loading
8.2.1.1.5.1 Tensile Stresses - Normal Strength Concrete
8.2.1.1.5.2 Tensile Stresses - High Strength Concrete
8.2.1.1.5.3 Tensile Stresses - LRFD Specifications
8.2.1.2 Allowable Concrete Stresses
8.2.1.2.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.1.2.2 LRFD Specifications
8.2.1.3 Design Procedure
8.2.1.4 Composite Section Properties
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.5 Harped Strand Considerations
8.2.1.6 Debonded Strand Considerations
8.2.1.7 Minimum Strand Cover and Spacing
8.2.1.8 Design Example
8.2.1.8.1 Design Requirement 1
8.2.1.8.2 Design Requirement 2
8.2.1.8.3 Design Requirement 3
8.2.1.8.3.1 Strand Debonding
8.2.1.8.3.2 Harped Strands
8.2.1.8.3.3 Other Methods to Control Stresses
8.2.1.8.4 Design Requirement 4
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.2.2 Flexural Strength Design
8.2.2.1 Theory
8.2.2.2 Standard Specifications
8.2.2.2.1 Ultimate Moment Capacity
8.2.2.2.1.1 Required Parameters
8.2.2.2.1.2 Rectangular Section
8.2.2.2.1.3 Flanged Section
8.2.2.2.2 Maximum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.2.3 Minimum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.3 LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.3.1 Nominal Flexural Resistance
8.2.2.3.1.1 Required Parameters
8.2.2.3.1.2 Rectangular Sections
8.2.2.3.1.3 Flanged Sections
8.2.2.3.2 Maximum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.3.3 Minimum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.4 Flexural Strength Design Example
8.2.2.4.1 Design Requirement 1
8.2.2.4.1.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.2.4.1.2 LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.4.2 Design Requirement 2
8.2.2.5 Strain Compatibility Approach
8.2.2.6 Design Example - Strain Compatibility
8.2.2.6.1 Part l - Flexural Capacity
8.2.2.6.2 Part 2 - Comparative Results
8.2.3 Design of Negative Moment Regions for Members Made Continuous for Live
Loads
8.2.3.1 Strength Design
8.2.3.2 Reinforcement Limits - Standard Specifications
8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Limits - LRFD Specifications
8.2.3.4 Serviceability
8.2.3.5 Fatigue in Deck Reinforcement
8.3
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.3.2 Strand Development Length
8.3.2.1 Impact on Design
8.3.2.2 Standard Specifications
8.3.2.3 LRFD Specifications
8.3.2.4 Factors Affecting Development Length
8.3.2.5 Bond Studies
8.3.2.6 Recommendations
8.4
SHEAR
8.4.1 Standard Specifications
8.4.1.1 Flexure-Shear Strength, Vci
8.4.1.2 Web-Shear Strength, Vcw
8.4.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs
8.4.1.3.1 Minimum Spacing Requirements
8.4.1.3.2 Minimum Shear Reinforcement
8.4.1.4 Application of Standard Specifications to Continuous Spans
8.4.2 1979 Interim Revisions
8.4.3 LRFD Specifications
8.4.3.1 Shear Design Provisions
8.4.3.1.1 Nominal Shear Resistance
8.4.3.1.2 Concrete Contribution, Vc
8.4.3.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs
8.4.3.1.4 Values of and
8.4.3.2 Design Procedure
8.4.3.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement
8.4.4 Comparison of Shear Design Methods
8.5
8.6
LOSS OF PRESTRESS
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
8.6.3 Significance of Losses on Design
8.6.4 Effects of Estimation of Losses
8.6.4.1 Effects at Transfer
8.6.4.2 Effect on Production Costs
8.6.4.3 Effect on Camber
8.6.4.4 Effect of Underestimating Losses
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.6.5 Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation Material Properties
8.6.5.1 Prediction of Creep Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.1.1 Creep Modification Factors
8.6.5.1.2 Modification Factors for Strength
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2 Prediction of Shrinkage Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.2.1 Shrinkage Modification Factors
8.6.5.2.2 Modification Factors for Strength
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.5.3 Prediction of Relaxation of the Prestressing Steel
8.6.6 Methods for Estimating Losses
8.6.7 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.7.1 Computation of Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.7.2 Elastic Shortening Example
8.6.8 Losses from the Standard Specifications
8.6.8.1 Shrinkage Loss
8.6.8.2 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.6.8.4 Steel Relaxation Loss
8.6.8.5 Lump Sum Losses
8.6.9 Standard Specifications Example
8.6.10 Losses from the LRFD Specifications
8.6.10.1 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.10.2 Shrinkage and Creep Losses
8.6.10.3 Steel Relaxation Loss
8.6.10.4 Washington State Study
8.6.11 LRFD Specifications Example
8.6.12 Losses by the Tadros Method
8.6.12.1 Tadros Method Example
8.7
8.8
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.8.2 Design of Bridge Decks Using Precast Panels
8.8.2.1 Determining Prestress Force
8.8.2.2 Service Load Stresses and Flexural Strength
8.8.2.3 Standard Specifications
8.8.2.3.1 Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Requirements
8.8.2.3.4 Shear Design
8.8.2.3.5 Crack Control
8.8.2.4 LRFD Specifications
8.8.2.4.1 LRFD Specifications Refined Analysis
8.8.2.4.2 LRFD Specifications Strip Method
8.8.2.4.2.1 Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.4.2.2 Minimum Concrete Cover
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.4 Location of Critical Sections
8.8.2.4.2.5 Design Criteria
8.8.2.4.2.6 Reinforcement Requirements
8.8.2.4.2.7 Shear Design
8.8.2.4.2.8 Crack Control
8.8.3 Other Precast Bridge Deck Systems
8.8.3.1 Continuous Precast Concrete SIP Panel System, NUDECK
8.8.3.1.1 Description of NUDECK
8.8.3.2 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Panels
8.8.4 LRFD Specifications Empirical Design Method
8.9
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.9.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning Detailing for Skewed Bridges
8.10
8.11
8.12
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CHAPTER 8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
8.12.5 Pier Cap Example
8.12.5.1 Flow of Forces and Truss Geometry
8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss
8.12.5.3 Bearing Stresses
8.12.5.4 Reinforcement for Tension Tie DE
8.12.5.5 Strut Capacities
8.12.5.6 Nodal Zone at Pier
8.12.5.7 Minimum Reinforcement for Crack Control
8.13
8.14
REFERENCES
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
A
A
Ac
Ac
Acv
Acs
Ag
Ak
Ao
Aps
As
As
Asf
Asr
Ass
Ast
A*s
As
Av
Av
Avf
Avh
Av-min
a
a
a
b
b
b
b
b
bb
bv
bv
bv
bw
Ca
= width of beam
[STD]
= width of top flange of beam
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NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
CRc
CRs
C(t,t0)
C(t,tj)
Cb(t,t3)
Cd(t,t3)
Cu
Cu
c
c
D
D
DC
DW
d
db
de
dext
di
dp
ds
dv
d
E
Ec
Ecb(t3)
Ecd(t3)
Ec(tj)
Ec(t0)
Ec(t,t0)
Eci
Ep
ES
Es
Es
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
E*c
E*cb
E*cd
E*c(t,t0)
E*ck
e
ec
eg
ei
em
ep
FSc
FSf
Fb
Fcj
Fpi
f
fb
f c
f c
fcds
fcir
f ci
f ci
fcgp
fcu
ff
fmin
fpbt
fpc
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
fpc
fpe
fpe
fpi
fpj
fpo
fps
fpu
fpy
fr
fs
f s
fse
fsi
f *su
f(tj)
fr(t,t0)
f(t0)
fy
fy
fy
f y
fyh
H
h
h
h
hcg
hd
hf
hr
I
= deck thickness
12
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
I
Ik
IM
Ieff
Ig
K
Kr
K
k
kc
kcp
kla
kh
ks
ksh
kst
L
L
L
L
L
LL
Lr
Lx
l
ld
lt
Mc
Mcr
Mcr(t)
M*cr
Md/nc
Mel
Mg
Mg
Mgmsp
Mk
= impact fraction
= moment of inertia of element k
= dynamic load allowance
= effective cracked section lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia
= gross lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia
= factor used for calculating time-dependent losses
= factor used for calculating relaxation loss in strand that occurs prior
to transfer
= sum of rotational spring constants of supports
= factor used in calculation of average stress in pretensioning steel
for strength limit state; factor related to type of strand
[LRFD]
= product of applicable correction factors for creep = kla kh ks
= correction factor for curing period
= correction factor for loading age
= correction factor for relative humidity
= correction factor for size of member
= product of applicable correction factors for shrinkage = kcp kh ks
= correction factor for concrete strength
= live load
= length in feet of the span under consideration for positive
moment and the average of two adjacent loaded spans for
negative moment
= overall beam length or design span
= span length measured parallel to longitudinal beams
= span length
= vehicular live load
= intrinsic relaxation of the strand
= distance from end of prestressing strand to center of the panel
= overall length of beam
= development length
= transfer length
= moment in concrete beam section
= cracking moment
= restraint moment due to creep at time t
= cracking moment
= moment due to non-composite dead loads
= fictious elastic restraint moment at the supports
= unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight
= self-weight bending moment of beam at harp point
= self-weight bending moment at midspan
= element moment
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
Mlat
MLL
Mmax
Mn
Mn
Mn/dc
Mr
Msh
Msr(t)
Msw
Mu
Mx
M0
M0k
m
N
Nk
Nc
Ns
Nu
N0k
N0
n
nk
ns
PPR
Pc
Pn
Pr
Pse
Psi
Q
R
RH
Rn
Ru
r
r
S
S
= stress ratio
= first moment of inertia of the area above the fiber being considered
= radius of curvature
= relative humidity
[STD]
= strength design factor
= radius of stability
= width of precast beam
[STD]
= spacing of beams
[STD], [LRFD]
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
S
S
Sb
Sbc
SH
SN
S(t,t0)
St
Su
s
s
s
t
t
t
tf
t0
ts
ts
Vc
Vc
Vci
Vcw
Vd
Vi
Vn
Vnh
Vp
Vp
Vs
Vs
Vu
= slab span
[LRFD]
= span between the inside faces of the beam webs
[LRFD]
= section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the
non-composite precast beam
= thickness of web
= thickness of flange
15
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
Vuh
vu
W
w
w
w
wc
x
y
yb
ybc
ybs
yk
yr
ys
yt
ytc
z
zmax
z o
z o
1
1
c
= deflection
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
fcdp
= strain
c
= strain in concrete beam
cr
= the time dependent creep strain
f
= the immediate strain due to the applied stress f
fc
= elastic strain in concrete
fk
= element strain
fs
= elastic strain in steel
k
= strain in element k
p
= strain in prestressing steel
s
= strain in mild steel
s
= tensile strain in cracked concrete in direction of tensile tie
sh
= free shrinkage strain
shb(t,t2) = shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t
shb(t3,t2) = shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t3
shd(t,t3) = shrinkage strain of the deck from time t3 to time t
shu
= ultimate free shrinkage strain in the concrete, adjusted for member
size and relative humidity
si
= strain in tendons corresponding to initial effective pretension
stress
x
= longitudinal strain in the web reinforcement on the flexural
tension side of the member
0c
= initial strain in concrete
1
= principal tensile strain in cracked concrete due to factored loads
*
= resistance factor
= curvature
c
= curvature at midspan
cr
= curvature due to creep
fk
= element curvature
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
k
0
L
R
i
max
max
b
*
(t,t0)
= curvature of element k
= curvature at support
= parameter used to determine friction coefficient
= Poissons ratio for beams
= coefficient of friction
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses
= roll angle of major axis of beam with respect to vertical
= left end rotation of beam due to simple span loads
= right end rotation of beam due to simple span loads
= initial roll angle of a rigid beam
= tilt angle at which cracking begins, based on tension at the top corner
equal to the modulus of rupture
= tilt angle at maximum factor of safety against failure
= reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain condition
= ratio of pretensioning reinforcement
= a factor that reflects the fact that the actual relaxation is less than
the intrinsic relaxation
= aging coefficient
= aging coefficient at certain time
[LRFD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
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CHAPTER 8
8.12
STRUT-AND-TIE
MODELING OF
DISTURBED REGIONS
Traditionally, models used in the analysis and design of concrete structures have been
based on elastic theory and the basic assumption that plane sections remain plane,
regardless of the loading. However, it is well known that disturbances do occur in
regions near discontinuities, for example, at concentrated loads and abrupt changes
in member dimensions. Such regions are referred to as disturbed regions.
Methods used to analyze and design disturbed regions must include procedures that
reflect the actual flow of stresses in such regions. In considering stress distribution
before cracking, it is customary to apply elastic methods of analysis, especially when
predicting where significant cracking will occur. Since significant stress redistribution
takes place after concrete cracks, elastic methods cannot adequately predict stresses
subsequent to cracking.
8.12.1
Introduction
A rational method for dealing with disturbed regions subsequent to cracking is the
use of strut-and-tie models. These models can give an excellent representation of the
flow of forces in disturbed regions of cracked concrete systems.
The theoretical basis of the method prescribed in the LRFD Specifications [Article
5.8.3.4.2] for the design of a section subjected to combined shear, axial load and flexure, is the modified compression field theory. This method considers the equilibrium
of forces acting on the idealized, variable-angle truss, the compatibility of strains, and
the effects of cracking of concrete. Simplifications in the method include the use of
average values of stresses and strains over a length greater than the crack spacing.
In a typical calculation for shear reinforcement, the sectional dimensions, prestressing and material strengths have been chosen and the shear design involves selection
of adequate shear reinforcement and, if necessary, additional longitudinal reinforcement.
Figure 8.12.1-1 shows that there are three types of regions that need to be considered
in general shear design of a beam as follows:
1) Regions that can be appropriately treated as a system of struts and ties. This
approach is discussed in this section.
2) Disturbed regions of fanning compressive stresses characterized by radiating
compressive stresses near supports and regions where the shear changes sign.
In such regions the value of varies.
3) Regions of uniform compressive stress fields where the value of is constant.
The second and third types of regions are discussed in Section 8.4.3 using the general modified compression field theory and the corresponding LRFD Specifications
procedure.
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CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.12.1-1
Disturbed Regions and
Regions of Uniform
Compression Fields
Compression strut
Tension tie
Uniform compression
field ( constant)
8.12.2
Strut-and-Tie Models
The LRFD Specifications encourage the use of strut-and-tie models in design where
appropriate. It has been determined through sophisticated analysis and laboratory
testing, that cracked reinforced concrete carries load mainly by development of a
truss system represented by compressive stresses in the concrete and tensile stresses
in the reinforcement. Furthermore, upon the occurrence of significant cracking, the
originally curved principal stress trajectories in concrete tend toward straight lines,
and it is appropriate to regard the resulting compressive forces as being carried by
straight compressive struts. Examples of strut-and-tie modeling of a simply supported
and a continuous deep beam are shown in Figures. 8.12.2-1a-1b and 8.12.2-2.
Figure 8.12.2-1a-1b
Strut-and-Tie Model for a
Simple Deep Beam
P
B
1
P
Nodal zone
0.85 f c max.
0.75 f c
f cu
Tension tie
Effective
anchorage
area
P
C
Truss node
Compression strut
s
A
P
Tension-tie
force
D
P
b) Truss Model
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CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.12.2-2
Strut-and-Tie Model for a
Continuous Deep Beam
Tension tie
Compression strut
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CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.12.2.1-1a-1b
Pier Cap under Symmetric
and Unsymmetric Lane
Loading
rebar tension
force couple
resultant
b) Unsymmetric Loads
In the first case of Figure 8.12.2.1-1a, the truss layout in the pier cap need only
meet the condition of developing a compression thrust at the bottom of the cap. In
the second case of Figure 8.12.2.1-1b, the truss must develop both the compression
and the tension force in the pier column. Clearly two different truss layouts could be
designed depending on which set of loads/boundary conditions was being considered
as shown in Figure 8.12.2.1-2a-2b. The truss in the Figure 8.12.2.1-2b would be
inverted if the trucks were at the other side of the roadway.
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CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.12.2.1-2a-2b
Truss Layouts for the
Different Load Cases
120k
120k
120k
120k
tie
strut
480k
a) Symmetric Truss
212k
132k
84k
52k
tie
strut
672k
192k
b) Unsymmetric Truss
It is essential in the development of a truss layout for strut-and-tie design that:
(1) all of the possible load combinations be identified.
(2) boundary forces, including internal forces from portions of the structure having
sectional type behavior, be calculated for each controlling load condition.
(3) appropriate strut-and-tie models be laid out and designed for each set of boundary
conditions.
8.12.2.2
Nodal Zone and
Member Dimensions
The nodal zones are regions where the struts and ties of the truss join. While the
truss diagrams of Figure 8.12.2.1-2a-2b idealize the truss members as connecting at
points, the actual structure has struts and ties with finite dimensions. The nodal zone
sizes are related to both the effective tie member sizes and the mechanism by which
exterior loads are transferred into the structure. As shown in Figure 8.12.2.2-1a-1c
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CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.12.2.2-1a-1c
Effects of Anchorage
Conditions on Cross-Sectional
Area of Strut
6d ba
la sins
6d ba
d ba
s
s
6d ba
6dba
d ba
la
Section x-x
a) Strut Anchored by Reinforcement
l b sins + ha cos s
lb
s
hs
6d b
ha
s
0.5h a
lb
b) Strut Anchored by
Bearing and Reinforcement
The strength of tension ties depends directly on the type and strength of reinforcing
used in the ties. Strengths of the individual truss strut members are normally controlled by the limits on stresses within the nodal zones. The nodal zone compressive
stresses are defined by the relation between compressive stress capacity and perpendicular tension strains invoked by compression stress field theory. Figure 8.12.2-1a
shows the principal tension strain, 1, which may exist perpendicular to the compression strut, BP. The strain, 1, is dependent on the truss geometry and the tensile strain
in adjoining truss members. The adverse effect of this tensile strain in the cracked
concrete must be considered in calculating the capacity of a strut. In such struts the
limiting compressive stress, fcu, is a function of f c and 1. The value of 1 is, in turn, a
function of the tension strain, s, in the cracked concrete in the direction of the tension tie, and the angle between strut and tie.
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CHAPTER 8
8.12.3
LRFD Specifications
Provisions for
Strut-and-Tie Models
LRFD Article 5.6.3.1 states that strut-and-tie models may be used to determine
internal force effects near supports and the points of application of concentrated
loads at strength and extreme event limit states. The statement appearing in the second paragraph of this article is stronger, and more specific, namely, the strut-and-tie
model should be considered for the design of deep footings and pile caps or other
situations in which the distance between the centers of applied load and the supporting reactions is less than about twice the member thickness.
LRFD Article 5.6.3 provides the following specifications for strut-and-tie modeling.
8.12.3.1
Compression Struts
8.12.3.1.1
Unreinforced Concrete Struts
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CHAPTER 8
The value of Acs depends on conditions of anchoring of the strut at the node (as
shown in Figure 8.12.2.2-1a-1c); e.g.
Strut anchored by reinforcement
Strut anchored by bearing and reinforcement
Strut anchored by bearing and strut
The following rules are prescribed for calculating the value of s for substitution in
LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.3.3-2:
For a tension tie consisting of reinforcing bars:
s = tensile strain in reinforcing bars due to factored loads
For tension tie consisting of prestressed reinforcement:
s = 0.0, up to decompression of concrete (i.e., fpe)
s = (fps fpe)/Ep, beyond decompression
If s varies over the width of the strut, s is taken as the strain at centerline of the strut.
8.12.3.1.2
Reinforced Concrete Struts
8.12.3.2
Tension Ties
LRFD Article 5.6.3.4.1 states that the nominal strength of a tension tie should be
calculated as:
Pn = fyAst + Aps(fpe + fy)
[LRFD Eq. 5.6.3.4.1-1]
where
fy = yield strength of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement
fpe = stress in prestressing steel due to prestress (after losses)
Ast = area of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement in tie
Aps = area of prestressing steel in tie
In the absence of mild steel, a value of fy 60 ksi may be assumed in the equation,
in order to reflect the fact that the stress in the prestressing elements will be increased
due to the strain which will cause concrete to crack.
[LRFD Art. C5.6.3.4.1]
8.12.3.2.1
Tie Anchorage
The tension tie reinforcement must be anchored in accordance with LRFD Article
5.11 which deals with development of reinforcement. This ensures the satisfactory
transfer of the tension force to the node regions.
8.12.3.3
Proportioning Node Regions
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CHAPTER 8
In order to control crack widths in members designed with the strut-and-tie model
(except slabs and footings), and to ensure minimum ductility so that significant redistribution of internal stresses is possible, LRFD Article 5.6.3.6 states that an orthogonal
reinforcing grid must be provided near each face. The spacing of bars in such a grid
should not exceed 12.0 in., and the ratio of reinforcement area to gross concrete area
should exceed 0.003 in each direction.
In general, these crack control requirements lead to a substantial amount of well-distributed reinforcement throughout the member. Accordingly, the LRFD Specifications allow
for crack control reinforcement located within the region of a tension tie to be included
in calculating the resistance of the tie.
8.12.4
Steps for Developing
Strut-and-Tie Models
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CHAPTER 8
3) Draw the strut-and-tie model to a reasonably large scale. This will help avoid
errors and give a better appreciation of the proportions of the structure.
4) There is no single strut-and-tie model for a particular system. Generally, the forces
will flow in accordance with the pattern of reinforcement. Well-distributed reinforcement should be provided to ensure the redistribution of internal forces in the
cracked concrete.
5) Good detailing of the structure is essential to ensure that the assumed flow of
forces can be achieved in the cracked structure. Accordingly, reinforcement in
tension ties must be effectively anchored to develop the strength of the member.
Nodal zones must be checked to ensure satisfactory load transfer between struts
and ties.
6) Complicated stress fields such as fans, arches and bands can usually be replaced by
simple line struts. Unnecessary complication of the model is not warranted.
8.12.4.1
Design Criteria
Regardless of the strut-and-tie model adopted, the following design criteria must be
met:
1. Limits on bearing stresses and on compressive stresses in struts
2. Satisfactory anchorage and careful detailing of tension tie reinforcement
3. Critical examination of nodal zones to determine their maximum capacities
4. Provision of adequate crack control reinforcement throughout, to ensure the
redistribution of internal stresses after cracking of concrete
8.12.4.2
Summary of Steps
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CHAPTER 8
8.12.5
Pier Cap Example
Figure 8.12.5-1
Pier Cap Dimensions
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CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.12.5.1-1a-1d
Assumed Truss Geometry
3'-0"
Pu
8'-0"
Tension Tie
Pu = 500 kips
Pu
8'-0"
Pu
Pu
8'-0"
3'-0"
F
1'-0"
4'-0"
2'-6"
1'-4"
2'-6" 2'-6" B
a) Strut-and-Tie Model
27.4
1'-4"
5'-0"
lb = 2'-0"
ha = 1'-0"
b) Nodal Zone A, B
500k
500k
8.0'
FCD = 1,002.8 k
C
=1
,12
0.6
500k
FDE = 1,259.7 k
tan BF = 5.35/10.75
BE = 26.5
tan BE = 5.35/2.75
4.0'
2.1 k
= 56
FA
26.5
4.0'
FAD
26.5
1000 k
8.0'
FEF
500k
F BF
BE = 62.8
B
FAB = 1,259.7 k
5.35'
BF = 26.5
1000 k
1.25' 1.25'
BE = 62.8
8.12.5.2
Forces in Assumed Truss
Node C:
FCD =
500
= 1,002.8 kips
tan (26.5)
FAC =
500
= 1,120.6 kips
sin (26.5)
Node D:
FAD =
500
= 562.1 kips
sin (62.8)
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CHAPTER 8
Node A:
FAB = FADcos62.8 + FACcos26.5 = 562.1cos62.8 + 1,120.6cos26.5 = 1,259.7 kips
= FDE
8.12.5.3
Bearing Stresses
[LRFD Eq.5.7.5-2]
500 k
= 2.08 ksi < maximum allowable
24 (10)
O.K.
8.12.5.4
Reinforcement for
Tension Tie DE
O.K.
8.12.5.5
Strut Capacities
O.K.
13
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CHAPTER 8
where
s = 26.5
[LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3.3]
-3
-3
2
-3
1 = (0.68 x 10 + 2.0 x 10 )cot 26.5 = 10.8 x 10
fcu = f c/(0.8 + 1701) 0.85f c
[LRFD Art. 5.6.3.3.3]
-3
8.12.5.6
Nodal Zone at Pier
Strut AD:
Strut AD is anchored by bearing and reinforcement at end A, and crossed by tie at
end D.
FAD = 562.1 kips
End D: Tensile strain in tie, DE = 1,259.7/[(20)(1.27)(29,000)] = 1.71 x 10-3
Strain at center of strut, s = 1/2(1.71 x 10-3) = 0.86 x 10-3
1 = (s + 0.002)cot2 s
where
s = 62.8
1 = (0.86 + 2.0)10-3cot2 62.8 = 0.755 x 10-3
fcu = f c /(0.8 + 1701) 0.85f c
fcu = 5.0/[0.8 + 170(0.755 x 10-3)] = 5.39 ksi > 0.85f c = 4.25 ksi
Capacity of strut AD at D: fcuAcs
Acs = (lbsins + hacos s)(48) = (24sin62.8 + 12cos62.8) x 48 = 1,288 in.2
Capacity of Strut = (0.7)(4.25)(1,288) = 3,831 kips > FAD = 562.1 k O.K.
End A is obviously not critical (not crossed by tie).
562
.
1k
Figure 8.12.5.6-1
Nodal Zone at Pier
1.3'
6k
.8 ,120.
2
6
1
b = 26.5
H = 1,259.7 k
V = 1,000 k
2.5'
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CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.12.5.7-1
Reinforcement Details
Check at throat and provide this reinforcement throughout (assuming 12 in. spacing).
Minimum As required = 0.003(12)(48) = 1.73 in.2/ft
[LRFD Art. 5.6.3.6]
2
Use (2) #9 = 2.00 in. , #9 each face at 12 in. on center = 2.00 in.2/ft, or #6 bars each
face at 6 in. spacing, 4 x 0.44 = 1.76 in.2/ft
Use #6 bars @ 6 in. on center vertically and horizontally.
# 6 Horizontal bars
@ 6 in. on center
each face
4'-0"
3"
6"
Orthogonal grid of # 6 bars
@ 6 in. on center on
each face
(20) # 10 bars
4'-0"
2'-6"
View A-A
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