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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 4 November 2015
Received in revised form 17 March 2016
Accepted 13 April 2016
Available online 16 April 2016
Keywords:
Pectin
Methoxylation degree
Diffusion
Viscosity
Franz diffusion cell
a b s t r a c t
The effect of high (HMP) and low (LMP) methoxylated pectins (2% w/w) on the rate and extent of the mass
transfer of monosaccharides, amino acids, and a corn oil-in-water emulsion across a cellulose membrane
was evaluated. A sigmoidal response kinetic analysis was used to calculate both the diffusion coefficients
(rate) and the amount of nutrients transferred through the membrane (extent). In all cases, except for
lysine, HMP was more effective than LMP in inhibiting both the rate and extent of the mass transfer of
nutrients through the membrane. LMP and HMP, e.g., reduced 1.3 and 3.0 times, respectively, the mass
transfer rate of glucose, as compared to control (containing no pectin), and 1.3 and 1.5 times, respectively,
the amount of glucose transferred through the membrane. Viscosity, molecular interactions, and flocculation were the most important parameters controlling the mass transfer of electrically neutral nutrients,
electrically charged nutrients, and emulsified lipids, respectively.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
There is a growing interest among consumers about the nutritional, therapeutic, and functional properties of foods consumed in
the diet (Mohamed, 2014). The current trend of consumers is based
on the consumption of foods with functional components beneficial
for human health, such as phytosterols, polyphenolics, anthocyanins, carotenoids, and dietary fibres (Bigliardi & Galati, 2013).
In recent years, dietary fibre has received important attention from
the food industry and consumers due to the health benefits associated with the consumption of dietary fibre-rich foods (Brownlee,
2014). Dietary fibre components possess distinctive physicochemical and structural characteristics determining their functionality,
and they can be categorized as either insoluble or soluble dietary
fibres (Phillips, 2013). The consumption of insoluble dietary fibre
has been associated with increasing bulkiness of the digesta content
and improvement of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) mobility
(Edwards, Johnson, & Read, 1988), whereas the consumption of
soluble dietary fibre has been associated with a wider variety of
physiological functions, such as control of postprandial glycemic
and lipid response (Pasquier et al., 1996), decrease of blood lipid
and glucose levels (Ye, Arumugam, Haugabrooks, Williamson, &
Hendrich, 2015), inhibition of the GIT enzyme activities (EspinalRuiz, Parada-Alfonso, Restrepo-Snchez, & Narvez-Cuenca, 2014),
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cenarvaezc@unal.edu.co (C.-E. Narvez-Cuenca).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.04.046
0308-8146/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
145
acid, L-tyrosine, ninhydrin monohydrate, Tween 80, and a dialysis tubing cellulose membrane
(cut-off 14 kDa) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical
Company (St Louis, MO, USA). Corn oil was purchased from a commercial food supplier (Grasco LTDA, Bogot DC, Colombia) and
stored in darkness at room temperature until used. The manufacturer reported that the corn oil contained approximately 14, 35,
and 51% (w/w) of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids, respectively. Commercial powdered LMP was
donated by TIC Gums Inc. (Belcamp, MA, USA) and was used without further purification, with methoxylation degree and average
molecular weight previously reported as 30% (mol/mol) and
130 kDa, respectively (Espinal-Ruiz et al., 2016). Commercial powdered HMP (Genu Citrus Pectin USP/100) was donated by CP Kelco
Co. (Lille Skensved, Denmark) and was also used without further
purification, with methoxylation degree and average molecular
weight previously reported as 71% (mol/mol) and 181 kDa, respectively (Espinal-Ruiz et al., 2016). All other chemicals were
purchased from Merck KGaS (Darmstadt, Germany). Deionized
water was used to prepare all solutions. Franz diffusion cells
(Fig. 1) were fabricated by Siliser LTDA (Bogot DC, Colombia).
The volumes of the donor and receptor compartments were 3
and 17 mL, respectively. The effective area of mass transfer (A)
was 1.33 cm2.
2.2. Sample preparation
LMP and HMP stock solutions (4% w/w) were prepared separately by dispersing 2 g of powdered pectins into 48 g of deionized
water. These solutions were stirred at 1000 rpm overnight at room
temperature to ensure complete dispersion and dissolution. LMP
and HMP solutions were then adjusted to pH 7.0 by using 0.1 M
NaOH.
A monosaccharide stock solution (280 mM of each compound)
was prepared by dissolving together glucose, galactose, fructose,
and ribose in deionized water. These monosaccharides were
selected because of their nutritional relevance and because they
are monosaccharides composing digestible carbohydrates the most
(Asp, 1996). The monosaccharide stock solution (2.5 mL) was then
a
c
b
f
e
Fig. 1. Structural design of a Franz diffusion cell. Donor compartment with a
nominal volume of 3 mL (a), receptor compartment with a nominal volume of 17 mL
(b), position for a semipermeable cellulose membrane (c) with an effective area of
mass transfer (A) of 1.33 cm2 (diameter of 1.30 cm), sampling port (d), magnetic stir
bar (e), thermostatted chamber at 37 C (f), water inlet (g), and water outlet (h).
146
Contents of monosaccharides, amino acids, and the corn oil-inwater emulsion were corrected by the dilution factor introduced
at each sampling time.
2.4. Analysis of monosaccharides, amino acids, and the corn
oil-in-water emulsion contents
2.4.1. Analysis of monosaccharides
Monosaccharide samples collected from the receptor compartment were analyzed by a high performance liquid chromatograph
coupled to a refractive index detector. An UHPLC+ Focused Dionex
Ultimate 3000 liquid chromatograph (Thermo Scientific Inc.,
Waltham, MA, USA) equipped with an ion-exchanger resin column
(MetaCarb Ca Plus column, 300 7.8 mm 9 lm, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) was used. The column was operated
at 70 C and at a flow rate of 0.5 mL min1 with deionized water
(adjusted to pH 7.0) as eluent. Monosaccharide samples were
centrifuged (18000g; 20 min; 4 C) and then 10 lL of the clear
supernatant was injected into the column. Monosaccharides
eluting from the column were detected by using a Shodex RI-101
refractive index detector (Showa Denko Corporation, Tokyo, Japan)
thermostatted at 35 C and the area under the curve for each
monosaccharide signal was measured. The amount of monosaccharides transported through the cell was determined by using an
external standard method (direct interpolation of the area under
the curve in the calibration line for each monosaccharide). Calibration lines were obtained at concentrations ranging from 2 to
20 mM for each monosaccharide (n = 10; r2 = 0.995, 0.998, 0.999,
and 0.990 for glucose, galactose, fructose, and ribose, respectively).
2.4.2. Analysis of amino acids
Amino acid samples collected from the receptor compartment
(500 lL) were mixed with 500 lL of ninhydrin solution [2% (w/v)
prepared in 100 mM citrate buffer pH 4.0] and then incubated at
92 C (boiling water) for 10 min to generate the ninhydrin
chromophore (Ruhemanns purple) (Friedman, 2004). The mixtures were cooled to room temperature and then the absorbance
was recorded at 570 nm with a Genesys 10uv Spectrophotometer
(Thermo Scientific Inc., Waltham, MA, USA). The amount of amino
acids transported through the cell was determined using an external standard method (direct interpolation of the absorbance at
570 nm in the calibration line for each amino acid). Calibration
lines were obtained at concentrations ranging from 35 to 350 lM
for each amino acid (n = 10; r2 = 0.997, 0.989, 0.992, and 0.995
for glycine, aspartic acid, lysine, and tyrosine, respectively).
2.4.3. Analysis of the optical turbidity of the corn oil-in-water
emulsion
The optical turbidity (absorbance at 600 nm) of the emulsion
samples collected from the receptor compartment was measured,
using a Genesys 10uv Spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific Inc.,
Waltham, MA, USA) at room temperature. The amount of the
emulsion transported through the cell was determined, using an
external standard method (direct interpolation of the absorbance
at 600 nm in the calibration line). A calibration line was obtained
at concentrations of the corn oil-in-water emulsion ranging from
0.02 to 0.20% (w/w) (n = 10; r2 = 0.998).
2.5. Apparent viscosity of pectin solutions
Pectin solutions (2% w/w) for apparent viscosity measurements
were prepared by dissolving 400 mg pectin samples (LMP or HMP)
in 19.6 g of 25 mM NaCl aqueous solution with gentle stirring for
18 h at room temperature. Then, pectin solutions were centrifuged
(3000g; 15 min; 4 C) to expel the entrapped air bubbles.
Afterwards, pectin solutions were stored at 4 C overnight before
147
g K c_ n
dC
C
kC 1
dt
CMax
where C is the concentration of the nutritional compound transferred at time t, k is the steepness of the curve, and CMax is the maximum observable value for C. The relative transfer percentage
[RT (%)] of the nutritional compound can be conveniently expressed
RT%
1
C
100% 1 expkt1=2 t
100%
CMax
DEff kA
148
a.
100
b. 100
Control
Control
LMP
HMP
80
80
LMP
HMP
60
40
60
40
20
20
0
0
12
24
36
48
12
c.
100
d. 100
Control
60
40
48
36
48
36
48
60
40
20
0
0
12
24
36
48
12
f.
100
Control
100
Control
LMP
LMP
HMP
HMP
80
80
24
Time (h)
Time (h)
36
HMP
80
60
40
20
60
40
20
0
0
12
24
36
48
Time (h)
g. 100
h. 100
Control
24
Control
LMP
HMP
HMP
80
80
12
Time (h)
LMP
48
LMP
HMP
20
e.
36
Control
LMP
80
24
Time (h)
Time (h)
60
40
20
60
40
20
0
0
12
24
Time (h)
36
48
12
24
Time (h)
Fig. 2. Effect of low (LMP) and high (HMP) methoxylated pectins on the mass transfer kinetics of glucose (a), galactose (b), fructose (c), ribose (d), glycine (e), aspartic acid (f),
lysine (g), and tyrosine (h) through a Franz diffusion cell. Control corresponds to the sample without addition of pectin. Points correspond to experimental data and lines
correspond to fitted data according to Eq. (3).
149
Table 1
Effect of low (LMP) and high (HMP) methoxylated pectins on the effective diffusion coefficient (DEff) and the maximum relative transfer percentage [maximum RT (%)] of
monosaccharides, amino acids, and a corn oil-in-water emulsion through a Franz diffusion cell. Control corresponds to the sample without addition of pectin. Different letters
indicate significant differences. Lowercase letters indicate significant differences of the same compound among treatments (Control, LMP, and HMP; comparison between
columns), and uppercase letters indicate significant differences of the same treatment among the type of compound (comparison within columns) at the p < 0.05 level.
Compound
Maximum RT (%)
Control
LMP
HMP
Control
LMP
HMP
Monosaccharides
Glucose
Galactose
Fructose
Ribose
1.44 0.04a,B
1.44 0.04a,B
1.40 0.04a,B
3.91 0.41a,A
1.14 0.04b,A
1.18 0.04b,A
1.14 0.04b,A
1.11 0.11b,A
0.48 0.04c,A
0.48 0.04c,A
0.48 0.04c,A
0.52 0.04c,A
94.7 0.9a,A
94.5 0.7a,A
96.0 1.6a,A
80.4 0.8b,B
71.5 2.4b,B
68.5 1.6b,B
67.4 1.5b,B
86.1 3.8a,A
63.3 1.6c,B
62.4 3.7c,B
60.6 2.1c,B
86.0 1.7a,A
Amino acids
Glycine
Aspartic acid
Lysine
Tyrosine
3.83 0.04c,B
3.87 0.18a,B
4.06 0.04a,A
3.87 0.04b,B
4.65 0.15b,B
3.91 0.26a,C
0.59 0.07c,D
6.75 0.29a,A
5.24 0.04a,B
4.20 0.04a,C
3.54 0.15b,D
6.45 0.04a,A
87.8 3.3a,B
96.0 1.8a,A
90.8 1.2a,B
95.2 1.7a,A
17.2 1.3b,C
81.6 2.6b,A
7.0 0.7c,D
69.4 3.4b,B
10.6 0.7c,B
39.3 1.9c,A
40.2 2.7b,A
36.7 1.8c,A
3.43 0.15a
3.24 0.15a
82.9 1.9a
43.1 0.3b
6.8 0.1c
Lipids
Emulsion
1
3.47 0.26a
5
1
5
(Fig. 2f), lysine (Fig. 2g), and tyrosine (Fig. 2h)]. Although the mass
transfer profiles obtained for the amino acids were fairly similar to
those obtained for monosaccharides, a very important difference in
the mass transfer profiles of amino acids was observed: a sigmoidal
kinetic behaviour in the control and pectin-containing experiments. A lag time of approximately 10 h was observed for the mass
transfer process of each of the tested amino acids in both absence
(control) and presence of pectins (LMP and HMP). Before the lag
time (t < 10 h), no significant differences in the RT (%) values were
observed among pectin samples for each of the tested amino acids,
as compared to the control (the amount of amino acids transferred
through the membrane was less than 3% after 10 h in both absence
and presence of pectins). The RT (%) values increased with time and
tended towards a plateau after 36 h for each of the tested amino
acids (Fig. 2). When a pectin sample (LMP or HMP) was added,
different results for glycine, aspartic acid, and tyrosine were
observed, in comparison to lysine (Fig. 2g).
Upon addition of pectins, glycine, aspartic acid, and tyrosine
diffused faster (Table 1, DEff), but they reached a lower maximum
RT (%) value, as compared to the control [Table 1, maximum RT
(%)]. For example, for the diffusion of glycine (Fig. 2e and Table 1),
DEff were 3.83 x 10-5, 4.65 x 10-5, and 5.24 x 10-5 cm2 s-1 for control,
LMP, and HMP, respectively; and the maximum RT (%) values were
87.8, 17.2, and 10.6 for control, LMP, and HMP, respectively. Similar trends were observed for aspartic acid (Fig. 2f and Table 1) and
tyrosine (Fig. 2h and Table 1). These results indicate that pectins,
especially HMP, were able to inhibit the amounts of glycine, aspartic acid, and tyrosine that can be effectively transferred through
the Franz diffusion cell (the extent of the mass transfer process),
but they were not able to reduce the rate at which the mass transfer process occurred. In addition, it was observed that the inhibitory effect of the extent of the mass transfer process of glycine,
aspartic acid, and tyrosine through the Franz diffusion cell was
higher with HMP than with LMP. Opposite to the behaviour
observed for glycine, aspartic acid, and tyrosine, the effect of pectins towards the diffusion of lysine (Fig. 2g and Table 1) was quite
different. For this amino acid, DEff were 4.06 105, 0.59 105,
and 3.54 105 cm2 s1 for control, LMP, and HMP, respectively;
and the maximum RT (%) values were 90.8, 7.0, and 40.2 for the
control, LMP, and HMP, respectively. These results indicate that
pectins, especially LMP, were able to inhibit both the amount of
lysine that can be effectively transferred through the Franz diffusion cell and the rate at which the mass transfer process of lysine
cm s
1
150
a.
b.
100
Control
Control
LMP
LMP
HMP
HMP
80
15
60
40
10
20
0
0
12
24
36
48
Time (h)
10
100
1000
10000
c.
Control
LMP
HMP
Fig. 3. Effect of low (LMP) and high (HMP) methoxylated pectins on the mass transfer kinetics of a corn oil-in-water emulsion through a Franz diffusion cell (a). Points
correspond to experimental data and lines correspond to fitted data according to Eq. (3). Particle size distribution of a corn oil-in-water emulsion in presence of LMP and HMP
(b). Microstructure of a corn oil-in-water emulsion observed by optical microscopy in presence of LMP and HMP (c). The scale bars corresponds to 20 lm. Control corresponds
to the emulsion without addition of pectin.
15000
HMP
LMP
10000
5000
0
0.001
0.01
0.1
Shear rate
10
(s-1)
151
Fig. 5. Molecular mechanisms governing the interaction between pectin and nutritional compounds (monosaccharides, amino acids, and emulsified lipids) and its effect on
the mass transfer kinetics of them through the Franz diffusion cell (highly schematic). The mass transfer process of monosaccharides and neutral amino acids (glycine and
tyrosine) is controlled by the viscosity of the pectin solutions, whereas the mass transfer process of charged amino acids is controlled by both viscosity and repulsive (aspartic
acid) and attractive (lysine) electrostatic interactions between them and pectin. Finally, pectin induces flocculation of lipid droplets by depletion attraction and therefore,
their mobility is reduced.
the higher the molecular size of the pectin (e.g., molecular weight
and hydrodynamic radius), the higher is the viscosity of the
solution (Espinal-Ruiz et al., 2016).
4.2. Mass transfer profiles of electrically charged amino acids
We suggest that the mass transfer process of electrically
charged amino acids (aspartic acid and lysine) can be influenced
by both the viscosity of the pectin solutions and the electrostatic
interactions between each charged amino acid and the surface
electrical charges of LMP and HMP. It is well known that pectin
molecules are anionic in nature (Mohnen, 2008) because of the
spontaneous ionization of the carboxyl group in aqueous solution
ACOOH H2 OACOO H3 O . The surface electrical charge of
the pectins tested in this study were previously characterized
(Espinal-Ruiz et al., 2016). LMP has a higher surface negative
charge (f = 47.5 mV at pH 7.0) than has HMP (f = 28.2 mV at
pH 7.0) because a higher fraction of the carboxyl groups (ACOO)
of LMP remain free than those of HMP (Espinal-Ruiz et al., 2016).
Furthermore, the electrical net charges of aspartic acid and lysine
at pH 7.0 are 1 and +1, respectively (Moore, 1985).
We suggest, therefore, that the repulsive electrostatic interactions between the carboxyl group of aspartic acid (Fig. 2f) and
the carboxyl groups of LMP prevented aspartic acid molecules from
being trapped in the structural network of LMP, and therefore, the
extent of the mass transfer process of aspartic acid through the
Franz diffusion cell was not significantly hindered upon addition
of LMP. In contrast, because of the lower surface negative charge
of HMP, as compared to that of LMP, the electrostatic interactions
between aspartic acid and HMP were not significant, and therefore,
the inhibition of the extent of the mass transfer process observed
for aspartic acid upon addition of HMP can be attributed to viscosity effects. Conversely, the attractive electrostatic interactions
152
the rate and extent of the mass transfer process of the emulsion
through the Franz diffusion cell was greater with HMP (6.8% of
the emulsion was transferred) as compared to 43.1% for LMP,
because of the higher capacity of HMP to flocculate the lipid
droplets composing the emulsion. The particle size distribution
analysis (Fig. 3b) indicated that the control emulsion (without
addition of pectin) contained small lipid droplets (the lipid droplet
diameter was around 300 nm) with a monomodal distribution
(only one peak was observed), suggesting that the lipid droplets
in the control emulsion were stable to aggregation (Fig. 3c,
Control). However, the multimodal distribution of the emulsions
containing LMP and HMP (Fig. 3b) indicated that pectins were able
to induce aggregation of the lipid droplets (Fig. 3c, LMP and HMP)
through a mechanism of flocculation [lipid droplet (flocs) diameters were 1100 and 1500 nm for LMP and HMP, respectively].
Therefore, it can be suggested that the inhibitory effect of the rate
and extent of the mass transfer process of the corn oil-in-water
emulsion through the Franz diffusion cell was higher with HMP
than LMP (Fig. 3a and Table 1), probably due to the high capacity
of HMP to flocculate the lipid droplets of the emulsion as compared
to LMP (Fig. 3b and c).
It is important to stress that our results show that the presence
of pectin affects the diffusion process of nutrients occurring in the
UWL of the intestinal mucosa (the rate at which the nutrient can
reach the receptor where it is absorbed), but they do not give information on how pectin is able to affect the nutrient-receptor interaction. In addition, it can be suggested that the chemical nature of
the nutritional compounds (monosaccharides, amino acids, and the
corn oil-in-water emulsion) to be transferred through the Franz
diffusion cell, as well as the chemical nature of the pectin sample,
will determine the mechanism by which the nutritional compound
is able to interact with pectin molecules (Fig. 5). For example, it
was observed that viscosity of the pectin solution was the most
important parameter, governing both the rate and extent of the
mass transfer process of monosaccharides and neutral amino acids
(glycine and tyrosine), whereas electrostatic interactions played an
important role, controlling the extent of the mass transfer process
of charged amino acids (repulsive for the interaction between pectin and aspartic acid, and attractive for the interaction between
pectin and lysine). Furthermore, the complex aggregated structures formed by the flocculation of emulsified lipids lead to complex interactions between them and pectin molecules,
flocculation being the most important parameter governing both
the rate and extent of the mass transfer process of the corn
oil-in-water emulsion. Because the molecular weight and
methoxylation degree of pectins are, nevertheless, often interdependent variables, it is necessary to have a large number of pectin
samples with different methoxylation degrees and molecular
weights to be able to discriminate the relative effect of each
parameter on the overall mass transfer kinetics efficiency of the
tested nutritional compounds.
5. Conclusions
Viscosity of pectin solutions and electrostatic interactions
between pectins and nutrients are proposed to be the main factors
influencing both the rate and extent of the mass transfer process of
nutrients across a cellulose membrane in a Franz diffusion cell. Our
results suggest that, the higher the viscosity of the pectin solution,
the higher is the inhibition of the rate and extent of the mass transfer of nutrients through the Franz diffusion cell. In addition, it was
established that HMP was more able than LMP to inhibit the extent
of the mass transfer process of all evaluated nutritional compounds, except for lysine, in which strong attractive electrostatic
interaction with LMP was the dominant factor governing its mass
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Departamento Administrativo de Ciencia,
Tecnologa e Innovacin de Colombia (COLCIENCIAS) and Vicerrectora Acadmica de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia for
providing a fellowship to Mauricio Espinal-Ruiz supporting this
work. We are also grateful to Vicerrectora de Investigaciones de
la Universidad Nacional de Colombia for funding the project
Efectos moleculares de la pectina sobre el metabolismo de lpidos y
carbohidratos (Cdigo Hermes 20610).
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