Reminders on waves

Traveling waves on a string obey the wave equation:

2 y(x,t) 1 2 y(x,t)
= 2
2
x
v
t 2

y=wave function

A mechanical wave is a disturbance created by a vibrating object that travels through a medium
from one location to another

General solution: y(x,t) = f1(x-vt) + f2(x+vt)

The general solution can be expressed as a superposition of harmonic
wave functions: y(x,t) = A sin(kx-t) y(x,t) = sin(kx+ t) A = amplitude
k = 2/ = wave number = wavelength
f = frequency T = 1/f = period
= 2f=2/T angular frequency
11

Reminders: waves
Classification of waves:

Transverse wave: medium particles move in direction perpendicular to

direction of wave

Longitudinal wave: medium particles move in direction parallel to direction

of wave

Eg: EM waves

sound waves

Velocity of waves: general form of wave on the right

y(x,0) = A sin(ax)
y(x=0,t = 0) = A sin(0) = 0 and y(/2,0)=Asin(a/2) =0 a/2=
a = 2/ y(x,0)=Asin(2/ x)=Asin(kx)
If the wave moves of a distance vt, at a later time t it is:
y(x,t) = A sin[k(x-vt)]
The wave travels a distance in one period T (by definition):
0=Asin(0)=Asin[k(-vT)] =vT v = /T=f

/2

12

Maxwells equations in empty space

E dA = 0
S

E ds =

(Gauss' Law)

B dA = 0
S

dB
(Faraday - Henry)
dt

B ds = 00
L

dE
(Ampere - Maxwell law)
dt

From these equations we get EM wave equations!

2y 1 2y
= 2 2
2
x
v t

Wave composed of E and B fields!

Equations for a plane transverse wave
propagating in empty space with
velocity
13

Hertzs Experiment (1887)

First generation and detection of EM waves in Lab

Transmitter T: 2 spherical electrodes separated by
narrow gap charged until air gap ionized
The discharge between the electrodes exhibits
oscillatory behavior of frequency f ~ 4 x 107 Hz
This oscillating dipole emits E and B plane waves

When resonance frequency of T and R match sparks

also in R = receiver

Hertzs hypothesis: the energy transmitted from T to

R is carried by waves

He measured by having waves from T reflected

on a metal sheet so he obtained standing waves
with nodes at a distance /2
By knowing f of T he measured the speed of the
radiation close to c

Radiation has wave properties: interference,

14
diffraction, reflection, refraction and polarization

Solutions of Maxwells equations

The simplest solution to partial differential

equations is sinusoidal wave propagating along x:
E = E
max sin (kx t) i

B = Bmax sin (kx t) k

Angular wave number: k = 2/ = wavelength

Angular frequency is = 2 = wave frequency

EB=0

The speed of the electromagnetic wave is

15

E and B are orthogonal

An easy way to understand this:

3
2
1

E
I

B
1.
2.
3.

= B A cos
Max flux =0
Less flux
Null flux =90

B parallel to area and E perpendicular

to circuit so E B

E orthogonal to B!
Increasing B-field

dB
E ds = - dt

16

E
B
=
x
t

Lets demonstrate:

E = Emax sin (kx t)

B = Bmax sin (kx t)

A wave at instant t in x and x+dx:

the E field varies from E to E+dE
E
E(x + dx,t) E(x,t) +
dx
x

E ds =[ E(x + dx,t) E(x,t)]l =

E
dxl
x
Magnetic flux through rectangle:

dB = Bldx
dB
B
= ldx

dt

E ds =

E
d
B
dxl = B = dxl
x
dt
t

Relation between E and B

E = Emax sin (kx t)

B = Bmax sin (kx t)

From:

First derivatives:
E
= kE max cos(kx t)
x
B
= Bmax cos(kx t)
t

E
B
=
x
t

This relation comes from

Maxwells equations!

EM Waves from an Antenna

Accelerated charged particles are sources of EM waves:

EM waves are radiated by any circuit carrying alternating current

Two rods connected to an AC source. (a) Ends of rods charged and Efield parallel to rods
As oscillations continue, the rods become less charged, the field near
the charges decreases and the field at t = T/4 is zero (b)
The charges and field reverse (c)
The oscillations continue (d)

Energy carried by EM waves

Rate at which energy flows through a unit area perpendicular to

direction of wave propagation
Lets consider a cylinder with axis along x of area A and length L and the
time for the wave to travel L is t=L/c
The average power is
U av uav AL

Pav =

= uav Ac

In a given volume, the energy is

shared equally by the two fields
And the intensity (average P/area)
Pav
1
B2
E2
2
uE = 0 E = uB =
= 2
Iav =
= uav c
2
20 2c 0
A

Total instantaneous energy density (E=cB)

ExB

B 2 EB
u = uE + uB = 0 E =
=
0 0c
2

Poynting Vector
Wave intensity I = time average over one or more cycle
<sin2(kx - t)> = 1/2 then <E2> = Emax2/2 and <B2> = Bmax2/2

Iav = uav c =

E max Bmax
2 0

Define vector with magnitude= power per unit area (J/s.m2 =

W/m2)

Its direction is the direction of propagation of the EM wave

Its magnitude varies in time
Its magnitude reaches a maximum at the same instant as E and B