Readings

In
Distance Education

INTRODUCTION
Everyone Wants To. . . !................................................................................................................... 3
THEORY AND RESEARCH
Equivalency Theory and Distance Education................................................................................... 5
Distance Education Research: ........................................................................................................ 11
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
Instructional Design for Distance Education.................................................................................. 18
APPROACHES AND APPLICATIONS
Convergent Technologies in Distance Education Delivery ............................................................ 25
Best of Both Worlds - The Nova ITDE Model of Distance Education .......................................... 32
Designing a College Web-Based Course Using A Modified Personalized System of Instruction
(PSI) Model.................................................................................................................................... 38
The Challenge of Interactive Chemistry at a DistanceThe Iowa Chemistry Education Alliance46
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
Whats My Grade? Assessing Learner Progress ............................................................................ 50
In the Quest for Knowledge: Traveling the Back Roads of Iowa................................................... 57

Everyone Wants To. . . !

Michael Simonson
Instructional Technology and Distance Education
Fischler Graduate School of Education and Human Services
Nova Southeastern University
Fort Lauderdale, FL

In 1995, it was stated that no one really wants to learn at a distance, but everyone demands the
opportunity to learn at a distance (Simonson, 1995). Actually in 1995 there were not many in education
either wanting, or demanding distance education. The field in the early 1990s was still immature and
considered by many to be relatively unimportant when compared to mainstream education.
Well, in 1999, it seems that demands for distance education are everywhere. Distance education is
beginning to effect almost everyone. Everyone wants to learn at a distance, teach at a distance, or have a
distance education program. Students are signing up for distance education courses in staggering numbers.
Teachers, even Chemistry teachers, are offering courses using technology of all categories and offering
these courses to distant learners. And, every self respecting school administrator, college dean, or
university president is spouting off about their institutions distance education program.
This monograph tries to capture some of the excitement of the field. Distance education has become BIG
and there are big ideas presented in this issue that includes articles dealing with all aspects of distance
education from soup to nuts. First, foundation information is presented. Second, the practice of the field
is discussed in four articles. Finally, two articles discuss techniques for assessment and evaluation.
Foundations:
Three articles deal with basic, foundation issues. First, Michael Simonson reviews
theories supporting distance education and proposes an emerging theory. Next, Gary Morrison and Amy
Adcock review the research on distance education. This section concludes with an article by Sharon
Smaldino that discusses techniques for instructional design of distance education.
Applications:
There are four articles in this section. First, an article by Steve Wheeler examines
converging technologies for distance education. Next is an article by Robert Price that discusses the
application of PSI to the design of WWW-based instruction. Kathy Burke and Tom Greenbowe revisit a
project discussed in Tech Trends in 1995 that involved the collaborative teaching of chemistry at a
distance. Finally, Charles Schlosser and Marsha Burmeister explain the Nova Instructional Technology and
Distance Education model of distance education.
Assessment and Evaluation:
This issue concludes with two useful articles dealing with student
assessment and program evaluation. Susan Zvacek presents an excellent overview of the techniques for
assessing student learning in her article Whats My Grade? The issue concludes, as would be expected,
with a review by Nancy Maushak of intensive evaluation activities of distance education in Iowa.
Nine articles are included in this monograph. Given the massive growth of the field in the last few years,
this is obviously not enough. It is hoped however that these articles will provide an overview, a summary,
and a starting point for those interested in what is happening in distance education.

Equivalency Theory and Distance Education

Michael Simonson
Program Professor
Instructional Technology and Distance Education
Fischler Graduate School of Education and Human Services
Nova Southeastern University

"Theory helps us bear our ignorance of fact"

G. Santayana, 1896
In the rapidly changing and diverse environment in which distance education is practiced, many questions
remain unanswered. In this environment it is difficult to arrive at one approach to guide the practice of
distance education. New technologies and new ideas about student learning challenge the traditional
techniques for the practice of distance education. This theme of change is evident in the discussions of
distance education and its definitions and theories.
Numerous definitions for distance education have been proposed, and most include the separation of
teacher and learner, the influence of an educational organization, the use of media to unite teacher and
learner, the necessity for two-way communication, and the potential for individualized learning. The
classical, European definitions of distance education concentrate on teaching and learning taking place at
different times and in different places, while recent definitions enabled by new interactive technologies
emphasize educational experiences occurring at the same time in different locations.
Many cringe at the thought of a discussion of theory. This need not be the case. Theory is important to the
study of distance education because it directly affects the practice of the field. Traditionally, theories of
distance education have come from sources external to the USA. Recently, the field in the United States has
matured to the point where indigenous definitions and theories have begun to emerge; most notably
theories based on the American system of education. Local control of the curriculum, elected school
governing boards, small classes, rapport between teacher and students, community-based funding, and
highly personalized instruction are important characteristics of the American system of education. Many
educators are now advocating the need for forms of distance education that retain traditional aspects of
American education while taking advantage of the opportunities of telecommunications systems. In this
environment, equivalency theory has emerged.
The Need for Theory
Keegan (1986) reaffirmed the continued need for a theory of distance education when he said:
Lack of accepted theory has weakened distance education; there has been a lack of identity, a sense
of belonging to the periphery and the lack of a touchstone against which decisions on methods, on
media, on financing, on student support, when they have to be made, can be made with confidence.
(p. 63)
Keegan (1995) has noted that a theory is something that eventually can be reduced to a phrase, a sentence
or a paragraph, and which while subsuming the practical research, gives the foundation on which the
structures of need, purpose, and administration can be erected.
Holmberg (1985) defined theory as:
A systematic ordering of ideas about the phenomenon of a field of inquiry, and an overarching
logical structure of reasoned suppositions which can generate testable hypotheses (p. 4).
Holmberg suggested that distance education has been characterized by a trial and error approach with little
consideration being given to a theoretical basis for decision-making, and that the theoretical underpinnings
of distance education are fragile. Most efforts in this field have been practical or mechanical and have
concentrated on the logistics of the enterprise.
In his landmark work, The Foundations of Distance Education, Keegan classified theories of distance
education into three groups: theories of independence and autonomy, theory of industrialization of
teaching, and the theory of interaction and communication.
Theories of Independent Study

#1 - Wedemeyer
For Wedemeyer (Keegan, 1986), the essence of distance education was the independence of the student.
This was reflected in Wedemeyer's preference for the term independent study for distance education at
the college or university level. Wedemeyer was critical of contemporary patterns of higher education and
believed that outdated concepts of learning and teaching were being employed. It was felt that universities
failed to utilize modern technologies in ways that could alter an institution.
Wedemeyer set forth a system with characteristics emphasizing learner independence and adoption of
technology as a way to implement that independence. Wedemeyer noted four elements of every teachinglearning situation: a teacher, a learner or learners, a communications system or mode, and something to be
taught or learned. He proposed a reorganization of these elements that would accommodate physical space
and allow greater learner freedom. Key to the success of distance education, Wedemeyer believed, was the
development of the relationship between student and teacher.
#2 - Moore
Formulated in the early 1970s, Moores theory of distance education was a classification method for
distance education programs. It examined two variables in educational programs: the amount of learner
autonomy and the distance between teacher and learner.
For Moore (1994), distance is composed of two elements, each of which can be measured. First is the
provision for two-way communication (dialog). Some systems or programs offer greater amounts of twoway communication than others. Second is the extent to which a program is responsive to the needs of the
individual learner (structure). Some programs are very structured, while others are very responsive to the
needs and goals of the individual student.
In the second part of his theory, Moore addressed learner autonomy. He notes that in traditional school
settings learners are very dependent on teachers for guidance, and that in most programs, conventional and
distance, the teacher is active, while the student is passive.
In distance education there is a gap between teacher and student, so the student must accept a high degree
of responsibility for the conduct of the learning program. The autonomous learner needs little help from the
teacher, who may be more of a respondent than a director. Some adult learners, however, require help in
formulating their learning objectives and in identifying sources of information and in measuring objectives.
Theory of Industrialization of Teaching
After examining a research base that included an extensive analysis of the distance teaching organizations
of the 1960s, Peters (1988) proposed that distance education could be understood and practiced by
comparison to the industrial production of goods. Peters stated that from many points of view conventional,
oral, group-based education was a pre-industrial form of education. Distance education, on the other hand,
permits the incorporation of characteristics of industry, which makes education standardized, widely
available, and extremely cost effective. His statements implied that distance teaching could not have
existed before the industrial era. Critical to this theory are concepts such as:
Division of labor - which means that different professionals and paraprofessionals have specific
roles in the teaching and learning process.
Mechanization which means that machines and devices are a required component of the teaching
process.
Assembly Line which implies that techniques are used so materials and students move past or are
involved at different times with distance education professionals who have specific duties.
Mass Production which means that techniques are used to develop large quantities of instructional
materials very inexpensively in order to reach large numbers of learners uniformly.

 Standardization which means the entire instructional process is made standard according to preestablished criteria so that learners receive the same curriculum in uniform ways.
Concentration and Centralization this means that a monopoly is instituted so that one organization
provides educational experiences to large numbers of students.
Theory of Interaction and Communication
Holmbergs (1989) theory of distance education, which he calls guided didactic conversation, falls into the
general category of communication theory. Holmberg noted that his theory had explanatory value in
relating teaching effectiveness to the impact of feelings of belonging and cooperation as well as to the
actual exchange of questions, answers, and arguments in distance education.
Distance teaching will be successful to the extent it supports student motivation, promote learning
pleasure and make study relevant to the individual learner and his/her needs, creating feelings of
rapport between the learner and the distance-education institution (its tutors, counselors, etc.),
facilitating access to course content, engaging the learner in activities, discussions and decisions and
generally catering for helpful real and simulated communication to and from the learner.
Holmberg himself noted that this was admittedly a leaky theory. However, he added, it was not devoid of
explanatory power. It did, in fact, indicate essential characteristics of effective distance education.
Equivalency Theory - An Emerging Approach to Distance Education
New telecommunications technologies have impacted significantly on education. Many feel that the
availability of powerful telecommunications systems is responsible for the popularity of distance education
in the USA. Interactive television systems, such as the Iowa Communications Network (Simonson &
Schlosser, 1995), permit distant learners and instructors to see and be seen, hear and be heard, and learn
and teach in almost the same manner as they would if everyone was in the local classroom.
Keegan (1995) suggested that electronically linking instructor and students at various locations could create
a virtual classroom.
The theoretical analyses of virtual education, however, have not yet been addressed by the literature:
Is virtual education (interactive, live televised instruction) a subset of distance education or to be
regarded as a separate field of educational endeavor? What are its didactic structures? What is the
relationship of its cost effectiveness and of its educational effectiveness to distance education, and to
conventional education?
It is in this environment of virtual education that the equivalency theory of distance education has emerged.
Equivalency Theory Distance education's appropriate application should provide equivalent learning experiences for all
students distant and local in order for there to be expectations of equivalent outcomes of the
educational experience.
Stated another way, this theory is based on research that indicates that learning at a distance and learning
locally are fundamentally different, even when interactive technologies are used. Equivalency theory
advocates the design for distant and local learners of a collection of probably different but ultimately
equivalent learning experiences. The objective of the designer of distance education instruction is to
provide for appropriate learning experiences for each student that are based on their unique needs,
including physical location.
This theory is based on this definition of distance education.
Distance education is a formal and institutionally-based educational system where learners and teachers
are separated from one another, and where voice, video, and data interaction occurs using
telecommunication systems (Simonson & Schlosser, 1995).

Instructional experiences are essential to learning. It should not be necessary for any group of learners,
local or distant, to compensate for different, possibly lesser, instructional experiences. Students should
have learning experiences designed and made available to them that are tailored for the environment
and situation in which they find themselves. Thus, those developing distance education systems should
strive to provide appropriate learning experiences for students no matter how they are linked to the
resources or instruction they require.
One key to this theory is the concept of equivalency. Local and distant learners have fundamentally
different environments in which they learn. It is the responsibility of the distance educator to design
instructional events that provide learning experiences for individuals and groups of students. A triangle and
a square that have the same area are considered equivalent even though they are quite different geometrical
shapes. Similarly, the experiences of the local learner and the distant learner should have equivalent value
even though specific experiences might be quite different.
Also a key to this approach is the concept of learning experience. A learning experience is anything that
happens to or with the student that promotes learning, including what is observed, felt, heard, or done. It is
likely that students in various locations, learning at different times, may require a different mix of learning
experiences. Some will need a greater amount of observing, and others a larger dosage of doing. The goal
of instructional planning for distance education is to develop an approach that makes the sum of
experiences for each learner equivalent. Instructional design procedures should attempt to anticipate and
provide the collection of experiences that will be most suitable for each student or group of students.
A final key to equivalency theory is the idea of telecommunications, which means communicating at a
distance. Most often in the USA, telecommunications refers to electronic telecommunications systems such
as those using synchronous audio, video, and computer networks. Synchronous interaction need not be the
mandatory, however. Various communications systems, including asynchronous ones, can and should be
used for distance education, as long as the goal of equivalency of experiences is met.
The equivalency approach is based on core values such as local control and personalized instruction that
are held almost sacred in classical American education. If distance education is to be widely accepted and
routinely available it must be high quality, easily obtained, and familiar to those in need. Powerful, modern
telecommunications systems enable the delivery of powerful and recognizable learning experiences to
students anytime and any place.
Summary
The changing and diverse environment in which distance education is practiced has inhibited the
development of a single theory upon which to base practice and research. A variety of theories have been
proposed to describe classical distance education. They include theories that emphasize independence and
autonomy of the learner, industrialization of teaching, and interaction and communication. These traditional
theories emphasize that distance education is a fundamentally different form of education.
Recent emerging theories based on the capabilities of new interactive audio, video, and computer systems,
state that distance education is not a distinct field. These approaches utilize existing educational theory and
advocate the creation of equivalent experiences for distant and local learners.
Theory helps guide the practice of a field, and permits a certain ignorance of fact. Equivalency theory
provides a framework for design and production of instructional experience for local and distant learners
that need not be the same. The key will be whether equivalent experiences produce equivalent outcomes.
References
Holmberg, B. (1985). The feasibility of a theory of teaching for distance education and a
proposed theory (ZIFF Papiere 60). Hagen (West Germany): Fern Universitt, Zentrales Institute fur
Fernstudienforschung Arbeitsbereich. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 290 013)

Holmberg, B. (1989). Theory and practice of distance education. London: Routledge.

Keegan, D. (1986). The foundations of distance education. London: Croom Helm.
Keegan, D. (1995). Distance education technology for the new millennium: Compressed video
teaching. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 389 931).
Moore, M. (1994). Autonomy and interdependence. The American Journal of Distance
Education, 8(2), 15.
Peters, O. (1988). Distance teaching and industrial production: A comparative interpretation in
outline. In D. Sewart, D. Keegan, & B. Holmberg (Eds.), Distance education: International perspectives
(pp. 95113). New York: Routledge.
Santayana, G. (1896). The Sense of Beauty.
Simonson, M. & Schlosser, C. (1995). More than fiber: Distance education in Iowa. Tech
Trends, 40(3), 1315.

10

Distance Education Research:

Messages to the Field
Gary R. Morrison
Professor
Wayne State University
Amy B. Adcock
Graduate Student
University of Memphis

11

Distance education research is beginning to mature as evidenced by the increasing number of reports of
scientific inquiry. The purpose of this article is to organize the research on distance education. The writings
on distance education are vast and address a number of issues, yet, only a small proportion of this literature
may be of interest. As your knowledge and expertise of distance education increase, you may find a need to
explore different issues in the literature. In this article we will describe six major categories of research that
will guide your readings and search for information to use when designing and implementing distance
education courses or when conducting research.
The Right Research
It seems with each new technology, many feel a need to compare its effectiveness with existing
technologies as a proof of its worth. There are considerable arguments and research against conducting this
type of research, as it has not proven fruitful (e.g., Clark, 1983, 1994; Ross & Morrison, 1989; Simonson,
1997). Similarly, there are others who argue that we should compare different technologies (Kozma, 1991,
1994) (see also ETR&D, 1994, 42 [2 & 4] for a discussion of this topic) to discover their functions. Rather
than focusing on a comparison of distance education to traditional delivery systems, we are concentrating
on the research that provides answers to those instructional design questions that are most beneficial to
practitioners. We believe that research that helps answer the following four questions will be of most
benefit to instructional technologists.
1. What are the most effective ways I can make the instructional design and development
decisions with which I am confronted?
2. What instructional strategies are most effective for a given instructional task?
3. What are the best ways I can approach policy issues that I must address?
As a linking science, we need to make our instructional decisions based on the research (Kemp, Morrison,
Ross, 1998). One task then, is translating this research into heuristics that we can use for instructional
decision making. The problem is determining which research will answer your specific design questions. A
second task is identifying potential areas for future research that will help us generate new design
heuristics.
Distance Education Research
We have identified six categories of research, each of which provides information you can use to make
decisions about the design, development, implementation, or research related to a distance education
system. The six categories of research are evaluation reports, research on the technology, research on the
process, general instructional research, policy issues, and preresearch. The following pages describe each of
these categories and provide examples of the research.
Evaluation Reports
One advantage to working with distance education is the variety of evaluation reports readily available in
journals and on the Internet. The availability of these reports makes it very easy for new and old adopters to
learn from the experiences of others. Evaluation reports typically provide a rich source of both data and
information about one or more offerings of a distance education course (see Simonson, 1997 for examples).
You can use this information to help you determine if the delivery method or strategies are appropriate for
your course content, students, faculty, and technology. Some reports also include information on what
aspects of the course worked or did not work (e.g., submitting assignments by email). We typically find
that most evaluation reports include a number of recommendations for improving the course that you can
generalize to your design effort.
We have selected two evaluation reports from two different time periods to provide a sample of the
information you can glean from such literature. Each focuses on one course and provides a thorough
evaluation of the course delivery. The following is a brief summary of the information we found useful in
each report.
The first report is from an introductory psychology course developed by the University of Mid-America
(Sell, 1976). This course was based on a series of broadcast television programs and print materials. The
following recommendations from the report are applicable to a variety of distance education technologies.

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1.

Improve the content relationship between the television programs, text, and newspaper
articles
2. Improve the access to the recommended readings
3. Develop an optional unit on study skills and how to use the distance learning system
4. Provide students with additional feedback beyond the test grade
5. Revise the schedule so that there is a week break after each test
The second report was published in the Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks and describes
the evaluation of an asynchronous learning network (ALN) course at Vanderbilt University (Bourne,
McMaster, Reiger, & Campbell, 1997). Bourne et al. evaluated an engineering course offered on-line. Four
of the lessons learned reported were
1. Students tended to procrastinate more in the ALN courses.
2. Encouraging students to develop and use peer-to-peer networks was valuable.
3. Students did not like the volumes of information that was readily available, but preferred to
have the information limited to what they needed to learn.
4. The use of mentors worked for some of the groups and needs further research.
Both of these evaluation reports provide valuable suggestions that can be incorporated into the design of
new course(s). For example, as a designer you might be tempted to provide many links to interesting
materials that support your course. Yet, the Bourne et al. report suggests that students prefer to focus on the
essential information. Rather than providing the extra information on a main web page, you might consider
assigning this information to another page that is linked to the main instructional pages. Students who want
to read the additional materials then have the option of exploring the additional information rather than
everyone having to sort through volumes of data.
Research on the Technology
Our next category includes research that is focused on the delivery technologies used in distance education.
Studies in this category evaluate the suitability or effectiveness of technology (i.e., the hardware, software,
or system) for delivering instruction. This research can be conducted as part of a course or it maybe a
traditional research study with various treatments of shorter time periods. The emphasis is on the
performance of a single technology rather than on a comparison of two or more technologies. Information
from these studies can help you adopt and design instruction for new distance educational systems. Lets
examine two studies in this category.
The first study focuses on the design of a two-way, compressed video classroom (Jayasinghe, Morrison, &
Ross, 1997). Specifically, the study sought to determine the placement of the instructor camera (e.g., eye
level or above eye level) and the use of a single large monitor versus small groups of students seated
around a smaller monitor (multiple-monitor treatment). The study found that camera and monitor
placement affect instructor credibility. First, participants in the multiple-monitor condition rated the
instructor as more credible. Second, participants viewing the eye-level camera had a more positive attitude
score than those viewing the instructor through the high-angle camera. Third, participants were more likely
to be engaged if they were watching the instructor in the multiple-monitor condition. Towards the end of
the lecture, the multiple-monitor subjects were observed to be engaged while the instructor was looking
into the eye-level camera, but were restless and looked away when the instructor was looking at the highlevel camera (representing the other class). Jayasinghe et al. recommend that the instructor camera be
placed in the center of the first row of students at their eye level to provide the offsite students with a
realistic image of the instructor. They also recommended that rooms be designed with multiple monitors
placed on a table with small groups of students, which would also facilitate collaborative work.
The second study was an evaluation of the feasibility of video conferencing for distance learning (Kies,
Williges, & Rosson, 1997). Kies et al. conducted an innovative two part study consisting of a controlled lab
study and classroom implementation of the video conference system. In the controlled study participants
viewed a digitized video program at different frame rates and resolutions. In the second study, the video
conferencing was implemented in two classrooms with one using a LAN and the second using the Internet
for delivery. While the frame rates and resolution did not hamper learning, they found that participants
could easily perceive the poor video at the smaller resolution and slower frame rates. The poorer quality

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video conditions resulted in negative attitudes, which could affect motivation in longer sessions such as a
real class. Kies et al. made the following recommendations.
1. Avoid frame rates slower than 6 fps and resolutions less than 320 x 240
2. If motion is required, then use a faster frame rate
3. If considerable detail is required or there are subtitles, then use a high resolution
4. Provide an easy mechanism for students to ask questions during a video conference
5. Use high quality audio
Studies that focus on the technology can provide valuable information for selecting equipment, designing
the instruction, and designing the instructional environment.
A thorough search of relevant articles can help you design a more effective instructional environment with
a shorter trial-and-error period.
Research on the Process
Distance education provides many opportunities to study the communication and instructional processes,
perhaps because much of it is documented in emails and chat rooms. Process research ranges from an
analysis of email communications to the impact of the process on the learners. You can use the findings
from these studies to help you structure the instruction, manage student discussions and communications,
and improve course discussions and communications. Two themes that appeared in several distance
learning papers address the need for communication with and among students, and improving faculty skills
for encouraging and managing online discussions. Suggestions for accomplishing these tasks can often be
found in research articles on the distance learning processes. The following two studies provide examples
of research in this category.
Our first example study investigated the effect of attending a remote-site for course delivery on student
satisfaction (Biner, Welsh, Barone, Summers, & Dean, 1997). Undergraduate students in 17 different
courses at 68 different sites completed a survey assessing their satisfaction and motivation in the course.
Biner et al. reported that larger class sizes reduced student satisfaction with the course and lowered levels
of relative performance. They suggested that a smaller group might afford the students with more control
over the equipment and create a less intimidating environment. Biner et al. suggested that smaller distance
classes or even the capability of taking the class at home appear to have benefits for the students.
The second example is an analysis of listserv emails from a graduate seminar conducted exclusively via
listserv (Weiss & Morrison, 1998). Emails from all students and instructors were collected during the eightweek course and analyzed. Students also completed a questionnaire at the end of the course on student
perceptions of the discussion process. The analysis of the emails indicated evidence of critical thinking and
that students were critically analyzing and synthesizing the course materials. There were also examples of
humor, hurt feelings, and sarcasm in the messages. The analysis found few misunderstandings, and those
were due to content not the technology. The authors concluded that a listserv was viable system for this
type of class, however, the major concern was the discussions, which went for 7 days a week and almost 24
hours a day. It afforded both the students and instructors the freedom of not having to attend a regularly
scheduled class, but required them to check their email several times a day to be involved in the discussion.
The authors recommended controls to limit discussions to a more manageable time frame [Note: These
controls failed to limit the discussion in the second offering!].
Articles that focus on the processes of distance learning can provide valuable information for designing the
instruction and managing the instruction process. These results can help you avoid mistakes others have
made and create a more effective instructional environment for your courses.
General Instructional Research
The distance education environment provides several opportunities for conducting instructional research
that has application beyond distance education. Research in this category may be of less interest than the
others for those individuals searching for specific information related to distance education issues. There
are, however, articles that are useful for the design of a distance education courses. Lets examine two
articles in this general instructional research category.

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The first study in this category investigated the impact of visual and verbal learning on the use of
groupware in a distance education course (Becker & Dwyer, 1998). Groupware was selected because it
provides a means of conducting collaborative work in distance education. The researchers predicted that
students who prefer to learn visually would feel the groupware was effective in helping the groups achieve
their goals. The results support their prediction. They did not, however, find any differences in the various
groups use of the software.
Another example of research in this category is a recent study of the use of social presence to predict
satisfaction in a distance learning course (Gunawardena & Zittle, 1997). Prior research on social presence
(see Jayasinghe et al., 1977 for another study investigating this concept) suggests that various levels of
social presence can influence student perceptions. This study assessed participants perceptions of social
presence while using a computer mediated instructional environment that was all text based. The findings
indicated that social presence was a strong predictor of student satisfaction. They found that for those
students who rated the social presence as high, the use of emoticons (e.g., :) that are text-based icons
which communicate emotions ) further enhanced their experience. The emoticons did not have a
measureable affect on participants with a low perception of social presence. The researchers suggested that
faculty members who rely on nonverbal cues to provide feedback may need to learn other methods which
they can adapt to a text based environment.
General research studies using distance education environments as well as those in more traditional
classroom environments can provide useful information for designing distance education courses. These
studies often have a very narrow focus and require a more specific search is required to find ones that are
applicable to your needs.
Policy Research
Papers that focus on policy issues are grouped into this category and can include qualitative research and
scholarly papers. These papers provide guidelines and action plans for implementing distance education
courses and administrative services. This information can be used to establish policies and procedures for
programs ranging from implementing a listserv in a class to establishing library support for distance
students. Policy issue papers can also provide find solutions to several problems as well as determining
what issues to address during course design and implementation.
An example of a policy article that may be beneficial to a faculty member who wants to integrate electronic
conferencing in a course is one on Indiana Universitys Teaching and Learning Technologies Labs web
site (www.indiana.edu/~ecopts/ectips.html). This article provides guidelines for creating activities to
introduce the conferencing system (e.g., personal introductions, debates, and fieldwork), a discussion of the
types of conferences, how to create a structure, as well as things to avoid.
The second example of a policy paper is one that addresses the issue of faculty participation in distance
education (Olcott & Wright, 1995). They discuss a number of barriers to faculty involvement such as
compensation, tracking, incentives, and the role of teaching a distance education course in tenure and
promotion. For example, they maintain that a faculty-centered framework in the distance education system
increased faculty commitment to their courses. They also present a model for increasing faculty
involvement and suggest ways that faculty can provide instructional leadership.
Policy research in distance education can provide the information needed to establish a framework for an
individual course component such as a conferencing system to guidelines and issues that must be addressed
before implementing a distance education program at high school or university. The literature we have
cited will provide a good starting point for finding answers and identifying issues you must examine.
Preresearch
This last category, preresearch, describes articles that suggest ways of designing or improving distance
education courses. While they do not constitute actual research, this literature typically includes ideas or
problem areas that can be used to generate research ideas. Most research articles include specific
suggestions for future research; however, the articles in this category often have underlying implications for

15

future research. These articles are typically reports of individual experiences with distance education that
describe strategies that worked or did not work along with suggestions for improvements. They do not,
however, present formal evaluation results. Nonetheless, you can use this information to generate a
researchable question for a distance education environment, or to point to other research that provides
empirical support for their practical recommendations.
Our first example article in this category describes strategies to use with online groups (Kimball, 1995).
This article describes 10 different strategies to encourage online communication with a class. One strategy
suggests using different types of approaches to nourish a conversation. Since online, collaborative work is
relatively new, it would seem that this area has a rich potential for research. For example, how does an
instructor initiate and nourish an online conversation with students? If you ask questions what type of
questions should you ask? If you offer a case study what type of information and initial questions should
you provide to start the discussion? How do you manage and keep a discussion on target, and when do you
allow a discussion to deviate from the planned topic?
The second article in this category describes an online writing community (Keenan, 1996). Keenan
describes on an online writing course based on MOO (a Multiple user dimension Object Oriented
applications used to participate in chats) where parts of a manuscript were posted for critique and feedback
by the group. One potential study from this paper is the extent to which students incorporate comments
from other class members into the revision of their papers. Related questions could investigate how the
information is incorporated, that is, do the students simply cut and paste the comments, or do they rework
the feedback into their paper using their own style? Similarly, one could seek to determine how students
react to peer criticism and whether such criticism hampers or improves the writing process. Prereseach
papers, such as these, provide a rich source of potential research topics that have resulted from individual
experiences with the technology.
Research and Distance Education
Distance education is creating a rich source of instructional technology research, not only because of the
exponential growth of distance education projects, but also because of the electronic trails created in the
form of emails, postings, and videotapes. Such data provides a valuable source of technical information and
know how. Well informed instructors and instructional designers can capitalize on the knowledge
generated in the six categories of research we have identified to design and deliver even better distance
education courses for the next generation of students. Similarly, researchers can use these categories to
organize and search for information to generate new research projects. The application of theory-based
research guides the practice in a field and provides the practitioners with new tools and strategies that lead
to improved instruction.
References
Becker, D. & Dwyer, M. (1998). The impact of student verbal/learning style preference on implementing
groupware in the classroom. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, [On-line] 2. Available:
www.aln.org/alnweb/journal/vol2_isue2/becker.htm.
Biner, P. M., Welsh, K. D., Barone, N. M., Summers, M., Dean, R. S. (1977). The impact of remote-site
group size on student satisfaction and relative performance in interactive telecourses. The American
Journal of Distance Education, 11, 23-33.
Bourne, J. R., McMaster, E., Reiger, J., & Campbell, J. O. (1997). Paradigms for on-line learning: A case
study in the design and implementation of an asynchronous learning networks (ALN) course.
Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, [On-line] 1. Available:
www.aln.org/alnweb/journal/issue2/assee.htm.
Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53,
445-459.
Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology, Research, and
Development, 42, 21-29.
Gunawardena, C. N. & Zittle, F. J. (1997). Social presence as a predictor of satisfaction within a computermediated conferencing environment. The American Journal of Distance Education, 11, 8-26).

16

Jayasinghe, M. G., Morrison, G. R., & Ross, S. M. (1997). The effect of distance learning classroom design
on student perceptions. Educational Technology, Research & Development, 45, 5-19.
Keenan, C. (1996). Technology in English 105: Building low-cost, high powered writing communities [Online]. Available: horizon.unc/projects/monograph/CD/Language_Music/Keenan.asp
Kemp, J. E., Morrison, G. R., & Ross, S. M. (1998). Designing effective instruction (2nd ed.). Columbus,
OH: Merrill.
Kozma, R. B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate. Educational Technology,
Research & Development, 42, 7-19.
Kies, J. K., Williges, R. C., & Rosson, M. B., (1977). Evaluating desktop video conferencing for distance
learning. Computers and Education, 28, 79-91.
Kimball, L. Ten ways to make online learning groups work. Educational Leadership, 53, 54-56.
Olcott, D. & Wright, S. J. (1995). An institutional support framework for increasing faculty participation in
postsecondary distance education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 9, 5-15.
Ross, S. M. & Morrison, G. R. (1989). In search of a happy medium in instructional technology research:
Issues concerning external validity, media replications, and learner control. Educational Technology,
Research & Development, 37, 19-33.
Sell, G. R. (1976). Introductory Psychology (Second Offering:) Course Evaluation Report. Lincoln, NE:
University of Mid-America.
Simonson, M. (1997). Distance education: Does anyone really want to learn at a distance? Contemporary
Education, 68, 104-107.
Simonson, M. (1997). Evaluating teaching and learning at a distance. In T. E. Cyrs (Ed.), New Directions
for teaching and learning: Teaching and learning at a distance: What it takes to effectively design,
deliver, and evaluate programs (pp. 87-94). San Francisco: Josey-Bass Publishers.
Weiss, R. & Morrison, G. R. (1998, February). Evaluation of a graduate seminar conducted by listserv.
Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for Educational Communication and Technology,
St. Louis, MO.

17

Instructional Design for Distance Education

Sharon Smaldino
Professor
University of Northern Iowa
Cedar Falls, IA

18

Instructional design is critical to distance education and planning for effective teaching is needed
for learning to occur. Greater emphasis needs to be placed on the planning process. The instructional design
process organizes and systematizes planning. It is essential to consider elements such as the content, the
learner, the strategies for teaching, and the means for assessing the learning experience. By following
through with this process, the instructor will find that teaching at a distance is an exciting and dynamic
experience. One that will be welcomed by both the instructor and the learners.

Analysis
Learners
Content
Environment

Design

Evaluation

Strategies
Media

Learner Assessment
Instruction Evaluation

Adapted from Dick & Carey, The Systematic Design of Instruction , 1996

The instructional design process considers all aspects of the learning environment, following a well
organized procedure that provides guidance to even the novice distance instructor. Viewing the
instructional environment as a system, fosters a relationship among and between all the components of that
system - the instructor, the learners, the material, and the technology. When this procedure is followed,
attention is drawn to considering the components of the system. Especially when planning for distance
education, the instructor must make decisions that will affect all aspects of the distant instructional system
(Moore & Kearsley, 1996). Focusing on the distant system will help the instructor plan for effective
learning experiences and the instructor will have a greater opportunity for developing a balanced distant
learning experience.
Principles of Instructional Design Systems
Systematic Process
With the goal of student learning in mind, an instructor can consider the components of a successful
learning system (Dick & Carey, 1996). The interaction of the components - learner, content,
method/material, and environment - provides results in creating the type of learning experience necessary
for student learning. These components must interact both efficiently and effectively to safeguard quality
learning experiences. There should be a balance among the components, none can take on a higher
precedence over the others. This equal interaction of the systems components safeguards that the
instruction will reach the goal of student learning.
Planning for Instruction at a Distance
The planning and organization for a distance education course is multifaceted and must occur
well in advance of the scheduled instruction. To eliminate trial and error preparation, distance learning
faculty should consider the following:
Courses previously taught in traditional classrooms may need to be retooled. The focus of the
instruction shifts to more visual presentations, engaged learners, and careful timing of presentations of
information.
As traditional classroom materials that have been used during instruction are revised, considerations
for illustrating key concepts, or topics, using table, figures and other visual representations need to be
made.
Activities that encourage interactivity need to be incorporated. Planning for interactivity helps learners.
Not only does the instructor have to plan for interaction, but students may require training to
participate actively in these types of distant interactive activities.
Activities that allow for student group work need to be well planned. This helps construct a supportive
social environment. For example, the instructor could present case studies related to theories and
concepts covered in the course, then groups of students, perhaps in different sites, could discuss case
study questions and reach consensus on a solution to the problem.

19

Technical problems can occur, so alternatives for the class must be considered. If equipment fails, it is
important for students to have projects and assignments independent of the instructor and alternative
means of communication (e.g., fax, phone, e-mail). Prior discussion of the plan for technology failures
with students will eliminate confusion and loss of productive class time (Herring and Smaldino, 1997).
In addition to considerations related to planning for instruction, there is also a need to examine
issues associated with the separation of instructor and some or all of the students. Time constraints for
class delivery, lack direct contact, visualization of the materials, and planning for interaction requires a
reconsideration of classroom dynamics. Often instructors use visual cues, such as student facial
expressions, within the traditional classroom or conversations with students after class to decide quickly to
adjust the instructional approach for a course. These cues give instructors insights that help them
personalize the instruction for the students and insure a quality learning experience for all. Teaching at a
distance eliminates many of these cues. Alternative approaches to on-going evaluation of instruction must
be incorporated. If instructors ignore this area of preparation, and plan to teach as they always have, they
will feel frustrated. Likewise, students may feel alienated and will begin to tune out the instructor. The
instructional development process should be based on the unique characteristics and needs of students,
meshed with the teaching style of the instructor and the course goals and content. Interaction should be
maximized, visual potential of the medium should be explored, and time constraints addressed.
Issues to Address in the Planning Process
Who are the Learners?
Taking the time to learn about the learners in the class yields a more productive learning
environment. Along with the general information about the learners, an instructor needs to know more
specific information about the students in the class. Factors such as whether the students are from urban or
rural areas, age range, grade range, and educational background can have a marked impact on the levels of
interaction among students. The instructor may have to plan more carefully for the types and levels of
interaction to ensure a quality learning experience for all members of the class.
The cultural, social, and economic backgrounds of the students is also important information for
the instructor (Willis, 1994). Educational expectations of learners can also influence the quality of the
learning experience. The attitude and interest students bring to the class will impact the learning
environment. Thus, an instructor who is interested in creating a quality learning experience for all
members of the class, with the ultimate goal of learning as the outcome, will be certain to account for these
variables in planning.
Students who are less social may find the distance education environment more comfortable for
them. Students may become more expressive because of the perception of privacy and the informative
nature of mediated communication. They may perceive the increased and varied interactivity and
immediate feedback as a positive input to their interface with the learning experience.
Additionally, students can benefit from a wider range of cognitive, linguistic, cultural, and affective
styles they would not encounter in a self-contained classroom. The emphasis should not be on the inherent
efficiency of the distance learning, but on the values and services offered to students through their exposure
to others (Herring & Smaldino, 1997). Relationships can be fostered, values can be expanded, and a shared
purposes or goals can be developed.
To be effective, an understanding of the target audience is necessary. Willis (1994) suggested the
following questions be asked prior to development of distance-learning environments:
What are student ages, cultural backgrounds, interests and educational levels?
What is the level of familiarity of the students with the instructional methods and technological
delivery systems under consideration?
How will the students apply the knowledge gained in the course, and how is it sequenced with other
courses?
Can the class be categorized into several broad subgroups, each with different characteristics?
What is the Essential Content?
The content of a course needs to reflect articulation within the curriculum. It is essential to examine
the nature of the content, as well as the sequence of information. In any distance learning environment, one
particular issue, that of time constraints, impacts other planning areas. Time constraints refer to the actual
on-line time for delivery, which is often limited and non-flexible. The issue of limited time makes it

20

necessary to closely examine the essential elements of the course content. The instructor needs to balance
content with the limited time for learning activities and possibly remove extraneous, nonessential
information.
Generally speaking, the scope of the content for a course needs to be sufficient to ensure the entire
learning experience will lead to the desired outcomes. Concepts, knowledge, and specific skills need to be
identified (Dick & Carey, 1996). Supporting information or knowledge is important to the scope of content
analysis. Follow-up and applications of the content should be considered.
It is important to remember that no matter which media are used, the trend is to reduce the amount
of information delivered and to increase the interactive value of the learning experience (Herring &
Smaldino, 1997). Thus, the instructor may need to throw out content that had been included in a
traditional presentation of a course. Or, the instructor may need to reconsider means of delivery of the
information through alternative means, such as additional reading, booklets designed specifically for the
tasks, links to special sites, etc.
What Teaching Strategies and Media to Use?
Successful teaching at a distance places the recipients needs before organizational convenience and
at the center of planning and decision making. The individual needs of the learners are brought to the
forefront in education that uses electronic technology, because separation of learners from the instructor
requires students to take more responsibility for learning. Consequently, the learners opinions and needs
play a more important role in decision making than is usual in an instructor-centered environment
(Macfarlane & Smaldino, 1997).
It is oversimplified to suggest that there is one better way to teach at a distance. In any given content
area there are several potential ways of providing a quality learning experience for the students (Heinich,
Molenda, Russell, & Smaldino, 1999). What is essential in deciding which strategy or strategies to employ
is the issue of engaging the learner. The one thing that has been repeatedly demonstrated through research
is that lecture, or the talking head, approach is the least successful strategy to employ in distance
education (Schlosser and Anderson, 1996).
The instructor needs to focus on selecting instructional strategies that engage the learners in active
learning. To do this, the instructor may need to de-emphasize the informative part of the instruction for
more discovery of information. The emphasis on keeping the learners engaged in learning ensures that
students will be in tune with the class.
For the selection of media there are several models often used (Dick & Carey, 1996). One common
theme with all of these models is the learning context, which is the content, the intended outcome, and the
nature of the students. Practical considerations such as available resources for creating media and the
technologies for delivery of instruction also play a hand in the selection process. Mainly, though, goals and
objectives should be the primary influence on the selection of media.
McAlpine and Weston (1994) have delineated a set of criteria for selecting media, whether they are
commercial media or media developed specifically for a particular course. The first item on the list is to
match the medium to the curriculum or content. Also included are related items such as accuracy of
information, motivational quality, engagement quality, technical quality, and unbiased nature of material.
These should be considered in selecting media in order to match student needs to the strategies employed.
Visuals provide a concrete reference point for students, especially when they are engaged in a nontelevised learning experience. Providing visuals, even if they are lists of concepts and ideas, can help
students. Visuals also help learners by simplifying information. Diagrams and charts often can make it
easier to understand complex ideas. A visual that breaks down a complex idea into its components, can
show relationships that might be otherwise confusing to students. Also, preparing visuals that serve as
mnemonics can assist student understanding. And, visuals help students in their study. They can use them
to prepare for tests and other means of assessing their learning.
Finally, there are two very important additional issues to be raised. First is that of copyright. No
matter what technologies are incorporated in the distance environment, the instructor needs to respect the
copyright restrictions that might apply. For example, in a televised class, the instructor may not be able to
use a video without first obtaining permission to display it to the class. In a Web-based class, the instructor
may have to have permission to post a journal article. An instructor needs to be responsible to obtaining
copyright permissions where appropriate.
The second issue is that of access. The instructor cannot assume that all students at a distance have
equal access to resources. Students may not have the technologies available. Also, students may not have

21

the facilities at hand. The instructor needs to be certain that all students have similar learning experiences,
including the materials. For example, if the instructor wishes students to use certain books or journals for
outside reading, it is important to check with the local library to be sure theses materials are available.
What is the Learning Environment?
Educators are familiar with classroom settings. They are comfortable with using the space available
to enable learning to take place. But it is when the classroom shifts into a distance learning setting that the
environment becomes a challenge to the instructor. There are several important elements to address within
the distance learning environment.
Technology. The type of setting, be it place or time shifted, will influence planning decisions.
Environments that are place-shifted are those that are synchronous but are not in the same location (e.g. a
live video-based distance class). Those that are time-shifted are asynchronous, where students access the
class at different times. Assessing the use of the technologies in a distant setting is essential. In any
distance learning environment the technology becomes the element of most concern for the instructor.
There are several issues associated with technology when teaching in a distance learning mode. First
is the basic operation of the equipment. In a televised distance learning setting, switching between sites is
usually a simple procedure, but it does require time to acquire the finesse to operate the switching buttons
smoothly. Second, using additional cameras in the classroom can create some concern for the instructor.
The overhead camera needs to be focused and materials lined up to ensure that learners in all sites can see
the material. Third, the instructor should always consider what the student should be viewing during the
lesson. Is it better to see the instructor, the visuals, or other students? When a instructor has had
experience with teaching with the equipment, these decisions become automatic, making learning the
foundation for the decisions made (Herring & Smaldino, 1997).
In an Internet-based learning environment, the instructor should be concerned with the layout of the
courseware and the types of resources available to the students at the distant sites. The instructor needs to
be certain materials are designed in a way that is intuitive for the various types of learners. Further the
instructor need to be concerned about student access to the appropriate hardware and software to be
successful in connecting to the courseware. And, the instructor should be concerned that the students can
complete the tasks expected of them. Finally, the instructor needs to be certain they understand the
terminology being used.
It is essential the instructor be prepared with alternatives for each lesson in case of problems. What
will the students do during the lesson time if the technology is not operating properly? The instructor and
students need to be prepared for times when the entire technology system is not working properly. Preplanned contingencies should continue the learning process even though the technology is malfunctioning.
Alternative lessons must always be ready, but hopefully never needed. And, students need to be prepared
to know what to do with those materials. They must be designed to be used without instructor intervention.
Resources. The second element to consider in the instructional environment is the resources available to
students. What materials will they have at hand? What materials will be available in libraries and
laboratories? Will students have access to resources for easy communication with the instructor?
How to Determine the Quality of the Instruction?
In the instructional design process, formative evaluation becomes an important aspect. Two
questions need to be considered. The first relates to reflection on the action or activity: "Is this approach
going to work?" (Schon, 1987). To be an effective educator, it is important to consider what can happen
within an instructional event. All experiences, both those considered to be positive or negative, have some
element of surprise. It may be expectations were not achieved; it may be a serendipitous event led to an
altogether different, but pleasant, outcome. Whatever the nature of the event, it is essential to reflect upon
what has happened.
Reflection may take the form of critical assessment of the events, satisfying curiosity about the
nature of those events (Macfarlane & Smaldino, 1997). Reflection may consider the success of the learning
situation. It brings the instructor into a state of knowing about the learning event. It is now possible to
move into the second question of the formative evaluation process, that of considering how to improve the
situation.
The second question then is, "How can I make this better?" The instructor needs to examine the
instructional event in terms of what worked and what appears to have been a problem. The second phase of
the formative evaluation is concerned with helping the instructor ensure a more successful educational
experience for students. The instructor needs to consider not only issues such as the learning task, the

22

instructional materials, and the teaching strategies, but also where the technology may have played a role in
the instruction.
When examining effective instruction, it is important to look at the role technology plays in
instruction. The instructor should consider the elements of technologies and their effect on the students. If
a problem occurs with the lesson because of the hardware components of the system, what was the nature
of the problem? Was the problem because of a temporary interference with the transmission? Was weather
or some other non-controllable issue causing problems with the transmission? Can the hardware be
improved? Can things be done to the interactive instructional classroom to aid instruction in the future?
If a problem does not relate to hardware, then what was the problem? Perhaps students needed to be
better informed about how to use the equipment. It may be that students needed preparation for the lesson.
Perhaps the instructor needed to prepare other types of handouts or manipulatives to ensure that the
students could accomplish the tasks. Maybe the instructor needed to select an alternative teaching strategy
to improve interactivity and student outcomes.
Because so many different factors effect the interactive learning environment, reflective teaching practices
play an even greater role in developing of effective teaching practice. To consider what has transpired and
how to change it creates a dynamic educational experience for both the instructor and the learners.
Formative evaluation is essential for successful interactive distance learning experiences.
It is important for the instructor to think about handouts within the context of the planning process.
The types of handouts will vary according to the age of the students and the content of the course. But, it is
important that the instructor realize that when planning a distant course, handouts become an essential
communication link with students. Therefore, the instructor needs to invest time and energy in creating
quality handouts for students.
Even within a traditional class, the instructor is concerned with getting materials to the students.
Often papers and books are distributed at the beginning of the class period. But, when teaching at a
distance, this is not as easy as it might seem. Often the majority of the class is at a distance and distribution
of materials becomes a logistical nightmare.
An instructor needs to consider: (a) getting the materials to the distant sites on time. A distribution
network must be established for getting tests and other materials to those remote sites. The technology can
be useful in transferring materials; (b) communicating with the students. The effect of separating
instructor and students does affect this communication; (c) time delays in material transfer. Students may
have to wait a longer time than normally expected to receive written feedback. Instructors may elect to use
other forms of telecommunications with students to facilitate this feedback.
Summary
The instructional design process provides the framework for planning. It is essential that the instructor take
the time to plan and organize the learning experience prior to implementation when engaged in teaching at
a distance. The instruction will be at a standard that is acceptable in all venues. The students will be
engaged and the instructor will be satisfied. Planning make the difference in a successful learning
environment.
References
Dick, W. and Carey, L. (1996). The systematic design of instruction. New York: Harper Collins
Publishers.
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J. and Smaldino, S. (1999). Educational media and technologies for
learning. Columbus, OH: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Herring, M. and Smaldino, S. (1997). Planning for interactive distance education: A handbook.
Washington, DC: AECT Publications.
Macfarlane, C. & Smaldino, S. (1997). The electronic classroom at a distance. In R. Rittenhouse & D.
Spillers (Eds.), Modernizing the curriculum: The electronic classroom. Springfield, MO: Charles Thomas
Publishers.

23

McAlpine and Weston (1994). The attributes of instructional materials. Performance Improvement
Quarterly, 19-30.
Moore, M. and Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: A systems view. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Company.
Schlosser, C. & Anderson, M. (1993). Distance education: Review of the literature. Ames, IA: Research
Institute for Studies in Education.
Schon, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Josey-Bass.
Willis, B. (1994). Distance education: Strategies and tools. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology
Publications.

24

Convergent Technologies in Distance Education Delivery

Steve Wheeler
Senior Lecturer
Distance Learning through Telematics
Faculty of Arts and Education
University of Plymouth
UK

25

Introduction
British education has recently been witnessing a revolution in the development of distance learning
technologies. This revolution is taking place in three areas:

in technological innovation, where equipment is decreasing in size and increasing in usability;

in the development of the techniques for delivering learning materials to students using the
technology;
in the trend towards converging technologies to create a seamless delivery platform.
The revolutionaries are the movers and shakers of education and training. They are the innovators and
early adopters who are prepared to take the risk to try out new ideas. They are the visionaries who attempt
to enhance teaching delivery and promote improvements within the distributed learning environment. This
kind of environment has no bounds, because the technology provides freedom from time and place
constraints. It offers a widening of traditional catchment areas to include anyone who wishes to participate
in life-long learning.

Networking the rural areas

The University of Plymouth is situated in the southern part of the South West peninsula of England (Figure
1) and surrounded by rural farmland and moorland. It has six main campuses and a number of other
smaller learning centres, such as the Institute of Health Studies centres based in local hospitals, and the
RATIO centres European funded telecentres based within remote villages and towns throughout the
region.
Gloucestershire
South Wales

SWAN - South West

Area Network: ATM
inter-campus and intersite links at bandwidths
up to 155 Mbps
University of Plymouth
main campuses and
sites

Wells
Somerset

Barnstaple

Wiltshire

Taunton*
South Molton

Digital satellite TV transmissions

and data sub-carrier

Yeovil
Honiton

Dorset

Exeter*

* Denotes Institute of
Health Studies (IHS) centre
on this campus or site

Exmouth

Cornwall

University of Plymouth
IHS study centres (in
hospitals)
RATIO project regional
community telematics
learning centres (total 40)

SuperJANET

Devon

Bodmin

Newton Abbot
Plymouth*
Pool*

Truro

Torbay

TDS4
Uplink, TV
Studio

50

100 km

Isles of
Scilly

Figure 1
All HIS and RATIO centres are equipped with a range of technologies, including computers, digital
satellite TV and data reception, video conferencing and Internet connectivity.

26

The University has invested heavily in the development of its telematics infrastructure for a number of
reasons. Firstly, the geography of the South West requires a substantial amount of travel on small country
roads, and this can be problematic. Secondly, seasonal tourism creates travel problems during the summer
months. Thirdly, the University views telematics as a means to develop the human resources within the
region. In particular small businesses in the South West of England require high quality training products,
delivered flexibly, direct to the workplace (or very near) and in a differentiated, student centred manner.
The rationale for the establishment of the network is that a great many rural residents are socially isolated
from others and from the rest of the world, making them doubly disadvantaged (Stevens, 1994). Poor
travel and communications infrastructures prevent many from participating in lifelong learning activities
enjoyed by their urban counterparts. Furthermore, lack of access to educational facilities has disadvantaged
the region as a whole, as a great many rural residents are under-skilled or lack the personal finance to reskill during periods of unemployment. Prospective employers who wish to employ skilled workforces
currently tend to look elsewhere in the country, or even outside, in order to recruit quality staff and thereby
maintain a competitive edge. One of the Universitys main objectives, therefore, is to ensure the delivery
of high quality training and education to the villages and local communities in which these individuals
reside. In this way, it is hoped that the local workforce will raise its profile within the job market.
Communication and community
Distance learning is not just a move away from learning within the classroom. It is a complete paradigm
shift a change in the fabric and culture of education. It is based on the premise that students are at the
centre of the learning process, take responsibility for their own learning, and work at their own pace, and in
their own place. It is about ownership and autonomy.
As any educator will tell you, good communication in the traditional classroom setting has always been at a
premium. When delivering learning materials outside the classroom across any distance, it is all the more
important that technologies and techniques support learners and improve communications between students
and teachers. Course delivery into remote rural communities compounds the matter still further. Barriers
of cultural differences and resistance to change present as many problems as the need to effectively
communicate with others at a distance. The establishment of robust delivery and support systems is
therefore vital.
To achieve these aims a multi-layered delivery system has been established, utilising established
technologies such as personal computer and telephone communications networks, combined with the newer
technologies, such as digital transmission systems and associated hardware. This includes ISDN Internet
connectivity, digitally compressed satellite TV and data broadcasts, and digital video teleconferencing.
The technology used to combine these modes of delivery can be referred to as convergent technology.
Digital compression techniques
Technological convergence is almost totally reliant on digitization. This technique makes possible the
production, storage and dissemination of text, graphics, speech, sounds, still and moving pictures in
essentially the same format (Kirkwood, 1996). Furthermore, in digital format less bandwidth is required to
transmit course materials such as live TV or multi-media, as they are compressed. Digital compression
offers the user the opportunity to send materials that time and expense would previously have prohibited.
For example, wide band FM television signals would normally require a complete transponder on a
satellite. The transmission of digital satellite TV (sound and vision) takes approximately one eighth of the
space on the same transponder. You only pay for what you use. The remainder of the transponder can
subsequently be hired out to other users. Furthermore, redundant audio channels can be used to send
coded materials, graphics, Internet web pages, lecture notes or technical updates. These files are received
by a data capture card residing in a personal computer connected to the satellite receiver. Files can then be
printed out for immediate use or stored onto hard disk.

27

It is from the merging of two general technologies, TELEcommunications and inforMATICS the term
'telematics' has been derived. The advent of telematics has been instrumental in ensuring that many
traditional modes of learning delivery are supported and, increasingly in some cases, superseded. Satellite
systems, terrestrial transmission through conductive materials and through photonics (optical fibre) based
computer networks and video systems can all be seen as components of a sophisticated and multi-layered
yet singular delivery system. Figure 2 outlines an integrated approach combining satellite and terrestrial
technologies to enhance the learning experience.

Figure 2
Distance delivery
The delivery of learning materials to multi-sites from a single point is highly desirable. For example, all
students within a distributed environment need to receive certain information simultaneously. This is
particularly important for those managing the centres rumour factories in small villages can be quickly
eliminated if everyone is given the same information at the same time.
Point to multi-point dissemination of materials can be achieved cost effectively by the use of convergent
technology. For example, satellite transmissions can send live pictures and sound to as many or as few
receiving sites as required, for the same cost. Data can be sent simultaneously, ensuring that students
receive paper based support materials such as handouts and course notes as they leave the teaching session.
Experts and presenters are situated in a central TV studio, and broadcast to a dispersed population of
students using compressed video techniques. Students who wish to participate in the proceedings have the
option to telephone, e-mail or video conference into the TV studio. If they videoconference, their picture is
integrated into the live studio picture and re-transmitted. In the same way, remote experts can be brought
into the studio, without the need for expensive travel.
Delivery of course material
The implementation of telematics is beginning to occur across the entire spectrum of education in the UK,
from primary schooling through to the tertiary sector. More and more students of all ages are becoming
computer literate and proficient in using networked information technologies. Children as young as 5 years
old are now learning to use the Internet. Partially as a result of these developments, moves away from
contiguous towards distance approaches to education, and moves towards open access and 'lifelong'
learning are now becoming common place in educational practice.
System flexibility
Whereas interactive television via satellite is time constrained, web based material delivered over the
Internet ensures flexibility of study, as web servers can be accessed at any time during the day or night and
the learning material can be easily and regularly updated to keep pace with trends and changes. Flexibility
must also be a by-word in computer mediated conferencing (CMC). Full interactivity between users can
be achieved using on-line computer conferencing (Hiltz, 1986). Students can either 'chat' live to their tutors
and peer groups in synchronous mode, or alternatively, leave electronic mail messages for each other,
creating an evolving, discursive 'open forum' in asynchronous format (Rawson, 1991).
Social Support
The provision of tutor support is vital for the success of learning. Students who are left to survive without
expert help and advice often flounder and fail, whether they are studying at a distance or not. Rowntree
(1989) argues that without feedback on their performance, students find it difficult to perceive a reference
point from which to measure up, and are thus deprived of performance standards. Moreover, social support
is a vital component of the learning experience (Oborne, 1993). Cullen & McNieve (1993) and McConnell

28

(1991) agree that the social presence function of telematics is essential in facilitating working and learning
at a distance.
Social support may be forthcoming as a direct result of using telematics. Hiltz and Turoff (1978), Kleiner
and Davis (1979) and Theobald (1980) all offer evidence to suggest that CMC improves rather than inhibits
the personal sense of social interaction and support across distances.
Learning support can of course be achieved by traditional face to face contact with staff and other users at
the telecentre, but it is anticipated that telestudents will spend just as much time interacting with student
peer groups at other centres, and tutors at a distance. The latter two groupings can offer social support only
through telematics mediated communications, and this is the challenge.
Students studying at a telecentre must therefore be offered contact with their tutors and peers electronically.
By the same token, teachers delivering material to remote students must achieve a virtual presence where
once a physical presence was possible. The advantage of the telematics approach is that the teacher can 'be
in several places at one time', and depending on the technology employed, can perform a variety of tasks
that would previously be impossible.
One technology for example, known as the 'One Touch Key Pad' operates using conventional analogue
telephone cabling. One Touch offers each student a device featuring several simple functions such as
Yes/No and ? keys. Students can see and hear their tutor on a television screen. The presenting tutor can
target questions to individuals or the entire group, and receive responses on the control screen. The tutor
can gather a consensus of opinion from the entire student population in seconds on a graphic display, or can
see at a glance, which students are in need of further tutor support by the record of their responses.
By the use of a video conferencing link, teachers can share applications and literally 'take control' of their
students' computer screens. Using this technique, tutors can indicate specific features, demonstrate new
functions or create free drawn diagrams with white board facilities. Tutors will also discover that
completely new interaction patterns will result due to teaching using new technology (Lewis, 1995).
Contact with some students may mean that tutors never get to meet their students, and that what is
conveyed across a network may have to be more concise and salient than material delivered within a
classroom environment. There are obvious staff development issues here.
Some potholes .
There are of course disadvantages to teaching or studying using convergent technologies. For example, in
video conferencing a time lag is often evident due to the distances involved and the speed restrictions of
some computer processors. Low screen refresh rates can create picture lag and pixellation - the appearance
of jerky motions, ill defined vision and intermittent interference on screen. The techniques of turn taking
and speaking in a deliberate manner must be mastered as the time lag can create confusion with the
participants tending to 'talk over' each other.
Teachers may be less able to detect non-verbal cues from their students when using satellite conferencing
or web based materials. A whole new range of presentation skills in both verbal and written modes must
therefore be developed if convergent technologies are to be a useful learning tool rather than a poor
pedagogical substitute.
Assessment
Assessing students who are learning at a distance can be extremely problematic. Issues of authenticity and
reliability need to be addressed - is the student who s/he says s/he is, and how do we know we are assessing
fairly and accurately are questions needing answers.
Arguably, the assessment of remote student learning can readily be effectively achieved through
convergent technology solutions. Video conferencing has a data transfer facility enabling the student to
send large quantities of written, pictorial or mixed mode data to tutors across any distance, and the tutor can

29

quickly confirm receipt of the work for marking. Viewers of satellite programmes are able to audio, video
and e-mail conference back into studio to respond to the presenter's questions, or ask questions of studio
experts.
Tutors can also visually assess some forms of learning using video links, particularly within the
psychomotor (skills) domain by observation and affective (attitudinal) domain by direct interaction such as
interviews. Where cognitive (knowledge) assessment is required, course writers can devise a multitude of
text based activities to test the students understanding and expertise. It has been strongly argued that
technology has an ever increasing role as a recorder and analyser of learning performance (Chickering &
Ehrmann, 1994).
Ultimately, teachers can interact with their students and establish a telepresence which is the next best
thing to actually being in the room with the learner.
Conclusion
Convergent technologies are beginning to make an impact on the delivery of learning material at a distance
in the UK. The author predicts that as course providers purchase more telematics equipment, two things
will happen. Firstly, as has been historically the case with the adoption of new technologies, costs of units
will decrease as the user base increases. Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, users will discover and
develop new and innovative techniques to exploit the capabilities of the technology. The only limits to
innovation will be the imagination of the proponents of the new technologies. Time will reveal just how
fast these developments occur.

REFERENCES
Chickering A W and Ehrmann S C (1994) Implementing Seven Principles of Good Practice: Technology as
Lever. Occasional Paper. Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. Paris, France.
Cullen K and McNieve A (1993) The social implications of telework for teleworkers, Conference
Proceedings; Psychological Aspects of Teleworking in Rural Areas (PATRA), Dublin, Ireland. October,
1993.
Hiltz S R (1986) The virtual classroom: Using computer mediated communication for university teaching,
Journal of Communication, 36, (2) 95-104.
Hiltz S R and Turoff M (1979) The network nation - Human communication via computer, in Kerr E B and
Hiltz S R (1982) Computer Mediated Communication Systems: Status and Evaluation, Academic Press,
New York.
Kirkwood A (1996) Convergence and Media for Teaching and Learning, Innovations in Education and
Technology International. 33, (1) 41-49.
Kleiner A and Davis W (1979) Personal Computer Networks: Better than the next best thing to being there.
Coevol Quarterly, Summer. 114-119.
Lewis R (1995) The creation of an open learning environment in HE, Innovation & Learning in Education,
1, (2) 32-6.
McConnell D (1991) Case Study: The Educational Use of Computer Conferencing. ETTI. 27, (2) 190-208.
Oborne D (1993) An infrastructure for teleworking, Conference Proceedings; Psychological Aspects of
Teleworking in Rural Areas (PATRA). Dublin, Ireland. October, 1993.

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Theobald R (1980) The communications era from the year 2000, in Kerr, E. B., and Hiltz S R (1982)
Computer Mediated Communication Systems: Status and Evaluation, Academic Press, New York.
Rawson J H (1991) Simulation at a distance using computer conferencing. Education and Training
Technology International. 27, (3) 284-92.
Rowntree D (1989) Assessing Students: How Shall We Know Them? Kogan Page. London.
Stevens K (1994) Some applications of distance education technologies and pedagogies in rural schools in
New Zealand. Distance Education. 15, (2) 318-26.

31

Best of Both Worlds - The Nova ITDE Model of Distance Education

Charles A. Schlosser
Marsha Burmeister
Instructional Technology and Distance Education
Nova Southeastern University

32

Friday, 8 p.m.
One by one, the students faces appear on the computer screen, and with broad smiles greet their classmates
in turn. A class of 15, they are participating in the course, Future Trends: Beyond Emerging Technology,
from their homesfrom California to New York and from Washington to Florida. The students know each
other well, having taken classes together for more than two years. On the computer screen, the wide-angle
view and the somewhat unsteady motion indicates that compressed video is being used to link the students.
But the image is in color and the quality is surprisingly good.
Two others join the videoconference: a program professor greets the students from a studio on the campus
of Nova Southeastern University (NSU), in suburban Fort Lauderdale and explains that the course
instructor has been delayed, but will join the session shortly. The other participant in the videoconference
is the class cluster coordinator from her home in Florida. Lest there be any doubt about her location, a
huge banner, reading Hollywood, is visible on the wall behind her.
Within a few minutes, the courses instructor, an adjunct professor, joins the videoconference, greets the
participants, and apologizes for the delay. The videoconferencing equipment is straightforward, but
connections from his office, in Rio de Janeiro, are problematic. For several minutes, the instructor
discusses the goals of the evening and fields questions from the students about course readings and
assignments.
In the following two hours, the students make short presentations based on assigned readings. As each
student presents, classmates follow along with the help of handouts that had been distributed via email.
The students use a variety of presentation media: there are murmurs of approval as one student uses his
camcorder as a document camera, and envious hoots as another student couples a PowerPoint presentation
with a live picture-in-picture image of himself.
As the session ends, the instructor discusses the agenda for upcoming videoconferences as well as for the
weeklong summer institute to be held in Fort Lauderdale, where the group will gather for intensive
instruction the following month.
Introduction
The scenario Friday, 8 p.m. is drawn from the experiences of Cluster One, whose members became, in
February of 1996, the first group of students enrolled in Nova Southeastern Universitys program in
Instructional Technology and Distance Education (ITDE). For this cluster, use of desktop video was an
experimentone of many they had experienced in their graduate program. Over the course of three years,
they have been, in the words of a professor, put through the wringer. But in their use of a wide variety of
communications technologies, the students gained a rare and valuable opportunityhands-on experience
coupled with a deeper understanding of these technologies and their use in distance education. Now, after
three years, these students are poised to receive their Doctor of Education degrees. It seems appropriate at
this time to examine to examine the Nova ITDE Model, the distinctive multi-mode approach to distance
education which the students of Cluster One experienced and helped refine.
The ITDE Program
The ITDE program was established in the spring of 1996 with a single clusteror cohortof 27. Seven
of the students were enrolled in the Master of Science program, the remaining 20 in the Ed.D. program.
Three years later, ITDE has 12 clusters, a total of about 250 students, all of whom meet in Fort Lauderdale
three times each year. Students in these clusters are mostly from the United States with a sprinkling of
students from other countries, including Israel, Germany, and the Netherlands. ITDE is also fostering the
development of two international clustersone in Jamaica, the other in Venezuela, whose students will
receive the bulk of their instruction in their home countries.

33

Nova Southeastern University

Founded in 1964, Nova Southeastern University (NSU) is the largest private university in Florida, with an
enrollment of about 15,000. Based in suburban Fort Lauderdale, it offers undergraduate and graduate
programs leading to degrees in education, law, psychology, oceanography, osteopathic medicine, dental
medicine, pharmacy, and many other fields.
Fischler Graduate School of Education and Human Services
From its 18-acre North Miami Beach campus, the Fischler Graduate School offers courses in six program
areas, leading to the masters, educational specialist, and doctoral degrees. Approximately 8,000 students
are enrolled in six programs: Graduate Teacher Education, Life Span Care and Administration, Educational
Leaders, Higher Education, Communication and Science Disorders, and Education and Technology.
The Nova ITDE Model of Distance Education
The Nova ITDE model of distance education is characterized by a unique combination of pedagogical,
structural, and technological attributes. The most important of these attributes are: a uniform course of
study offering a single major, the cluster concept, the applied thesis and dissertation, and face-to-face
instruction combined with the use of a wide variety of distance education technologies.
The Course of Study
Over the course of their 21-month program, masters students in the ITDE program participate in four study
areas, each of which is composed of two courses. The study areas, in the order taken, are:
Leadership I: Influence of Technology on Leadership and Management
Research and Evaluation I
Summer Institute I: Instructional Media
Instructional Design
Doctoral students take the same courses, plus the following study areas:
Research and Evaluation II
Summer Institute II: Instructional Systems
Management and Human Resources Development
Summer Institute III: Trends
Leadership II: Leadership, Technology, and Power
The Cluster Concept
Since the founding of NSU in 1964, the cluster concept has been a strength of the universitys graduate
education programs. Each cluster in the ITDE program is a group of 20-30 students who live and work in a
wide variety of geographic locations and professional settings. Each cluster operates under the direction of
a cluster coordinator. The coordinator, who holds a doctorate in education, technology, or a related field
from NSU, is a facilitator of numerous administrative details and cluster activities and serves to support and
advise students. The coordinator monitors student progress, offers academic advice and encouragement,
and facilitates communication that fosters interaction among students who have limited face-to-face
contact.
The cluster coordinator is required to be readily accessible via email, to maintain the cluster Web page, to
publish Web-based newsletters, and attend online class sessions. In this unique position, the coordinator is
a support person for the students, a facilitator for senior faculty and guest lecturers, and a local site
administrator/manager for program office staff.
The cluster is the administrative unit that links students throughout the program. Strong bonds develop
between the student and the coordinator. Friendship, collegiality, academic support and encouragement
develop as students progress through a series of study areas. Student program evaluations consistently

34

indicate that the cluster concept is of extremely high value. The leadership of the coordinator is considered
a crucial factor for student success.
The Instruction
ITDE students enroll in three four-month study areas per year, in which most content is delivered through
readings and face-to-face instruction. Discussions, student presentations, and interaction with instructors
are conducted at a distance. Each study area, led by an NSU program professor or an adjunct supervised by
a program professor, consist of three distinct phases.
In the first phase, students are assigned extensive readings, usually including several texts and a collection
of journal articles, in addition to the study guide that is a component of all ITDE courses. During this
portion of the course, students one or more audioconferences, in which introductions are made and the
instructor discusses goals and objectives of the study area, fields questions, and perhaps provides a modest
amount of instruction. Finally, students complete a significant assignment based on the readings.
The second phase of the study area, which takes place in Fort Lauderdale, is devoted to intensive face-toface instruction during an extended weekend (three or four days) or an extended weeklong summer
institute. If more than one cluster is taking the course at any given time (as is increasingly the case), the
clusters are blended. The instructors (one per cluster) work with each of the students. This arrangement
allows students to meet and work with other students in the program, as well as to experience a variety of
teaching styles and establish connections with nationally-known instructors. Before the end of the second
phase of the study area, learning is assessed, and students begin work on a major final project.
During the third and final phase of the study area, work on the final project continues. Instructor and
students continue to communicate via a wide variety of technologies, including audioconference, email,
and chat. Students may use these technologies to communicate within formal or informal study groups.
Students use the same technologies to present their final projects to the instructor and classmates.
The Applied Thesis and Dissertation
The ITDE applied thesis and dissertation differ from their more traditional cousins in at least three ways.
First, they must offer a solution to a problem in the work place. Second, the processes of implementing and
reporting are conducting concurrently with coursework, rather than afterward. Third, students are guided,
not by a major professor, but by an applied thesis/dissertation adviser, who may be a program professor,
but is more likely an expert identified expressly for the purpose.
The Technologies
ITDE instructors and students have used a wide variety of communication technologies. This variety has
been the result of technological advances, instructor preferences, specific course needs, and a spirit of
experimentation. To a very large degree, the cluster concept has dictated the choice of communication
technologies, which must be easily accessible to students and permit student-student interaction, both
synchronous and asynchronous. The principal classes of communication technologies include Internet
chat, audioconference, videoconference, and Web-based course packages.
Internet Chat
When the ITDE program was inaugurated, in the spring of 1996, Netscape Chat was available as a free
download and became the basis for regularly scheduled chat sessions. By the beginning of their third year
in the program, Netscape Chat had been replaced by a First Class Internet client. Embanet is now used by
four clusters for email, chat, and uploading and downloading of files (assignments, study guides, required
forms) in study areas, cluster areas, and workgroups. The advantages of the First Class client include:
multiple platform capability; ease of use; sophisticated features and, perhaps most importantly; 24-hour
support, online and via telephone, for all registered users, including students.

35

Audiobridge
The use to the audiobridge continues to be an important element of most ITDE courses. Students meet with
instructors via conference call accessed by a toll-free number. NSU uses a commercial provider to set up
the calls and provide online support during the call. Advantages of audiobridges include access from
virtually anywhere, efficiency (faster than typing), and the ability to make tape recordings of calls. A visual
component has been addressed by many ITDE students by adding a second telephone line to their homes so
that they may access Web-based materials during the audioconference.
Videoconferencing
Although traditional compressed video has for years been used by NSU programs (including ITDE) to
bring guest speakers to students during face-to-face instruction, a trial of desktop videoconferencing has
been conducted with Cluster One. The ITDE program provided desktop video boards, cameras, and
software to all students and subsidized the lease of ISDN telephone lines in their homes. Desktop video has
been used as a medium for the delivery of instruction, for discussions, and for student presentations.
Online Courses
The demand for online courses is undeniably substantial, and growing. The ITDE program has moved
toward offering online courses, but slowly and deliberately. Over the course of the first two years of the
program, several of the newer online course development packages were evaluated. In the fall of 1998,
WebCT was used to deliver an online course. And again, the pioneers were the members of Cluster One,
who participated in their final study area, Leadership II, online. Four of the nine study areas will be
delivered online in upcoming years.
The Best of Both Worlds
After meeting for several weeks via videoconference, Cluster One gathered in Fort Lauderdale for an
extended week of intensive instruction. However, even during this face-to-face phase of the course,
videoconferencing technologies were again used, this time to bring guest speakersleaders in the field of
instructional technologyto the students. The presentations were the catalyst for wide-ranging discussions
about the status and future field. In the weeks that followed, students and instructor continued to
communicate at a distance.
None of the elements of the Nova ITDE Modelthe uniform course of study, telecommunicated distance
education, intensive face-to-face instruction, the cluster concept, or the applied research projectare, in
themselves, innovative. Rather, it is the combination of attributes that is both powerful and noteworthy.
Graduate programs in instructional technology and distance education may be successfully offered face-toface or at a distance. Tradition, of course, has favored the former, while schoolsboth established and
neware increasingly offering courses and entire programs at a distance. Both have significant advantages
and disadvantages. However, rather than choosing between these two modes of instruction, the Nova ITDE
model incorporates both. In so doing, it achieves the best of both worlds through the determination of an
appropriate ratio of face-to-face and distance instruction, a balanced set of technologies used to deliver
instruction at a distance, and a program structure that builds upon the strengths while overcoming the
weaknesses of distance education.
The choice of instructional delivery method is not based merely upon media effectiveness. Clearly,
research indicates that students, on average, learn as well at a distance as they do in traditional, face-to-face
settings. Further, decades of research have shown that students learn effectively from properly designed
instruction delivered via any medium. The Nova ITDE model is based on an understanding that a best
balance both of face-to-face and distance instruction and of media may be established for a given group of
students and instructors. This balance will shift, depending on needs and preferences of the learner, the
technological expertise of the instructor, and the available technologies.
In part, the ITDE Model is shaped by the concept of equivalency, which holds that distance educations
appropriate application should provide equivalent learning experiences for all studentsdistant and local
in order for there to be expectations of equivalent outcomes of the educational experience. In advancing

36

equivalency, the cluster concept provides a practical solution to some of the challenges presented by
distance education. Within the cluster friendships are formed, issues are debated, and support is offered. In
these and other ways, the cluster simulates the experience of the graduate assistant bullpen a notinsignificant element of the graduate school experience offered by traditional programs. Because of their
cluster membership, ITDE students are able to overcome isolation, the truly important distance of
distance education. Further, peer pressure within the cluster encourages students to persist, overcoming
one of the historic drawbacks of distance education.
A final, critical element of the ITDE Model is the applied dissertation. Its emphasis on practical
application of course content personalizes learning, and in so doing, deepens understanding.
The ITDE program from which Cluster One will graduate is strikingly different from the program in which
it began three years ago. Beginning with the goal of achieving the best of both worldstraditional, faceto-face and distance educationit has undergone numerous and significant modifications. Technologies
have been adopted and discarded, courses have been significantly revised, policies have been adjusted, and
the program has been strengthened. If the students of Cluster One have, indeed, been put through the
wringer, theyand the programare the better for it. For both the institution and the students, it has been
a learning process.

37

Designing a College Web-Based Course Using A Modified Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)
Model
Robert V. Price, Ph.D.
Associate Professor and Program Coordinator for Instructional Technology
Texas Tech University
Instructional Technology Program
College of Education
Box 41071 Texas Tech University
Lubbock, TX 79409

38

Thirty years ago the Personalized System of Instruction was introduced and became very popular. Then, for
a number of reasons, this instructional approach lost favor and nearly faded from existence. Today,
possibly because of the Internet PSI may have a new life ahead. This article will discuss Texas Techs use
of this model for the design of instruction.
The world-wide web provides a convenient and inexpensive means of course delivery and institutions of
higher education are rushing to put courses on the web. However, instructors are typically provided with
little or no training in producing a web course. Frequently, there is also inadequate time and financial
support for instructional development of web-based courses. If training is provided, it typically deals with
authoring software and technical matters rather than instructional design. This is a formula for producing
mediocre courses. This article provides a review of the possibilities for using the web for course delivery
and support and provides a description of the use of one well established instructional model, the
Personalized System of Instruction (PSI), for web course design.
Use of the Web for Course Support and Delivery
The world-wide web can be used in many ways in courses ranging from the simple to the complex. The
use of the web for courses can be divided into three categories: 1. Web supplemented, 2. Web dependent,
and 3. Web based (King, 1998). In web supplemented courses, instructors typically begin by using the Web
to supplement their regular courses by establishing a course web site on which to publish a course syllabus
and provide links to sites related to the course content. As an instructor becomes more comfortable with
using the web for course support, they may add a provision for students to submit assignments to the
instructor through the web via e-mail or through using a fill-in-the-blanks form on the web site. Another
popular feature of the web is on-line conferencing which allows students and the instructor to discuss issues
outside of class. Class discussions may be conducted asynchronously through mailing lists or Internet
news groups or synchronously (live) using chat programs. Courses in which the web becomes a major
component or predominant component of the course are said to be web dependent. Web dependent courses
may store lessons on the course web site for downloading, require that some assignments be sent to the
instructor via e-mail, and require participation in on-line discussions. Sophisticated course web sites may
also include live video conferencing and multimedia. In web dependent courses, face to face instruction
may be less important than the on-line component. However, students are still expected to complete some
course activities such as lab assignments, tests, and perhaps limited lectures and demonstrations in person
on campus. Totally web-based courses use the Internet almost exclusively for course delivery. Students
may complete the entire course via the world-wide without coming to campus. All lessons, assignments,
lecture materials, and instructions are located on a course web site, although students may still be expected
to complete tests in person. When instructors decide to develop web course materials for the first time, it
may be a good idea for them to start with the basics and gradually add more features to their course web
site before attempting to develop sophisticated or totally self-contained web-based courses.
Design Options for Web Courses
The remainder of this article deals with courses which are totally web-based. The current inventory of
web-based courses is almost as varied as are conventional college courses in their use of technology,
sophistication of design, and depth of content. In 1996, the U.S. Department of Education reported an
estimated 25,730 distance education courses with different catalog numbers were offered by higher
education institutions (U.S. Dept. of Education, 1996) and he number of courses has increased dramatically
since then. Once the decision has been made to develop a web-based course, the next important decision is
the instructional design model to be used for the course. There are many instructional design models which
may be used including behaviorist, information processing, and social interaction models. One model
which is well established and is suitable to web course design is the personalized system of instruction
(PSI) model. The PSI model is based on behaviorist and cognitive psychology and encourages mastery of
course content. The PSI model is best suited for courses involving skills or cognitive information. For
courses which require group interaction, student-determined goal setting, or provide for unique experiences
for the student, the PSI model is probably not appropriate. The major elements of the PSI model are widely
used in print-based distance education programs and also in large group campus-based courses. The

39

experience which has been gained with PSI in these applications is relevant to web-based distance
education.
Basics of The PSI Model
Innovations in education usually have short histories. PSI however, is an exception to the rule and has
commanded attention for three decades. The PSI model was first introduced by Keller and Sherman during
the 1960s as a form of programmed instruction that employed a highly structured, student-centered
approach to course design (Hambleton and Foster, 1998). The distinguishing features of a course based
upon the PSI approach to course design were as follows (Keller and Sherman, 1974):
1.
2.

students proceeded through the course at their own pace;

students were required to demonstrate mastery of each component of the course before proceeding to
the next, although summative assessment was still provided by means of a final examination;
3. the teaching materials and other communications between teachers and students were largely text
based;
4. proctors provided tutorial support and assessed the achievement of students on individual
components of the course; and
5. lectures and demonstrations were intended to motivate students rather than to deliver core course
content.
In recent years, the PSI model has been modified to include modern technologies and to rely less on text
materials.
Background on Applications of the PSI Model
The PSI model has been used with a wide variety of academic levels, institutions and disciplines. The most
common level for use of PSI is the college level but PSI courses also exist in secondary schools and in
adult and continuing education. The PSI model has been widely applied to university courses with large
enrollments due to the well know limitations of large lecture-based courses as well as economic necessity
(Calahan and Smith, 1990).
The PSI model seems to be followed closely in most print-based correspondence courses (Moore and
Kearsley, 1996). This is true even though many course authors may not be deliberately implementing a PSI
course. Correspondence courses are usually self-paced with a time limit for completion. Correspondence
courses are usually divided into a series of lessons or modules, each including a stated list of objectives,
specific directions to the student, discussion material, and a test or other assignments which students must
complete to indicate mastery. Students are also required to pass one or more supervised course
examinations. Proctoring is usually handled by the course instructor who answers questions submitted by
students in writing, grades lesson assignments, and provides feedback. There are no face to face lectures in
correspondence courses but this element of the PSI model is provided for by means of the course guide
where the instructor supplements the text and provides guidance for the learner. Student evaluation
includes both evaluation and feedback throughout the course and a summative evaluation. Over the past
decade, correspondence courses which are entirely print-based, have evolved into individual study courses
which may include video or audio tapes, visuals, computer materials, and world-wide web sites as well as
printed textbooks and study guides. Texas Tech University provides a large number of individual study
courses in the United States, with enrollments which exceeded 46,000 for 1996-97 for high school, college,
and non-credit personal improvement courses (Texas Tech University, 1997). The major elements of the
PSI model are included in almost all Techs individual study courses. Techs individual study courses
which are available on the web can be accessed at: www.dce.ttu.edu.
Research on PSI
There is a substantial body of literature spanning a thirty year period that attests to the broad effectiveness
of PSI courses in terms of both student mastery of course content and student course evaluations (Kulik, et.
al, 1979; Jacobs, 1983; Kulik and Kulik, 1989; Gibbs, 1992), Hambleton and Foster, (1998). Certain
common problems associated with PSI have also been documented. A review of both the successes and

40

problems associated with PSI can aid the web course developer. Some of the most important
generalizations of this research are as follows:
Mastery Orientation. Of all PSI features, the mastery orientation seems the most important for academic
performance. Studies have shown that when the mastery-over-small-steps requirement is held constant,
final exam performance remains constantly high even when mastery criterion is set at a high level
(Hambleton, 1998). Not only do students in PSI classes make higher scores and grades than students in
conventional classes, but they also retain the material better than do students in conventional settings
(Callahan and Smith, 1990).
Self-Pacing. The intent of self-pacing is to assure that those who are better prepared are never held back
and may complete course requirements early. Other students are able to proceed at a pace, which suits their
abilities or personal schedule. Self-pacing does not seem to be critically related to academic performance
(Jacobs, 1983). However, it is a factor in producing favorable student attitudes. Some students prefer the
option to finish early while others take advantage of provisions to take breaks from study when personal,
academic, or work schedules demand increased attention.
Modules. An instructional module, or lesson, should consist of three basic parts: the presentation of
original material, assessment, and feedback/redemption (Jacobs, 1983). The organization and format of
modules is important since this is usually the primary communication between the student and instructor.
The procedures of a PSI course are frequently novel to the student and are sometimes complex. Students
are likely to become confused and anxious unless special efforts are made to anticipate these conditions.
Clear, precise, and well-organized modules are essential to a successful PSI course.
Lectures. Since the role of lectures in PSI courses is minimized in a PSI course, they are usually given
infrequently and attendance is optional in some courses. Their main purpose is to motivate students and to
develop rapport between instructors and students. In some PSI courses, lectures have been removed
entirely without adverse effects. Since there are usually no lectures in web-based courses, guidance,
motivation, and explanation of course content provided by the instructor through the course study guide
becomes extremely important.
Proctors. The use of proctors and emphasis on personal interaction distinguishes PSI from most other
forms of individualized instruction. In campus-based PSI courses, proctors make frequent testing and
immediate feedback possible and are in the position to encourage and interact with students individually.
Proctors also function as tutors by clarifying objectives and explaining difficult concepts. Research has
shown that field independent students generally achieve better academic success in PSI courses but that the
use of proctors contributes more to the success of field dependent students when proctoring is a major
course component (Jacobs, 1983).
Problems Associated with PSI
Some of the difficulties associated with PSI courses are as follows:
Procrastination. Researchers have reported high numbers of withdrawals and incompletes in PSI courses
which is linked to the self-pacing feature of PSI (U.S. Department of Education, 1996; Jacobs, 1983).
Many students seem unable to organize their time efficiently, perhaps because of experiencing many years
of schooling where the learning pace has been provided externally. One means of reducing procrastination
is to introduce some instructor-pacing into the course.
Tests. The multiple choice item format is the most commonly used testing format in PSI courses. There
are two basic reasons for this. First, tests must be fairly brief so that students can complete a series of tests
during the term. Second, tests must be scored objectively to remove any possibility of ambiguous grading
and so that students receive immediate feedback. A typical module might contain 10 to 20 multiple choice
questions. In other PSI courses, tests include problem solving, demonstration of skills, or short answer
items. Test items must be constructed carefully to ensure that they accurately measure the module
objectives and are unambiguously stated.

41

Module Size and Organization. One of the first steps in preparing a PSI course involves breaking the
content into a series of lessons or modules. Organized the course into a series of well-articulated modules
based on a logical hierarchy, subject matter organization, or task analysis is essential. Research shows that
students learn more when content is broken down into a series of small, more frequent, modules rather than
lower frequency modules (Gagne and Biggs, 1979). A typical PSI course has from 10 to 30 modules.
Synthesis. One of the most common criticisms of PSI courses from students as well as instructors is that
learning small isolated bits of information in the modules inhibits the synthesis of information. However,
some studies have shown that this may be a felt problem rather than real. PSI students tend to do better on
the final exam, which requires integration of course material, than students in conventional courses (Corey
and McMichael, 1974). Some developers include a review or synthesis module near the end of the course
or a series of small review or synthesis modules throughout the course.
Instructor Time Commitment. Initial instructor course preparation time is typically much greater for PSI
courses than a conventional course since every detail of the course must be defined and delineated in
advance before the course is put on-line. Testing of course components with representative students is
essential and trial and revision is always necessary. Course management and providing for individual
meetings with students while the course is being conducted may also present special demands on the
instructors time.
Changed Teaching Role. In the PSI model, the role of the teacher is dramatically changed from that of an
imparted of information to that of an instructional designer and manager. Many faculty members do not
relish such a role change. The teacher may cease to be the center of attention in the classroom or the
perceived source of information in the course.
Staying Current. Some subjects require more frequent updating than others. Those that deal with some
aspect of technology will certainly require frequent updating.
Student Learning Style. While most studies have shown that PSI students generally score higher than
students in traditionally taught courses, no one instructional method has been shown to be optimal for all
students. Highly motivated students who have an internal locus of control and are field-independent do
best in PSI courses (Jacobs, 1983). Students who have difficulty organizing their time, planning, working
independently, or who lack motivation are less likely to be successful in a PSI course.
Appropriateness of PSI. The PSI format is best suited for courses involving skills or cognitive information.
For courses which require group interaction, student-determined goal setting, or provide for unique
experiences for the student, the PSI model is probably not appropriate.
A Model for PSI Web Courses
A sample PSI-based web course is EDIT 5340 On-Line Communications and the Internet offered by Texas
Tech University. The course URL is: www.dce.ttu.edu/dl/courses/edit5340.
A web-based PSI course syllabus will look similar to that of a conventional course and will include a
course description, course objectives, a list of texts and any other required materials, course procedures and
policies, and a list of assignments and grading procedures. Since the course is self-paced, there will be no
rigid course schedule although a series of deadlines may be included. It is important to include specific
procedures describing how the course operates including how assignments are to be submitted, how tests
are to be taken, and how the student may find help and have questions answered. A set of frequently asked
questions is included on the course web site. Students may also submit questions to the instructor via email or they may call a toll free number.
The main components of each lesson are as follows:

42

Introduction. The introduction presents an overview of the lesson and is about a half page in length. It
includes a statement of the importance of the lesson, a brief overview of the material and activities to be
covered in the lesson, and sometimes thought provoking questions which are intended to focus the
students attention and provide motivation. For example, the introduction to the lesson on finding
information on the world-wide web from EDIT 5340 states: The web now has more than 1 million pages
on-line! So if youre looking for information, you need help. Otherwise, its a little like looking for a
needle in a haystack. In this lesson, well look at some of the best ways of finding information on the
web...
Lesson Objectives. These are measurable statements of learning outcomes that clearly state what the
student is expected to know or be able to do after completing the lesson. For our lesson on finding
information on the web, a sample objective is: After completing this lesson, you will be able to locate
specific information on the web using two or more web search engines. It is important that the list of
objectives be comprehensive enough to include all expected learning outcomes for the lesson and they
should be clearly and unambiguously stated.
How to Proceed. This section is a step-by-step listing of what the student is to do in order to complete the
lesson. Here is an example:
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Complete and submit Lessons 1 and 2 before proceeding with this lesson.
Read the lesson introduction and objectives.
Read Chapter 5 of the textbook and the discussion material included in this lesson. Pay careful
attention to the terms introduced and the procedures for constructing an Internet search using boolean
logic.
For your own information, complete the Self-Help exercises included in this lesson. These are not
submitted with the lesson assignment.
Complete the Lesson Assignment, including the review questions and applications exercises, included
in this lesson.
If you have questions about the lesson or assignment, you may send an e-mail message to me or submit
it to the class listserv.
Submit your Lesson 3 assignment via e-mail as described in the Procedures for Submitting
Assignments in the Course Introduction.
Proceed on to Lesson 4 when you are ready.

These instructions are intended to specify precisely what the student is expected to do and the order in
which the steps are to be completed. The intent is to leave little room for possible misunderstandings.
Discussion. This section might be thought of as a substitute for the class lectures. The purpose here is to
supplement the textbook, not to repeat it. Important concepts and principles can be pointed out and
explained. Important information that is not included in the text can be added. Points that the student may
find confusing can be explained and the importance and application of the lesson material can be stated in
order to motivate the student. Clear and concise writing is important here to avoid misunderstandings.
Self-Help Exercises. These exercises are designed to provide practice and reinforcement for the student.
These exercises are optional and are not submitted or graded. Such activities as answering review
questions from a textbook, defining key terms, or accessing Internet web sites containing supplementary
information may be included in Self-Help exercises.
Lesson Assignment. The lesson assignment may include any assignments which allow the student to
demonstrate mastery of the lesson objectives. In EDIT 5340, the lesson assignment consists of a set of
review questions and a set of application exercises. The review questions are a set of multiple choice
questions, which are designed to measure the students mastery of the lesson objectives. It is especially
important that questions be worded well and that there be exactly one justifiably correct answer. Questions
are designed to measure concept attainment and an ability to apply the information contained in the lesson.
The applications assignments require the student to demonstrate the appropriate behaviors specified in the
lesson objectives. In the web search lesson, one assignment is for the student to conduct an Internet search

43

on a given topic using the Yahoo search engine. Specific instructions are given including diagrams, and
computer screen, and examples as appropriate. The assignment section also specifies exactly what items the
student is to submit to the instructor.
Course Operation and Practical Considerations
A description of the operation of the sample course described here is shown in figure 1 (Price, 1997).
Course lessons are stored on the web where they can be printed or downloaded by students. Lessons are
much easier for the instructor to update than are printed.
Lessons are downloaded or printed by the student from the course web site. Assignments are submitted via
e-mail. After grading, feedback on assignments is sent to the student via e-mail. Assignments are usually
graded and returned within 2 working days.
A common complaint concerning individual study courses is the lack of interaction and personal contact
with the instructor and other students. Many students attribute the feeling of isolation associated with
individual study as one of the primary reasons for not completing courses. The Internet can help here by
providing a means for the student to communicate with the instructor via e-mail. Also, a class listserv (an
automated program which distributes e-mail) puts students in contact with one another.
The lack of access to library resources and information is another common problem associated with
conventional individual study courses. Therefore, many Internet resources were incorporated into the
course lessons. Students learn to find and retrieve information from a variety of sources such as on-line
libraries and the world-wide web using their web browsers and other Internet tools such as FTP and Telnet.
Course exams are taken in person with a supervisor present. Exams are scheduled at a suitable location
near where the student lives or works.
From the instructors point of view, the lack of feedback from students about the course is another common
problem associated with most individual study courses. Since the instructor and students may never meet,
it is difficult to judge whether instructions and assignments are clear and whether course content meets
student needs. However, with on-line guided study, the continuous communication via e-mail helps the
instructor to realize when changes in the course are needed.
Conclusion
With proper planning and attention to instructional design, web-based courses can provide a convenient and
instructionally sound method of course delivery. The PSI model is a proven model which can be applied to
many web-based courses.

44

References
Hambleton, I. R., Foster, W.H., and Richardson, J.T. (1998). Improving student learning using the
personalized system of Instruction, Higher Education, 35, 187-203.
Keller, F.S. and Sherman, J.G. (1974). The Keller Plan Handbook, Menlo Park, CA: W.A. Benjamin.
Kulik, J. A., Kulik, C., and Cohen, P.A. (1979). A meta-analysis of outcome studies of Kellers
personalized system of instruction, American Psychologist, 34, 307-318.
Kulik, J.A. and Kulik, C. (1989). Meta-analysis in Education, International Journal of Educational
Research, 13, 221-340.
Gibbs, G. (1992). Improving the quality of student learning. Bristol: Technical and Educational Services.
Price, R. V. (1995). Attitudes and skill levels of college students entering a typical introductory college
computing course, Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 12:3 (Fall, 1995), 20-24.
Price, R. (1997). A model for the on-line guided study course, Tech Trends, 41:6 (Nov/Dec, 1996), 39-44.
King, K. P. (1998). Course Development on the world wide web. New Directions for Adult and
Continuing Education, 78, Summer, 1998, 25-32.
Jacobs, R.L. (1983). A review of PSI course features and selected concerns for their implementation.
Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 11:4, 335-343.
Gagne, R.M., and Biggs, L.J. (1979). Principles of Instructional Design, Hold, Rinehart and Winston.
Corey, J. R. and McMichael, J.S. (1974). Retention in a PSI Introductory psychology course, in
Personalized System of Instruction: 41 Germinal Papers, J.G. Sherman (ed.), Menlo Park, Ca.: W.A.
Benjamin.
Calahan, C. and Smith, R. (1990). Kellers Personalized System of Instruction in Junior High Gifted
Program, Teaching Strategies, 13:1, September-October, 1990, 39-44.
Moore, M.G. and Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance education: a systems view. Boston: Wadsworth.
Texas Tech University (1997). Individual Study Program Profile 1996-97. Lubbock, TX: Division of
Distance Learning, Texas Tech University.
U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics (1996). Digest of Education
Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

45

The Challenge of Interactive Chemistry at a DistanceThe Iowa Chemistry Education Alliance

K.A. Burke and T.J. Greenbowe
Chemistry Department
Iowa State University
Ames, IA

46

Since its inception in 1990, the Iowa Communication Network, ICN, has provided the possibility
for fiber-optic quality synchronous two-way audio-video interactivity for the state of Iowa. More than six
hundred classrooms at Iowa's public and private two- and four-year institutions, elementary, middle, and
high schools, libraries, hospitals, National Guard armories, etc. are linked via the ICN. The availability of
the ICN and companion communication technologies (the Internet, electronic mail, and QuickCam ((Ref))
technology) create an ever-expanding yet flexible connection between local and distant learners.
The convenience of the ICN has engendered a myriad of interactive and collaborative projects
among teachers and students in Iowa. The Iowa Chemistry Education Alliance, ICEA, was formed in 1995
to develop a set of concept-oriented, problem solving, multimedia curriculum modules to be used
collaboratively in a distance education environment. The ICEA is a consortium of high school chemistry
instructors and several members of Iowa State University's faculties of Chemistry and Curriculum and
Instruction. Distance education opportunities promote academic teamwork and collaboration rather than
sports competition among students at a distance in Iowa's rural, urban, and suburban high school
classrooms, thereby enhancing collegiality and learning. Teamwork and collaboration are among the
objectives listed in the National Science Education Standards.
Phase IThe Beginnings
A 1995 survey of Iowa's high school chemistry faculty revealed a pervasive feeling of isolation
from colleagues and a need for more opportunities for regular collaboration with peers. These teachers,
frequently the only chemistry teacher in their building, if not in their school district, wished to make their
classrooms more dynamic and student-centered with less emphasis on lecturing and more emphasis on
interactivity via discussion and cooperative learning among their students.
During the spring and summer of 1996, four chemistry teachers in conjunction with faculty and
staff at Iowa State University outlined a plan to develop concept-oriented modular units which could be
used to enhance the existing traditional high school chemistry curriculum. These units included lessons
which were technology-based and could be incorporated in a distant-learning setting. These four teachers
received training in instructional design, cognitive learning styles, cooperative learning philosophies,
strategies, and practices, applications of distance education, and use of presentation software.
During the academic year 1996-1997, eight supplemental modular units evolved to include topicappropriate demonstrations and assignments incorporating support technologies such as Internet
information searches, digital imaging cameras, computer file exchanges, presentation software, and video
clips taken in the classroom. Each module contains a learning activity that helps students to make
connections between real world applications and chemistry knowledge and skills acquired in the traditional
classroom setting.
Communication Tools. The ICN. Modern fiber optic communication technology has made twoway synchronous interaction between instructor distant students so similar to traditional classroom
exchanges that the outcomes of both learning experiences have been found to be equivalent. Students and
teachers at distant sites communicate with one another in real time. In Iowa, ICN multimedia classrooms
are state-of-the-art. Each is equipped with several television cameras and monitors, push-to-talk
microphones, a computer, an overhead display device, a video cassette recorder, a laser disk player, a
telephone, and FAX machine with all devices connected to the state-wide fiber-optic network.
The ICN was used by chemistry teachers in large-group as well as small-group formats. In large
group mode, teachers were able to present new material using the ICN; guest subject matter experts
moderated animated question and answer sessions about timely classroom topics; students developed
presentations to share general information and/or experimental data and results with distant classmates. In
small group mode, students met in groups of two to four over the video network between two different sites
to discuss experimental strategies, problems, etc.
The teachers and staff at Iowa State University conducted weekly update meetings using the ICN.
Discussion topics included the planning and scheduling of student interactivity sessions, collaborative
strategies for students, equipment or supply needs, or any other problems which arose. This weekly
interaction kept the group apprised of what each was doing and guaranteed the necessary progress in the
development of the modules. This routine interchange enhanced the project itself as well as the teaching of
the chemistry units.
Electronic mail. About 300 students were able to use electronic mail to exchange information
about themselves and their laboratory experiments. Data and results were shared in this way.

47

Faculty members made frequent use of electronic mail to "discuss" and modify experimental
procedures, to evaluate equipment needs, to confirm data, to seek help and/or information from peers or
staff at Iowa State, and to encourage one another as module development progressed.
QuickCam/CU-SeeMe Technology. Discussions using QuickCam digital video cameras with CU
SeeMe technology made daily communication among students possible. Students found the video camera
to be a novel tool. Teachers and students alike employed the cameras in ways similar electronic mail. The
advantage was that they were able to exchange visual information using the QuickCam. For example, the
teachers at two sites held a discussion about the color changes during a chemical reaction which could be
used to determine when the reaction had reached completion. Actual samples were compared.
The Internet. Access to Internet World Wide Web connections extended the students' capability to
investigate research questions posed by their instructors. With practice, learners became adept at locating
and sharing information with local and distant classmates. Instructors discovered that Internet access was
an efficient method to expand teaching resources beyond their school library because of the diversity and
sheer volume of accessible information ().
Module Design. Eight modules were designed by the four chemistry teachers. In addition to collaborative
laboratory and classroom activities, the instructors designed interactive study guides and laboratory report
forms which the students completed prior to and as they participated in an ICN meeting. There were also
formal rubrics in which the students answered topic-related questions. These activities were used to help to
pay attention to ICN presentations and to keep them on task.
Module 1. Communication Tools & Protocols. Students learned to use equipment in the ICN
room, electronic mail, and the Internet. In addition, student groups conducted research and reported on a
chemical or element.
Module 2. Data Analysis. Student groups determined the density of a variety of brands of soda
pops. Members of a class at a local site determine and compare the density of the regular variety of one
brand with the density of the diet variety of the same brand determined by a class at a remote site.
Module 3. Laboratory Separations. Given the task of separating a five-component mixture of
known solids, students studied the properties of the solids, determined a strategy for separating them, meet
via the ICN to discuss their approach with students at a distant site, and finally executed the separation
procedure in their local laboratory.
Module 4. Forensics. Students were divided into seven groups to analyze evidence found at a
crime scene in order to determine the guilt or innocence of a list of suspects.
Guest speakers shared expertise in the fields of forensics, law, criminalistics, and related topics via
the ICN.
Module 5. Instrumentation. Students used spectrophotometric analysis to determine the
percentage copper in a U.S. penny. They were encouraged to do an Internet search to determine the actual
reference value. Groups compared and discussed their results with distant classmates.
Module 6. Titration Determination of Vitamin C in Orange Juice. Guest speakers shared
information about nutrition, food chemistry, and other topically pertinent materials via live interactive
television sessions using the ICN.
Using a variety of brands and types of orange juice, students determine their vitamin C and make
cost comparison. Groups compared and discussed their results with distant classmates.
Module 7. Research Reports. From a list of potential research topics, student groups selected one
and prepared a live television report to present to local and distant classmates.
Module 8. Field ResearchWater Analysis. Students collected water samples from local ponds,
lakes, rivers, creeks, and swimming pools to perform a battery of chemical tests and shared results in live
television presentations.
Students found the forensics exercise to be the most stimulating, but recognized the
appropriateness of each of the other module analyses as well. Students were able to relate their laboratory
experiences to the world around them.
Studies confirmed student and faculty support of the project. During the summer, modules were
refined and the resultant version disseminated for use among other Iowa high school chemistry classes by
the Iowa Department of Education and Iowa Public Television. Additional dissemination efforts included
presentations at several state and national conferences as well as at a statewide television presentation
which was fibercast to participants at twelve sites around Iowa. These informational meetings convinced
some attendees to make inquiries about participating in Phase II.

48

Phase II of the Project

The ICEA was expanded from the original cohort of four teachers to include eight new teachers.
The expanded cohort of teachers in ICEA Phase II extended the dissemination of ICEA ideas and materials
outside of central Iowa to include teachers from across the state
Fourof the eight original modules were expanded on in Phase II.
Module 1.
Module 2.
Module 3.
Module 4.

Introduction
Data Collection and Analysis
Chemical Instrumentation
Forensics

Evaluation of these modules was accomplished by the teachers as they implemented them. Any
needed modifications were made. The modules were selected to include a wide range of topics and skills.
Because there was a larger student population in ICEA Phase II compared to ICEA Phase I more
students were able to collaborate with one another via the ICN. Approximately 700 high school chemistry
students--sophomores, juniors, and seniors--participated in the ICEA project Phase II. This was more than
twice the number of student participants in ICEA Phase I. Students learned about chemistry in new ways-ways designed to foster more effective and active learning. Students perceived a new accountability for
their own learning. Classrooms became more student-centered and less focused on a lecturing teacher.
Students were also exposed to and used a variety of instructional and communications.
The teachers themselves benefited directly from the ICEA project. They employed new
technologies and instructional styles. They worked closely with each other, communicating on a near-daily
basis and overcoming somewhat the isolation they encounter in varying degrees. Experienced teachers
from Phase I served as mentors to the newer teachers who joined the ICEA project in Phase II. Phase II
teachers learned from the experiences shared with them by their mentors and by their students. They had
not had the advantage of having previously worked through the modular materials and, as a result, learned
along with their students.
Participation in the project provided the all teachers with the opportunity to share equipment for
the modules on an as-needed basis. This expanded the resources of the individual schools into the pooled
resources of the ICEA consortium group. Students benefited from the opportunity to see and use
instrumentation which would not have normally been available to them in their school system.
Teachers have incorporated a stimulating set of interactive supplemental modules with the
traditional high school chemistry curriculum. They have guided students in their endeavors to become
more self-sufficient, mentoring them in their metacognitive evolution. Teachers have valued regular
collegial interaction with peers, and have benefited from thier own use of the ICN and other project-related
technologies.

49

Whats My Grade? Assessing Learner Progress

Susan M. Zvacek
Old Dominion University
Norfolk, VA

50

Whether it's a matter of filling in the circles with a #2 pencil or building a hypermedia online portfolio,
most of us expect that we'll be asked to demonstrate our progress and resulting learning gains when we take
a course. Does is matter if we're taking the course at a distance? Some of the logistical concerns may be
different, but in any case, we're going to be involved with assessment to show ourselves and the instructor
that we did, in fact, "get it."
The term "assessment" is often used synonymously with "evaluation," although there are important
differences. Assessment refers specifically to the measurement of, in this case, learning gains, whereas
evaluation implies a judgment that may be made based on assessment information. Data from assessments
are not considered good, bad, or ugly but are evidence to support an evaluative statement of significance or
quality.
Although this article focuses on issues of assessment in distance education, the discussion is not exclusive
to that instructional environment. Just as exemplary "distance teaching" resembles our best models of faceto-face teaching, assessing student achievement has a core of good practice that remains constant across a
multitude of teaching/learning configurations.
Purposes of Assessment
If assessment, then, is a way to measure learning gains, what can we do with that measurement? Are there
any uses for this information? Actually, there are at least five ways that this knowledge can be used to
facilitate learning and many other uses that may indirectly influence the learning environment or help to
formulate related policies. Some of the more "administrative" uses of assessment include program
evaluation and improvement, justification for funding priorities, or reporting of long-term trends to state or
federal entities. In a distance education environment, the results of assessment may sometimes be used to
compare the academic performance of remote-site students to those at the origination site. Although this
isn't a particularly helpful comparison (we know that, even if we could control the confounding variables,
the results would very likely be "no significant difference"), it is often a necessary exercise to ease the
worries of program administrators who must be able to "prove" that students at a distance are actually
learning the material.
Probably the first use that comes to mind for student assessment is to enable the instructor to assign grades
at the end of a course, unit, or lesson. While this is important (and, typically, is required of teachers), and
often helpful in determining how to improve the instruction for future students, assessment can enhance
learning for the current students, as well.
Students gain a sense of control and can take on greater responsibility for their own learning if they know
how well they're doing, compared to an established set of criteria. Frequent assessment can provide this
scale. When the instructor has this information, he or she can provide remediation or correction where
necessary, or determine if a student needs additional assistance. At the same time, this information helps
the teacher to monitor the effectiveness of the instruction. If many students have difficulty with the same
concept or skill, this could signal a lesson design problem. By using assessments carefully, the teacher can
identify and address weaknesses or gaps in the instruction.
When students encounter an assessment activity, they not only recall the needed concepts or skills, but
reinforce them through application. This is especially important if course content is highly sequential or
hierarchical in nature. Frequent assessments help to emphasize the correct concepts and skills (necessary to
advance through later material), and also pinpoint learner misconceptions that would eventually present
obstacles to further progress.
Finally, assessments are often a motivational activity. Most learners want to do well and knowing that
they'll be held accountable for a body of knowledge or set of skills can be the nudge that keeps them on
track. Many teachers have adopted group discussions, pop quizzes, or in-class exercises to ensure that
required reading or out-of-class assignments are completed on time.

51

Most instructors have had experience, at least as a student, with a variety of traditional assessment tools -multiple choice tests, term papers, or pop quizzes. There are many other kinds of assessments, however,
that can be used to achieve the purposes described above that may, in many cases, be a superior choice over
a pencil-and-paper activity. These have been lumped together into a category known as "alternative
assessments."
Alternative Assessments
Alternative assessment, as its name implies, is a method of gauging student progress in ways unlike those
most familiar to educators who are the products of a "traditional" educational system. Unfortunately, some
of the terminology associated with this movement has antagonized many educators and created an image
problem for these innovative practices. The use of the term "alternative" doesn't explain what these
assessments are, but rather what they are not, and has given impetus to those who would relegate the
procedures to a substandard or fringe element status. Terwilliger (1996) takes exception to the use to the
term "authentic" to describe some assessment approaches as being "superior to others because they measure
outcomes that are more 'genuine' or 'real'." The assumption that a specific type of assessment is
unequivocally more effective than another ignores the role of the instructional design process in developing
measures to match the desired outcomes. When respected educators utter phrases such as, "The corrupting
influence of multiple choice..." (Mitchell, 1992), it can appear that the assessment measure itself is inferior
(or, worse, damaging) rather than its inappropriate use. This perspective is just as limiting as those who
would shun alternative assessments out of hand and deserves little attention.
Characteristics
Problems with terminology aside, alternative assessment measures are considered "alternative" not simply
because of their dissimilarity with traditional ideas, but because they represent a constructivist or cognitive
processing learning philosophy. Three approaches -- authentic assessment, performance-based assessment,
and constructivist assessment -- have come to the forefront of this movement, with areas overlapping in
each category.
Authentic assessment refers to tasks that simulate real-world challenges. Ideally, the student is presented
with the full array of expectations presented by a task and is expected to engage in activities that reflect a
meaningful response. Wiggins (1990) described an effective authentic task as one that includes " 'illstructured' challenges and roles that help students rehearse for the complex ambiguities of ... adult and
professional life." These types of assessments emphasize the transfer of skills to unfamiliar situations
beyond the classroom.
In a distance education environment, where students are scattered across a wide geographical region,
transferring assessment to "real" situations is a natural next step -- once learning has broken through the
walls of the traditional classroom, it's no big deal to move further out into the world. Also, opportunities
may be more accessible in a remote site than in a student-laden college town.
Performance-based assessment is, in fact, what it sounds like it is: expecting the learner to perform a skill,
and may include determining what the learner knows about the skill itself. Some proponents of this
approach (see, for example, Linn, Baker, & Dunbar, 1991) also include the criterion that these assessments
"focus on higher-order thinking and critical reasoning to perform tasks." Simply requiring that the student
perform a science experiment, for example, does not guarantee that critical thinking will occur. Exploring
how learners arrive at their answers or why they performed the task in the manner they did will provide
evidence of the desired cognitive activity.
Some performance assessments will reflect a process (researching, writing, rehearsing, and giving a
speech) or have no tangible outcome (speaking a foreign language). Depending on delivery configurations
(one-way video and two-way audio, for example), some distance learning students and instructors will need
to think creatively to devise ways to demonstrate competence in a performance-based manner. At Old
Dominion University, several professors expect students (at remote sites and on campus) to videotape
presentations, role playing, and reports for grading purposes.

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Assessment activities that reflect a constructivist approach encourage students to choose their own mode of
expression, to work collaboratively with others, to think about their learning, and to re-think and revise
their ideas as they build their cognitive structures (Herman, Aschbacher, & Winters, 1992). The emphasis
is on the creation of personal meaning and divergent thinking, which poses some interesting challenges for
the instructor who has experience only with more traditional forms of testing or projects. For those
afflicted, even subconsciously, with one-right-answer syndrome, the trick will be to encourage learners to
follow whatever path they may be on until the appropriateness (or inappropriateness) of their route
becomes apparent. By simply giving the right answer to a divergent thinker, we're suppressing the natural
instincts that grow into problem-solving skills, whereas allowing a learner to explore possible paths (even
wrong ones), we help them to identify, understand, and modify their own misconceptions.
This need not mean that assessment activities lack scholarly rigor, however, or that learners are simply left
to flounder on their own without direction. The role of the teacher shifts to that of an advisor and someone
who asks, "What happens next?" in order to nudge the learner to follow through on their own hypotheses.
Allowing for variance in learning style, memory, and developmental pace may also, in fact, require that
learners actually take on greater responsibility for their progress toward the instructional goal.
Examples of Alternative Assessments
Some examples of alternative assessments include portfolios, projects, and problem-based learning
activities. Portfolios have long been used by designers, artists, engineers, and other professionals when
they go into the job market. The portfolio, in this case, represents the best of an individual's work and has
been prepared specifically to showcase the job seeker's talents and abilities. As a means of assessment,
portfolios can include a wide variety of materials (papers, videotapes, computer files, etc.) reflecting
generalized learning across disciplines, or it can be a more specific gathering together of content-specific
materials.
One of the key elements of portfolio creation is that the student decides (with the guidance of the
instructor) what to include. Identifying what constitutes the student's best work represents a level of selfassessment that requires thoughtful consideration of learning goals, the development of standards, and the
determination of criteria to use in selecting materials.
The assessment of the portfolio by a teacher or advisor can be highly subjective, but is often accomplished
with the use of a standard rubric developed for that purpose. A rubric is simply a set of criteria against
which products may be judged. It may include various performance levels ranging from a baseline of
adequacy to higher levels that indicate excellence and work that demonstrates understanding beyond the
minimum required. For example, one criterion included in a scoring rubric may be that works are
organized according to a thematic idea. Such systematic scoring helps to reduce the subjectivity of the
final rating.
Another example of alternative assessment is the use of projects. These could include individual
assignments as well as group activities, but typically involve the creation of a product as the final result.
Projects may be designed to simulate real-world challenges or be connected to the personal experiences of
the learners, and can result in the development of plans, works of art, research proposals, multimedia
presentations, or almost any other method of demonstrating mastery of a specific body of knowledge.
Proponents of cognitive learning theory argue that when students are given the opportunity to design their
own projects, individually or as a group, the potential benefits include improved performance, better
management of one's own learning, increased motivation, and improved self-esteem (Herman, Aschbacher,
& Winters, 1992).
One of the advantages of group projects is that students learn to collaborate with others. By developing the
social and interpersonal skills necessary for successful collaboration, students gain experience working
with those differing viewpoints, cultural backgrounds, and value systems. Because projects can lead to
informal peer review of work, no one individual is seen as the center of attention and the teacher can move
to a more facilitative role.

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An excellent example of project-based assessment occurred recently in a Virginia Beach public school. A
group of students was responsible for the passage of a city ordinance requiring bicyclists to wear helmets.
The students gathered information and studied everything from head injuries to how laws are made, then
undertook the real-life task of getting their idea into the city's statues. Such activities promote learning
across several disciplines and have built-in relevance for students of all grade levels.
Another type of alternative assessment, problem-based learning, is actually an entire instructional strategy
in which students are presented with a situation which they must then investigate to determine how to
respond. For example, learners may be given a scenario or case study for analysis and then be required to
recommend one or more strategies or solutions. (This approach has been used successfully in medical
education for many years and is now being explored by other content areas.) Problem-based learning truly
represents how challenges appear in real life; few of us are faced with dilemmas or untoward circumstances
that we -- coincidentally -- have just spent several weeks researching. Instead, as in real life, students must
learn about the problem itself, analyze its component parts, gather resources, and then synthesize this
information to prepare a plan of action or recommended strategy.
An example of this can be found at the Maricopa Community College's Problem-based Learning site
online. This web resource, found at http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/pbl/ubuystudent/index.html,
presents a well-written model based on the idea that the student wants to buy a car and must determine if he
or she can afford it.
Implementation
Implementing alternative assessments needn't be a time-consuming activity. In fact, some types of
measures fulfill the purposes of more formal testing situations without the cumbersome arrangements that
may discourage frequent appraisals of student progress, especially in a distance education environment.
Ongoing assessment, sometime referred to as "embedded" measures, provides feedback to learners,
reinforces concepts, and corrects misconceptions. (Depending on its use, it may also inform the teacher of
student progress.) Review questions integrated into text material, in-class exercises done individually or in
groups, and online discussions of course content are all examples of ongoing measures. By weaving the
assessment activities into the fabric of the instructional process, determining student progress doesn't
necessarily represent a threat, disciplinary function, or necessary evil to learners. And, because these
assessments are simply one thread of the seamless fabric of day-to-day learning events, the unofficial
benchmarking system within the student group that occurs in face-to-face instruction is simulated,
providing feedback and an occasional motivational nudge.
Non-graded measures are another way to implement alternative assessments in a less-threatening
atmosphere that emphasizes learning and reinforcement of important concepts. One example of this could
be labeled a "not exactly a pop quiz" activity. At an appropriate time during a class session (at the end of a
unit, maybe), the instructor presents a few questions (not more than three or four, usually) and has students
respond on paper. Each question and its answer(s) are discussed immediately, thus reinforcing content,
providing feedback to learners on their understanding, correcting misconceptions, and giving the teacher a
snapshot view of student progress. Students check their own work and may or may not be asked to turn
their answers in, but all responses remain anonymous to avoid the punitive aspects of this activity.
Interestingly, even though such activities won't influence a course grade, learners will strive to do well and
avoid the negative feelings of poor performance -- even though they're the only ones who know.
Self-paced assessment activities also offer benefits to distant learners. Without the pressure of time
constraints, adult learners, who may have less-than-flexible schedules, have the opportunity to prepare
papers, projects, or other tangible "deliverables" that demonstrate learning while not tying them to a rigid
(and potentially unworkable) timetable. Unless learning goals require the student to create products within
a specific time frame, it makes little sense to demand adherence to an inflexible program. Different
learners require varying levels of external structure, but this may be considered a negotiable item based on
performance and learning style. An example of this might be the assignment of a research paper with a

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series of milestone deadlines (topic and rough outline, first rough draft, second edited draft, etc.) jointly
determined by the student and teacher.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Alternative assessment, however it is applied, has advantages and disadvantages that may render it more or
less appealing to the instructional designer or teacher. The advantages include the ability to simulate "realworld" settings, in which learners participate in activities that mimic those found in the workplace, home,
or social environment. Transferability of skills to other environments may be strengthened by such
challenges, relevance of course content heightened, and the classroom (in whatever configuration it takes)
becomes just one link in the chain that connects learning and doing, theory and practice, goals, and
outcomes. Instruction and assessment that require critical thinking, selection and evaluation of resources,
effective interpersonal communication, and project planning reflect a philosophy of education that includes
lifelong learning as an essential goal.
Proponents of alternative assessment suggest that the content validity of "authentic" tasks is ensured
because there is a direct link between the expected behavior and the ultimate goal of skill/learning transfer.
Multiple choice tests (or other "proxy" assessments) measure learning that we must infer can be applied to
an unfamiliar or novel challenge. The claims of improved validity make sense for some categories of
learning and when the circumstances under which learners are expected to demonstrate mastery differ from
a traditional classroom. Completing a federal income tax form within a predetermined time limit or
rebuilding an engine in a noisy machine shop are examples of such situations.
One of the major disadvantages of alternative assessments is how difficult it can be to assign a score or
rating to learner performance. Portfolios, for example, can be extremely time-consuming to evaluate if
characteristics such as completeness, quality, organization, or other criteria are included. Another
disadvantage to using alternative assessments is the lack of training most educators have in their design;
few higher education faculty have any training at all in designing assessment activities and may not even be
aware of non-traditional methods. Finally, in some disciplines, postsecondary accreditation may depend on
traditional evidence of student learning, hindering any improvident creativity or innovation on the part of
faculty.
Assessment and Distance Education
Many distance delivery configurations do not provide the conditions for the creation of the informal
learning group that develops almost automatically in traditional, face-to-face instruction. One
characteristic of the learning group is that an unofficial benchmarking system, by which students compare
their progress with that of the group, is created to provide feedback to individuals and enhance student
motivation to keep pace with their peers. Instructors may want to include in-class exercises, student-led
discussions, or asynchronous electronic discussion forums to provide this motivational nudge and facilitate
the formation of the learning group.
Turn-around time on assignments and tests is the bane of many distance education teachers, and distant site
students consider it one of the major disadvantages of remote participation. However, as e-mail and
Internet access continue their march to ubiquity, this problem will be relieved to a great extent. Instructors
will still need to review assignments and grade tests, but by sending assessment materials electronically, the
"travel time" for documents is reduced. The chance of a student's materials being lost also decreases as
fewer individuals handle them.
Concerns that remain a sticky problem involve test security and proctoring in a distance education
environment. Until reliable methods of individual identification and verification exist, testing online will
be regarded with suspicion. This, too, can be an issue for accrediting agencies; if an institution can't
guarantee with a reasonable level of certainty that the individual taking an examination is the same person
who has enrolled for the class, there's a problem. Schemes utilizing everything from fingerprinting to
retinal scanning have been mentioned as possible remedies, but the ultimate solution may simply rest in the
honor and honesty of the individual student.

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Distance Education as a Catalyst for Change

Distance education has already, for many institutions of K-12 and higher education, served as a catalyst for
change. By re-thinking our ideas about what a classroom is, what teaching and learning are, where learning
can occur, and how to measure it most effectively, we can use the best of what we know to work and
discover new ways to facilitate this growth. Distance education can be more than doing the same old things
in many places instead of just one and we needn't feel bound to emulate worn-out models. Assessment, as
a component of the instructional design process, can reflect new ideas and refine the old as we apply our
best practices for teaching and learning in whatever environmental configurations may confront us in the
future.

References
Herman, J., Aschbacher, P., and Winters, L. (1992). A practical guide to alternative assessment.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Linn, R., Baker, E., and Dunbar, S (1991). Complex, performance-based assessment: Expectations and
validation criteria. Educational Researcher, 20(8), 15-21. (EDRS No. EJ 436 999)
Mitchell, R. (1992). Testing for learning: How new approaches to evaluation can improve American
schools. New York: The Free Press.
Terwilliger, J. (1996). Semantics, psychometrics, and assessment reform: A close look at "authentic" tests.
Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council on Measurement in Education, New York,
NY. (EDRS No. ED 397 123)
Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment. Washington, DC. ERIC Clearinghouse on Tests,
Measurement, and Evaluation. (EDRS No. ED 328 611)

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In the Quest for Knowledge: Traveling the Back Roads of Iowa

Nancy J. Maushak
Assistant Professor
Texas Tech University
Lubbock, TX

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Iowa is not new to technology and distance education. Over the past decade, school districts in Iowa have
received substantial Federal and State support for the integration of technology. These efforts have included
staff development, hardware and software, and technical support. But has this really changed teaching and
learning in Iowa schools?
Data collected from surveys conducted by the Iowa Department of Education have provided a wealth of
quantitative information. Information such as the number of computers per student, Internet access, and the
number of technology related staff development activities. However, it is difficult to determine from the
numbers what this really means. Frequently, all computers in the school are counted, including
administrative computers and computers incapable of doing anything but the simplest word-processing.
Students may only have Internet access in the media center, or Internet access may only be available in
administrative offices and not accessible by students at all. In addition, interpreting what activities may
have been part of the technology related staff development is almost impossible.
While this quantitative data is important, it provides only a narrow view of what is actually happening at
the school or classroom level. To better understand what was happening related to technology integration in
Iowa, researchers supported by the Iowa Distance Education Alliance, a star schools project, visited 30
high schools around the state. In essence we traveled the backwoods of Iowa!
In this article, Id like to share this experience. So you have a general idea of the types of schools we
visited, I will present an overview. Then to provide more insight, Id like you to experience a visit to one of
the schools.
The Schools An Overview
In order to capture the true reality of technology in Iowas high schools, 30 schools were selected to
represent the state. In addition to requiring two schools from each of the 15 Regions in the state, we used
three selection criteria: population density, enrollment and current technology level.
The two charts shown below compare the schools we visited to all public school districts based on
population density and enrollment. We tried to reflect the state on these statistics. Population density (Chart
1) ranged from 10.5 individuals per square mile to a high of 2388.5 people per square mile. The number of
students (Chart 2) in the district ranged from a low of 202 to a high of 32,033.

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Chart 1: Comparison of Statewide Districts and Visited Districts by Population Density

Visited Districts
Statewide Districts

Urban

Rural 2

Rural 1

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Chart 2: Comparison of Statewide districts and Visited Schools by District Enrollment

Large
> 1000 students

Visited Districts
Statewide Districts

Medium
600-1000 students

Small
< 600 students

0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

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25.0%

30.0%

35.0%

40.0%

45.0%

The results of the State Department of Education Technology survey were used to determine current levels
of technology. Across the state the average number of students per computers was around six. The 15 high
technology schools visited had fewer than four students per computer. In contrast, the 15 low technology
schools reported an average of over 14 students per computer. All schools said they had Internet access and
over half were connected to the Iowa Communications Network.
We covered every corner and region of the state in our desire to understand technology integration in Iowa.
We traveled to schools in small town Iowa, consolidated schools located in the middle of farmland, and
major urban area schools. The level of technology we found was as diverse as the settings. Frequently, our
assumptions about where we thought we would find high levels of technology integration proved to be
wrong. Some seemingly isolated schools were surprisingly technology rich. We visited schools where
technology was not recognized as a high priority. We also visited schools where both teachers and
administrators have identified the need for technology integration and actively planned for effective
integration of technology into the school curriculum. And, as was to be expected, we found many schools
in varying degrees between the two extremes.
While no one school is representative of all we visited, Id like to give you glimpse of one of these schools.
The school represented here was a consolidated, rural school. It was one of the smallest districts we visited
but was surprisingly high on technology level with an average of 3.6 students per computer. Take a
moment to travel one of the back roads of Iowa for a Glimpse Inside.
A Glimpse Inside
We had been on the road since before dawn. As we neared our destination, the roads, that had progressively
narrowed, neatly divided the flat landscape into fields anxiously awaiting the farming activities that
heighten with the changing season. On the horizon, a grove of trees pierced by towering grain elevators
welcomed us. This small, well-maintained community would be our host for the day.
Though we had good directions, the school would have been difficult to miss in this town of two main
thoroughfares and a handful of cross streets. We turned off the main road and passed a trim residential
block before entering a small parking area surrounding a flagpole in front of the high school. From the
outside, the building was very typical of many older high schools scattered around the state. This was one
of four buildings in this district, which serves two communities. The middle school is located in the other
community and each community has its own elementary school.
The interior was surprisingly bright. The hallways were bright and well lit with colorful murals and
motivating sayings painted on the walls. A recent addition included a common area used before and after
school as well as for study hall. Classrooms had been remodeled with lowered ceilings and new windows.
The school mission plus positive sayings and mottoes were posted in many of the rooms. It felt warm and
welcoming. The students and teachers that we observed seemed content and comfortable in the building
and with each other. It was a nice place to be.
There was an atmosphere of trust and respect. An example of this was found in the school Internet policy.
Students are required to have parental permission to get an Internet license. However, there are no
restrictions on Internet use. As the technology coordinator put it the policy is based on trust and
responsibility. Though there have been a few problems with inappropriate use, they have been minor.
Email is viewed as a privilege that must be earned. Currently it is extended only to seniors, but this is being
reviewed and email addresses may be provided to juniors next year.
The principal characterized the community as very conservative with traditional values of home, school,
and church. From all appearances the community seemed to take pride in its school. Additions had been
made as needed and rooms updated. The community has been supportive in funding instructional levies and
assisting with updating the computer lab. As the principal indicated the community supports the school in
preparing kids for the future.

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Available Technology
From a review of the State Department of Education technology survey, this district was identified as a
high technology district. What we observed in the school supported this. Two networked computer labs
with Internet access supported regular classroom activities and computer classes. Each lab had 24
computers for student use with 5 printers. The teacher workstation in each lab had a computer and an LCD.
One lab included a scanner and a CD tower. The other lab was set up for foreign languages with
headphones at each station.
All classrooms were equipped with a computer, a printer and an overhead projector. Some of the computers
were quite capable of handling todays applications. However, about 30% were only able to handle wordprocessing at a very basic level. Two classrooms with Internet access connected the computer to a TV and
plans are to expand the number of classrooms with this capability. Wiring is in place for all classroom
computers to be networked and this will be completed as new computers are purchased to replace outdated
models.
Agriculture an industrial technology classrooms each had two computers and the business classroom had
four computers. One computer was connected to a milling machine. Funding for a portion of these came
from the Carl Perkins fund.
The media center had seven workstations with Internet access. These were connected to two printers. In
addition, there were two computers dedicated to the on-line catalog, one used primarily for checking in/out
materials, and one for the media specialist.
Administrative offices were supported with computers. Both district and building offices had desktops,
printers, and laptops for administrative uses. Guidance and counseling had two computers to assist students
with career choices and one computer was located in the teachers lounge.
An ICN classroom has been in place for about a year and a half. This has not been used much for high
school classes or activities but is being used for community college classes and community training needs.
Uses of Technology
Most teachers were using more traditional types of technology. Videotapes and the use of the overhead
projector for presentation dominate. Typical uses of the computer focused on the use of tool software with
word-processing receiving the highest use.
Administration and guidance counselors were using the computer for scheduling. A couple of different
student data management packages were being explored, but none in use at this time. Counselors were also
using computer software for career exploration.
Teachers mostly used the computer as a management tool. They created worksheets, tests, and some were
doing grades on the computer. A foreign language teacher indicated the use of software for languages and
drill and practice. Most indicated that they were either unaware of the possibilities or lacked the time to
develop the skills necessary to do more innovative things with the computer.
Students were excited about email. They also liked being able to use the automated card catalog. Most used
the computer for word processing and the ones that were using the Internet for classes were mostly doing
research with little or no guidance.
One teacher was enthusiastic about the computer set-up in her room. The computer was connected to the
TV and this allowed her to do a couple of different things. Because this classroom had Internet access, she
could show a variety of sites to her classes. Without really thinking about it, she was modeling appropriate
uses for the Internet and teaching the students to be educated consumers of Internet resources. She also
taught a broadcast media class, and used this set-up as a teleprompter.

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The principal was excited about using recently purchased CD-ROMs and interactive web sites to create an
educational lab for at-risk students. He saw this as a way to create an alternative school right in the same
facility. He felt this was a more exciting option than individual courses.
Perceived Impact of Using Technology
Teachers were realistic in what they viewed as the impact of technology. They recognized that the access
to information is nonending and that the use of technology opens more doors for students. Textbooks
become outdated but current information is readily available. An English teacher indicated that the use of
the computer frees us in the writing process to concentrate on the creative process and not so much on the
mechanics. We require students to print document information with it, technology allows us to be
accurate, have kids do more because they can do it faster.
They also recognized that this brings with it a need for a new set of skills both for them and for their
students. Students are not afraid, but not knowledgeable. They dont want to read to learn, need to develop
organizational skills, procedures, discipline. As a teacher, we have to teach them what junk is. However,
you have to stay ahead of kids and thats tough. It is mind boggling, someone has to give you the initial
push.
Some students indicated that they felt they were learning more. Teachers were expanding on topics
covered in the text by having (students) prepare presentations for class on information that is not in the
text. One student provided an example of how Internet use by a teacher was providing them with a global
perspective. We were studying Islam, so we look at Islamic homepages, and went to museums for virtual
tours.
A couple of students felt that kids got involved more when teachers used the technology. They preferred
web pages over lecture. However as one student said using web pages is not necessarily better just
different.
The principal seemed to feel that the use of technology changed the whole learning process. It is changing
how we teach and could change our role to coordinator and facilitator instead of a teacher. Students can
work at their own pace, search for information, and get immediate feedback.
Summary
Three factors have contributed to the level of technology integration achieved at this school. First,
administrative support for technology is very evident. Though neither the principal nor the superintendent
perceived themselves as possessing a high level of technological literacy, they both had a vision of
technology use by both teachers and students. This translated into a strong technology plan as well as
support for innovative uses of technology.
Second, teachers were highly motivated and enthusiastic about the use of technology. Teachers worked
collaboratively and shared ideas, knowledge, and skills. They indicated their belief that the use of
technology contributed to higher levels of motivation and achievement in students.
Third, the community supported technology integration. To repeat what the principal said, the community
supports the school in preparing kids for the future.
Conclusion
While the in-depth analysis of all the site visits is still incomplete, much can be learned by looking at only
one school. It is obvious that change does not take place in a vacuum. This school was successful in
integrating technology due to the overwhelming foresight and support of administration, teachers, and the
community. They didnt wait for government mandates to make a change. They recognized the importance
of using technology to expand the educational opportunities available.
As we complete the analysis of all the data, other factors may emerge that make a strong contribution to the
successful adoption of technology. But for now, recognizing the key role of a strong vision and support
gives innovators something to work from.

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