Aashto Gl-6 Roadway Lighting

i
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Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

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American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

444 North Capitol Street, N W ,Suite 249
Washington, DC 20001
P:202-624-5800, F: 202-624-5806 faX
www .transportation.org
O 2005 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
ISBN: 1-56051-325-X

Publication Code: GL-6

AASHTO 2004-2005 Executive Committee
Voting Members
Officers:
President: Harold E. Linnenkohl, Georgia
Vice President: David Sprynczynatyk, North Dakota
Secretary-Treasurer: Larry M. King, Pennsylvania
Regional Representatives:
Dan Tangherlini, District of Columbia, One-Year Term
REGION I:
Jim Capaldi, Rhode Island, Two-Year Term
REGION II:
Harold Linnenkohl, Georgia, One-Year Term

Joe Mclnnes, Alabama, Two-Year Term
REGION III:
Frank Busalacchi, Wisconsin, One-Year Term

Carol Malnau, Minnesota, Two-Year Term
REGION IV:
David Sprynczynatyk, North Dakota, One-Year Term

Victor Mendez, Arizona, Two-Year Term
Nonvoting Members
Immediate Past President: Jack Lettiere, New Jersey
AASHTO Executive Director: John Horsley, Washington, DC
...
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Technical Committee on Highway Lighting

Chairman: Karl A. Burkett, P.E., Texas
Secretary: Balu Ananthanarayanan, P.E., Wisconsin
Carl Andersen, FHWA

Stanley C. Biddick, P.E., Alabama
Mike DeAngelo, New Jersey
Ernest Kim, P.E., Oregon

Susan Lodahl, P.E., Minnesota
Jeff Unick, P.E., Pennsylvania
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Jon Dickinson, Nevada
AASHTO Highway Subcommittee

on Traffic Engineering
Delbert McOmie
Wyoming
Chair:
Vacant
Vice Chair:
Thomas Hicks
Maryland
Secretary:
Regina McElroy
FHWA
Liaison:
Ken Kobetsky
AASHTO
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Chair:
State Member
Alabama
Timothy C. Taylor, P.E.
Alaska
Kurtis J. Smith, P.E.
Arizona
Mike Manthey, P.E.

Richard C. Moeur, P.E.
Arkansas
Eric Phillips
Tony Sullivan
California
Asif J. Haq
Karla Sutliff
Colorado
Gabriela Vidal
Connecticut
John F. Carey, P.E.
Delaware
Donald D. Weber, P.E.
District of Columbia
Douglas E. Noble, P.E.
Florida
Lap Thong Hoang, P.E.
Georgia
Keith Golden, P.E.
Hawaii
Alvin Takeshita
Idaho
Lance Johnson
Illinois
Joseph S . Hill
Indiana
Jim Poturalski
Carl T. Tuttle
Iowa
Timothy D. Crouch
Kansas
David A. Church, P.E.

Kenneth F. Hurst, P.E.
Kentucky
Duane H. Thomas, P.E.
Louisiana
Charles Adams, P.E., PTOE
Maine
Bruce A. Ibarguen, III, P.E.
Maryland
Thomas Hicks, P.E.
Massachusetts
William Bent
Michigan
Vacant
V


Minnesota
Bernard J. Arseneau
Mississippi
Wes Dean
Missouri
Eileen Rackers
Montana
Duane Williams, P.E.
Nebraska
Randall D. Peters
Nevada
Scott L. Thorson
New Hampshire
William Lambert
New Jersey
Douglas R. Bartlett
Timothy J. Szwedo
New Mexico
Vacant
New York
Bruce W. Smith, P.E.
North Carolina
J. Kevin Lacy, P.E., CPM
North Dakota
AI Covlin
Ohio
Dave Holstein
Oklahoma
Harold Smart
Oregon
Edward L. Fischer, P.E., PTOE
Pennsylvania
Glenn Rowe
Puerto Rico
Samuel Forestier
Rhode Island
Robert Rocchio, P.E.
South Carolina
Richard B. Werts
South Dakota
John Adler, P.E.
Tennessee
Don L. Dahlinger
Gerald Gregory
Michael L. Tugwell
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Texas
Margaret (Meg) A. Moore
Utah
Robert E. Hull
Vermont
Vacant
Virginia
Raymond J. Khoury, P.E.
Washington
Theodore Trepanier, P.E.
West Virginia
Barry Warhoftig, P.E.
Wisconsin
David I. Vieth
Wyoming
Michael N. Gostovich
Associate Member-Bridge,
N.J. Turnpike Authority
Associate Member-Cities
City of Minneapolis
Port, and Toll

Robert F. Dale
and Counties
Jon Wertjes
vi

Associate Member-Federal
USDA Forest Service
John W. Bell
Associate Member-International
Manitoba
Ben Rogers
Nova Scotia
Ralph Hessian
Saskatchewan
Sukhy Kent
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vii

Chair:
Allen D. Biehler
Pennsylvania
Vice Chair:
Robert L. Walters
Arkansas
Secretary:
Dwight A. Home
FHWA
Liaison:
Jim McDonnell
AASHTO
State Member
Alabama
Don T. Arkle, P.E.

Steven E. Walker, P.E.
Alaska
Gary Hogins, P.E.
Arizona
Mary Viparina
Arkansas
Phillip L. McConnell, P.E.

Charles D. Clements, P.E.
California
Mark Leja, P.E.
Colorado
Mithilesh Mitch Kumar

Gary W. Meacham
Connecticut
Arthur W. Gruhn
Michael W. Lonergan
James H. Norman
Delaware
Michael H. Simmons
Michael F. Balbierer
James M. Satterfield
District of Columbia
Kathleen Penney
Zahra Dorriz
Allen Miller
Florida
Brian A. Blanchard, P.E.

Robert Greer
Jim Mills, P.E.
Georgia
James Ben Buchan, P.E.

Babs Abubakari, P.E.
Brent Story, P.E.
Hawaii
Gary C.P. Choy

Julius Fronda
Idaho
Loren D. Thomas
Steven C . Hutchinson
Illinois
Michael Hine
Indiana
Gary Mroczka, P.E.

Jeff Clanton, P.E.
Iowa
Michael J. Kennerly
David L. Little
Deanna Maifield
viii

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AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Design
James O . Brewer, P.E.

Richard G. Adams, P.E.
LaMonte C . Armstrong, P.E.
Kentucky
Kenneth Sperry, P.E.

David Jones
Louisiana
N. Kent Israel
Nicholas Kalivoda, III
Lloyd E. Porta, Jr.
Maine
Jerome A. Casey, P.E.
Maryland
Kirk G. McClelland
Robert D. Douglass
Massachusetts
John Blundo, P.E.

Stanley Wood, Jr.
Michigan
Mark A. Van Port Fleet, P.E.
Minnesota
Mukhtar Thakur,P.E.
Mississippi
David Foster
John B. Pickering, P.E.
C . Keith Purvis, P.E.
Missouri
David B. Nichols
Montana
Paul R. Ferry
Lesly Tribelhom
Nebraska
Don Turek
Dawn Allyn
James J. Knott
Nevada
Frank Csiga, Jr., P.E.

Ruedy Edgington
Rand Pollard, P.E.
Paul K. Sinnott, P.E.
New Hampshire
Craig A. Green
New Jersey
Kiran B. Pate1
Brian Strizki
New Mexico
Roy Maestas, P.E.

Dennis Peralta, P.E.
Max E. Valeno, P.E.
New York
Philip J. Clark, P.E.

Daniel DAngelo, P.E.
Richard W. Lee, P.E.
North Carolina
Jay A. Bennett, P.E.

Deborah M. Barbour
Art McMillan
North Dakota
Mark Gaydos
Ohio
Cash Mise1
Dirk Gross
Timothy McDonald
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Kansas
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Oklahoma
Christine M. Senkowski, P.E.

Bruce E. Taylor
Oregon
Thomas Lauer
Pennsylvania
Dean A. Schreiber, P.E.

Brian D. Hare, P.E.
Puerto Rico
Ariel Prez
Jos E. Santana-Pimente1
Rhode Island
J. Michael Bennett, P.E.
South Carolina
Robert I. Pratt, P.E.

Rocque L. Kneece, P.E.
John V. Walsh, P.E.
South Dakota
Joel Gengler
Joe J. Feller
Tennessee
Jeff C. Jones
Mark Holloran
Texas
Mark A. Marek
Utah
Stan Burns, P.E.
Vermont
Kevin Marshia, P.E.
Virginia
Mohammad Mirshahi, P.E.

Barton A. Thrasher, P.E.
Washington
Harold Peterfeso, P.E.

Richard Albin, P.E.
Ken L. Smith, P.E., CVS
West Virginia
Jason C. Foster
Randolph T. Epperly, Jr.
Wisconsin
Beth Cannestra
Wyoming
Paul P. Bercich
Tony Laird
U.S. DOT Member
FAA
Rick Marinelli, P.E.
Associate Member-Bridge, Port and Toll

J. Lawrence Williams
N.J. Turnpike Authority
Penn. Turnpike
Commission
Barry L. Troup, P.E.
Associate Member-Bridge, Port and Toll

Scott D. Murre11
Port Authority of NY and NJ
Associate Member-Cities and Counties
City of Minneapolis
Fred Abadi
X

Associate Member-Federal
USDA Forest Service
Ellen G. LaFayette
Associate Member-International
Allan Kwan
Richard Voyer
Joe Bucik
Joe Bucik
Sukhy Kent
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Alberta
British Columbia
Ontario
Ontario
Saskatchewan
xi

Table of Contents
................................................................................................................
Chapter 1: Introduction
1
Overview ...................................................................................................................... 1
Need for Engineering Expertise ...................................................................................
1
Necessary Expertise .....................................................................................................
1
Recommended Design Methods...................................................................................
2
Modern Controls and Master Lighting Plans ............................................................... 2
Chapter 2:
................................................................................................
Master Lighting Plans

2.1 Overview ...........................................................................................................
Introduction .......................................................................................................
Definition...........................................................................................................
Benefits ..............................................................................................................
Plan Development .............................................................................................

Introduction .......................................................................................................
Participants ........................................................................................................
Groups Having Concerns About Lighting.........................................................
3
3
4
2.3
Goals of a Master Lighting Plan ........................................................................

Introduction .......................................................................................................
Improved Safety ................................................................................................
Environmentally Judicious Use of Resources ...................................................
Energy Use ........................................................................................................
Tourists, Businesses. and Nighttime Activities .................................................
Planned Maintenance ........................................................................................
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
2.4
Lighting Curfews...............................................................................................
Introduction .......................................................................................................
Reasons for Curfews .........................................................................................
Considerations Before Implementation.............................................................
6
6
7
7
2.5
Electrical and Lighting Management Systems ..................................................

Introduction .......................................................................................................
Cost ....................................................................................................................
Benefits ..............................................................................................................
Benefits of ELMS Standardization..................................................................
8
8
8
2.2
2.6
Chapter 3:
Conducting Studies..........................................................................................
Introduction .....................................................................................................
Electrical System .............................................................................................
Benefits and Effects of Curfews and Dimming...............................................
Traffic Studies .................................................................................................
Community Goals............................................................................................
Budget .............................................................................................................
................................................................................
Techniques of Lighting Design

3.1 Overview .........................................................................................................
Introduction .....................................................................................................
Level and Uniformity of Illuminance and Luminance ....................................
Illuminance Considerations .............................................................................
3
3
3
3
9
10
10
10
11
11
11
11
11
13
13
13
13
14
xiii
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Roadway Lighting Design Guide
..
14
16
3.2
Warranting Conditions.....................................................................................
General .............................................................................................................
Benefits of Lighting .........................................................................................
Rural Interchanges ...........................................................................................
..
Warranting Conditions .....................................................................................
Continuous Freeway Lighting .........................................................................
Partial Interchange Lighting ............................................................................
Special Considerations.....................................................................................
Bridges .............................................................................................................
3.3
Design Values for Freeways ............................................................................ 20

General ............................................................................................................. 20
Design Considerations ..................................................................................... 20
Lighting Levels on Crossroads ........................................................................20
Partial Interchange Lighting ............................................................................
21
22
Adaptation (Transition) Lighting .....................................................................
Bridges and Overpasses ................................................................................... 22
Other Considerations ....................................................................................... 22
Area Classifications......................................................................................... 22
3.4
Streets and Highways Other Than Freeways

(Including Walkways and Bicycle Ways) .......................................................
General .............................................................................................................
..
Warranting Conditions .....................................................................................
Lighting Design Levels ....................................................................................
Other Considerations .......................................................................................
23
23
23
23
23
3.5
Pole Placement Guidelines ..............................................................................

Introduction ......................................................................................................
Obstruction of View ........................................................................................
Height Restrictions ..........................................................................................
Medians............................................................................................................
Gore Areas .......................................................................................................
Maintenance Considerations ............................................................................
Adjacent to Deflecting Barriers .......................................................................
General Safety Concerns .................................................................................
Design Options ................................................................................................
Option 1: Remove the Obstacle .................................................................
Option 2: Redesign the Obstacle ...............................................................
Option 3: Relocate the Obstacle ................................................................
Option 4: Use Appropriate Breakaway Device .........................................
Option 5: Shield the Obstacle ....................................................................
Option 6: Delineate the Obstacle ...............................................................
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
27
27
27
27
27
28
28
29
29
3.6
References ........................................................................................................
29
17
17
17
17
17
18
19
20
20
Chapter 4: Techniques of Lighting Design
31
Chapter 5:
................................................................................
Tunnels and Underpasses ........................................................................................
33
5.1
33
Overview .........................................................................................................
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Luminance Considerations ..............................................................................

Visibility-Based Design Methods ....................................................................
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5.2
Underpasses .....................................................................................................
General Scope and Guide Application ............................................................
Warrants for Nighttime Underpass Lighting ...................................................
Design Values for Underpass Lighting ...........................................................
Selection and Placement of Underpass Luminaires ........................................
33
33
33
34
34
5.3
Vehicular Tunnels ...........................................................................................

General Scope and Guide Application ............................................................
Short Tunnels ..................................................................................................
Long Tunnels ...................................................................................................
Warrants for Tunnel Lighting ..........................................................................
Visibility Optimization of the Tunnel and Approach Features .......................
34
34
35
35
35
36
5.4
Daytime Lighting of Tunnel Interiors .............................................................

Short Tunnels-Silhouette Visibility ..............................................................
Entrance Portal Lighting .................................................................................
Lighting Beyond the Entrance Zone ...............................................................
Nighttime Tunnel Lighting ..............................................................................
Selection and Placement of Tunnel Luminaires ..............................................
Tunnel Lighting Control Systems ...................................................................
Maintenance Factor for Tunnel Lighting Design ............................................
37
37
37
37
38
38
38
38
....................................
Chapter 6: Work Zone Lighting and Temporary Roadway Lighting

Introduction ................................................................................................................
cost .............................................................................................................................
Types ..........................................................................................................................
Design Values ............................................................................................................
Safety ..........................................................................................................................
Work Area Lighting ...................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
Chapter 7: Roundabouts
Introduction ................................................................................................................
Warrant Conditions .....................................................................................................
Recommended Lighting Level ...................................................................................
............................................................................
Chapter 8: Electrical Systems Requirements

Disconnects .................................................................................................................
Guidelines Available ..................................................................................................
Grounding ...................................................................................................................
Voltage Drop ..............................................................................................................
......................................................................................................
Chapter 9: Safety Rest Areas

Overview .........................................................................................................
Warrant ............................................................................................................
Design Values ..................................................................................................
Entrance and Exit ............................................................................................
Interior Roadways ...........................................................................................
Parking Areas ..................................................................................................
Activity Areas ..................................................................................................
Main Lanes ......................................................................................................
39
39
39
39
39
39
40
41
41
41
41
43
43
43
43
43
45
45
45
45
45
46
47
47
47
xv

..........................................................................................
Chapter 10: Roadway Sign Lighting

10.1 Overview .....................................................................................................
Introduction .................................................................................................
Key Elements of Roadway Sign Lighting ...................................................
49
49
49
49
10.2
Sign Lighting Warrants ...............................................................................
50
10.3
Illuminated Sign Types ...............................................................................

Ambient Luminance Classifications ...........................................................
51
51
10.4
Sign Lighting Recommendations ................................................................

Lighting Uniformity ....................................................................................
Sign Color Standards...................................................................................
. .
Placement of Lighting Units........................................................................
52
53
53
53
10.5
References ...................................................................................................
54
................
55
Chapter 11: Maintenance Considerations in Roadway Lighting Design

General ......................................................................................................................
Maintenance Factors .................................................................................................
Luminaire Dirt Depreciation (LDD) .........................................................................
Lamp Lumen Depreciation (LLD) ............................................................................
Equipment Factor (EF) .............................................................................................
Support Structure Maintenance ................................................................................
Electrical Distribution and Control System Maintenance ........................................
External Factors ........................................................................................................
...............................................................................
55
55
55
55
56
56
56
57
Chapter 12: Sky Glow and Light Trespass

12.1 Overview .....................................................................................................
Introduction .................................................................................................
Types of Objectionable Roadway Lighting.................................................
59
59
59
59
Mitigating Sky Glow and Light Trespass....................................................
60
12.2
...........................................................................................................................................
61
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Glossary
xvi

Chapter 1
Introduction
Overview
This guide replaces the 1984 publication entitled, An Informational Guide for Roadway Lighting. It
has been revised and brought up to date to reflect current practices in roadway lighting. The guide provides a general overview of lighting systems from the point of view of the transportation departments and
recommends minimum levels of quality. The guide incorporates the illuminance and luminance design
methods, but does not include the small target visibility (STV) method.
Two appendices to this document are located online for reference purposes at http://downloads.transportation.orgAighting.pdf.Appendix A is entitled Literature Review and References, and contains information on research studies related to accidents and highway lighting, driver parameters, pavement
parameters, and a summary of further references. Appendix B contains an overview of Lighting Basics,
including background information on the various issues related to effective highway lighting.
Most states require that final design documents be signed and sealed by a registered professional engineer. The registrant is normally required to only sign and seal documents that the registrant prepared, or
documents for which the registrant was responsible for the direction and control of the work. Documents
include specifications, reports, drawings, plans, design information, and calculations. Lighting designs,
as described in this guide, meet the criteria for requirement of an engineering seal. This is necessary
because the public interest is at stake. In addition, the designs integrated with other aspects of the transportation facility that have engineering features. These other aspects include support structures, breakaway devices, pavement characteristics, electrical characteristics, traffic engineering features, traffic
management features, and the relative priority of lighting with respect to other safety features on the facility. Proper engineeringjudgment must be used in the integration of the various aspects of the facility, as
well as in the consideration of maintenance and life-cycle costs.
Many of the current problems in outdoor lighting are due to poor lighting designs. These problems
include less than optimal benefits from the lighting systems, excessive glare and visual clutter at night, the
use of improper deprecation factors and photometric distributions, excessive sky glow and light trespass,
and excessive maintenance and energy costs. The primary cause of poor lighting designs is a lack of
proper lighting and electrical education.
Necessary Expertise
Departments of transportation (DOTS)that hire consultant engineers are paying for engineering expertise. This expertise is available in the area of roadway lighting and associated electrical systems. The
expertise required for DOT lighting designs includes:
lamp types and characteristics, including depreciation factors
ballast types and characteristics
fixture mechanical characteristics
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Need for Engineering Expertise
lens types
photometric performance of luminaires and factors impacting such performance
fixture mounting types
pole mechanical and electrical characteristics
breakaway device options and when appropriate to use
clear zone criteria
pole types, mounting options, and loading considerations
foundation and support details
pavement reflection factors
mounting height and spacing options
light trespass and sky glow issues including laws and ordinances
lighting quality requirements, such as illuminance, luminance, veiling luminance, and visibility
maintenance considerations for individual components and the lighting system as a whole
energy and life-cycle costs
coordination with master lighting plans.
Consultants accepting payment for lighting system design should perform that work in an engineering
manner. This includes exercising engineering judgement when balancing all of the above characteristics.
Training courses are available for engineers wishing to learn how to design lighting systems.
Recommended Design Methods

This guide recommends only the luminance and illuminance design methods but recognizes efforts to
turn lighting designs toward visibility-based design methods. A discussion of visibility-based methods is
included. The fact that this guide does not recommend the small target visibility (STV) design method
should not be interpreted as non-support for visibility based methods and associated research. The STV
method is not recommended as standard practice because the increased benefits of using this design
method have not been adequately demonstrated and confidence in the ability to achieve design values and
better visibility is low. Accurate visibility calculations require the input of all light sources, including offroadway sources and headlamps from multiple vehicles. Such data are not easily obtained on roadways
under even moderate traffic conditions. The fact that lighting is installed on roadways based on, among
other things, high traffic volumes lends further uncertainty to the value of visibility calculations. STV or
other visibility criteria may be applied as an additional quality criteria in order to gain experience with
those methods and to determine the value of such criteria.
Modern Controls and Master Lighting Plans

This guide also addresses modern control methods for lighting systems and encourages the use of a
master lighting plan incorporated into the traffic management centers, emergency management centers,
or other central locations. Better use of resources can be achieved through innovative strategies such as
lighting curfews, special event and weather situation control, and maintenance automation. Curfews can
create energy savings. Energy cost savings on one particular lighting system may allow additional lighting systems to be installed and operated in peak traffic times, thereby improving safety of the entire area
under the jurisdiction of the master lighting plan.
Maintenance inventory and management can be improved by remotely monitoring percentage of lights
burning, diagnosing problems prior to sending out maintenance crews, tracking life-cycle costs, and monitoring the performance level of maintenance contractors.
2

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Chapter 2
2.1 OVERVIEW
Introduction
The commitment to lighting roadway facilities is a large responsibility. A master lighting plan can help
in the fulfillment of this responsibility. This chapter provides general guidelines for implementing a master lighting plan when local authorities determine that such a plan is desirable for their community.
Definition
A master lighting plan is a formal arrangement between local governments and other entities within a
regional area to coordinate and standardize the design, operation, and maintenance of public lighting.
Master lighting plans can include lighting curfews and sophisticated monitoring systems (described in
Sections 2.4 and 2.5, respectively).
Benefits
improved safety through the maximizing of resources

a consistent image, reflecting the local culture and tastes
nighttime linking of various sections of the city
systems that better identify the nature of the site (residential versus restaurant row, for example)
better management of energy use
tighter control of sky glow and light trespass
aid in implementing lighting curfews
increased public security (other concerns may warrant immediate turning on or off)
coordinated maintenance
easier coordination of maintenance specifications, such as poles, breakaway devices, and luminaires.
2.2 PLAN DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
The master lighting plan development process can proceed as shown in the following table.


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The basic benefits of lighting include safety, beautification, and security for people and property.
Additional benefits derived from a master lighting plan include:
TABLE 2-1. Master Lighting Plan Development Process

More Information
SteplAction
~~~~~
1. Coordinate with other participants to set goals.
See following heading for information on participants.

See Section 2.3 for information on goals.
2. Consult with and consider the concerns of

various groups having a stake in public
lighting.
See Groups Having Concerns About Lighting

later in this section.
3. Conduct a study to justify and determine the

feasibility of the planned strategies.
See Section 2.3 for details on lighting curfews.

See Section 2.4 for details on electrical and lighting
management systems.
See Section 2.5 for details on conducting studies.
Participants
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The master lighting plan approach is a regional concept that could involve the following entities:
the state DOT

city
county
police
traffic management centers, emergency management centers, or other central locations
fire, EMS, and other emergency agencies
tunnel operators
chambers of commerce (event coordination)
parks (bike and pedestrian trails, fireworks, sports fields, etc.)
the Federal Aviation Administration (near airports)
the Coast Guard (near waterways)
Coordination Needed. Officials of these organizations can coordinate all publicly owned lighting systems by setting joint goals and laying out plans to achieve those goals. A master lighting plan should be
seen as a component of city management.
Groups Having Concerns About Lighting
In addition to the participating entities, other groups may have concerns related to public lighting, and
their concerns should be considered. These groups may include:
citizens and property owners
retailers and other business
tourists
visitors
parks and sports facilities (including spectator sports and participant sports such as driving ranges
and softball)
4

2.3 GOALS OF A MASTER LIGHTING PLAN

Introduction
A master lighting plan should have five major goals:
improved safety
environmentally judicious use of resources
judicious energy use
attracting tourists, businesses, and nighttime activities
planned maintenance.
Discussions of each of these goals follow under separate headings.
Improved Safety
Improved safety is the primary goal of public lighting. Public lighting affects motorists, cyclists, and
pedestrians. Public lighting includes roadways, sidewalks, and signs. A master lighting plan can help
maximize available resources and increasing management coordination. Maximizing resources means
lowering the operating costs of existing and new lighting systems, which may allow the installation and
operation of more lighting systems that operate only when needed.
Environmentally Judicious Use of Resources

Environmentally judicious use of resources refers to the consideration of safety, security, aesthetic
and architectural compatibility, creature comfort, sky glow, light trespass, glare, and visual clutter.
Consideration should be given to the desires of the facility owner, city officials, and citizens as
expressed in public hearings, local laws and ordinances, and other sources.
All outdoor lighting creates some degree of sky glow and light trespass. Modem controls can implement switching or dimming curfews that better address the needs and desires of the community (see
Section 2.4 for more information). In short, all community and business desires should be respected, and
competing concerns should be balanced as much as possible.
A wide variety of alternatives are available for outdoor lighting. Various environmental factors should
be subjectively weighted for different situations. Some factors to consider include:
purpose of the lighting
source type
degree of light cutoff
light level
mounting height
ambient light levels (other lighting in the area)
historical considerations
area land use
roadway classification
pedestrian and cyclist use
implementation of lighting curfews (see Section 2.4)
effect on wildlife (some studies show that nighttime lighting may affect wildlife)
A review of the following facility types should demonstrate an intuitive weighting:
urban freeways
rural freeways
central business district (CBD)
5
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arterial roadways
collector roadways
residential streets
parklands and campgrounds
Various guidelines of national and international lighting engineering and architectural groups may be
consulted for reasonable limits and strategies to optimize lighting designs limiting negative effects. The
following table shows some of these groups.
Organization
Internet Address
The International Commission on Illumination (CIE)
http:flwww.cie.co.at/cie
The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA)
http://www.iesna.org
The European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
http://www.cenorm.be
Energy Use
Important factors affecting energy use include light levels, lamp type, ballast type, and electrical systems quality. Lighting curfews can also help conserve energy (see Section 2.4 for more information).
Tourists, Businesses, and Nighttime Activities

Public lighting intended to attract tourists, CBD businesses, and nighttime activities may include
pedestrian, building faade, bridge or structure, landscape, and sign lighting. The intent is to provide a
pleasing and attractive environment for nighttime activities.
Planned Maintenance
The purpose of planned maintenance is to prioritize maintenance schedules, organize contracts, and
determine acceptable levels of service. Planned maintenance establishes consistent replacement products,
coordinates traffic control setups, enhances the use of electronic monitoring, takes advantage of modem
inventory systems, reduces trouble-shooting of problems, reduces electrical hazards, which can lower overall costs. Larger systems are more likely to have a lighting engineer available to oversee the total process
of design, installation, and maintenance, thereby allowing for replacement fixtures with suitable photometric, electrical performance, and aesthetic features. Under a master lighting plan, life-cycle costs, life
expectancy, and quality studies are enhanced, and the region may have more buying clout. See Section 2.5
for a discussion of how modern electrical and lighting management systems can help with maintenance.
2.4 LIGHTING CURFEWS
Introduction
Curfews for lighting involve the use of modem controls to turn off or dim selected parts of lighting
systems as permitted by reduced traffic flow, favorable weather conditions, and other local conditions.
Lighting curfews represent the active operation of the system, allowing for energy savings, greater
flexibility in resource allocation, and reduction of light-trespass. However, officials implementing such
options should be aware of consequences and conduct meaningful studies of costs and benefits.
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6

Master Liahtinn Plans
Studies on the effectiveness of roadway lighting have mixed results. Generally, continuous lighting may
be expected to reduce nighttime crashes by about 30 percent. The precise mechanism for the reduction of
those crashes is not known. Currently it is not possible to translate surrogate measures, driver performance
with targets, or other measures directly into a safety change.
Motor vehicle crash data for 1998 from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administrations Fatality
Analysis Reporting System (FARS) and the General Estimates System (GES) show that 90 percent of
fatal and injury crashes that occur on the roadway, where lighting guidelines specify that light be placed,
are multiple vehicle crashes. The number of overall crashes tapers off substantially after midnight on
weekdays and after 4:OO a.m. on weekends. At these late hours, most of the crashes are single vehicle, offroadway crashes for which lighting may not be likely to help, except possibly at decision-makingpoints
such as ramp gores, intersections, and merge areas.
Warrants for lighting are empirically derived and based, among other things, on trafc volume. For lighting that has been installed based on trafc volumes, it may be reasonable to cut back the operation of the lighting system to complete interchange lighting or to partial interchangelighting when traffic volumes subside.
Studies show that crash rates increase where systems are turned off or where every other luminaire is
turned off. Alternate luminaire operation results in poor uniformity ratios. The issue of driver needs and safety
versus conservation efforts should be closely examined when considering curfews. Poorly conceived conservation efforts may contribute to increases in trafc crashes and operational problems. These problems may
actually result in higher overall costs.
Reasons for Curfews

Government entities around the world are considering lighting curfews for the following reasons:
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Low late-hours traffic volumes. AASHTO warrants for highway lighting are based, among other
things, on traffic volume. When the primary reason that lighting is (or was) installed was due to high
traffic volumes and high usage, which drops off in later hours of the night, it is reasonable to turn off
or reduce the lighting after such drop-offs.
Freeing resourcesfor greater overall safety. Lowering the operational costs of lighting systems by
reducing electrical and maintenance costs through curfews may allow more lighting systems or other
crash countermeasures to be installed, thereby reducing the overall nighttime crash rate within the
jurisdiction of the master lighting plan.
Technology now practical. Modem control technology now allows control of individual luminaires
or systems of luminaires at reasonable costs.
Positive study results. Recent studies show that light dimming and turn-off curfews are viable
options for the management of public lighting systems, including roadway lighting. Although past
studies showed unfavorable increases in traffic crash rates because of turning off lighting, these studies were performed on systems where the lighting was turned off or partially turned off for the entire
nighttime period.
Energy savings. Energy costs can be high.
Sky glow issues. Sky glow issues are of increasing importance (see Chapter 12).
Considerations Before Implementation
Special events, maintenance or construction activities, weather, and other local considerations should
be included in the decision to implement lighting curfews. Implementation of curfews should occur
through traffic management centers or other central locations and should be monitored to gain experience
as to the best operational procedures.
The following excerpts are from the FHWA report Reduced Lighting During Periods of Low Trafic
Density (FHWA/RD-86/018). When considering lighting curfews, the complete report should be read,
while realizing that it is dated August 1985. Modem crash data should be analyzed.
7


In part, this report states, over 50 percent of all motor vehicle fatalities occur in darkness even
though only 25 percent of all travel occurs at night. This over representation has been used as a justification for installing fixed roadway lighting on many highways. However, research that has
attempted to determine the effect of such fixed lighting on frequency and severity of night accidents
appears to be mixed, such frequencies and severities being dependent on a host of geometric and
traffic factors including the volume of traffic utilizing the road, how such volume is related to the
roads capacity, and the complexity of the drivers visual search task.
During the past decade, several highway agencies have switched off roadway lighting during
periods of energy shortages to reduce maintenance and operating costs. However, quite often such
lighting was restored when nighttime accidents increased. One fundamental problem with these
light reduction techniques was that lighting was reduced or eliminated during the entire nighttime
period, rather than only when traffic volume was low.
By providing full lighting during periods when volumes are high and the roadway operates near
capacity and providing reduced lighting as the traffic decreases, the potential exists for realizing considerable energy savings while still providing the benefits of full lighting at locations (e.g., interchanges) and at times &e., high volumes) where driver decision-making is the most critical and the
greatest visibility is required.
From a safety standpoint there is a definite reduction in (simulated) hazard detection performance, which theoretically implies some reduction in safety. This implied reduction in safety is statistically significant for all off and one side only lighting tactics, but not statistically significant for
the dimmed tactics and the every other off tactic. Unfortunately, it is not possible at this time to quantify the exact decrease in safety in terms of the frequency of nighttime accidents, the night accident
rate, or the night-to day accident ratio. Only an evaluation of long term installations can address this
issue (see following discussion of further research needs).
Reduced freeway lighting tactics normally should not be implemented before about 11:OO p.m.
in most urban areas, since traffic density typically remains relatively high until that time. Regularly
scheduled sports events and other large traffic generators could change this time to a later hour,
while cities with little or no evening activity might allow an earlier light reduction.
2.5 ELECTRICAL AND LIGHTING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Introduction
Master lighting plans allow for benefits to be derived from modem electronic monitoring and control
systems known as electrical and lighting management systems (ELMS). This technology can detect lighting problems more quickly and accurately than traditional methods. The maximum benefit is most likely
realized when the technology is applied across the entire lighting infrastructure within a local authoritys
inventory. Remote monitoring technology can modernize the management, operation, and maintenance of
the street lighting infrastructure.
cost
The costs of introducing the technology are difficult to estimate without significant evaluation. This
has led to concerns over initial investment costs, running costs, and anticipated payback on investment. It
is important that evaluations consider a whole system approach. Remote monitoring can be progressively
used and specified for new lighting schemes and for installations requiring additional or extraordinary
monitoring and control.
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8

Master Liahtina Plans
Benefits
The benefits of ELMS are outlined in the following table.
Benefits of ELMS
Benefit
Explanation
More efficient contract management
Contractscan be written to pay for maintenance by the

month instead of by each part repaired or replaced.
Percent of luminaires burning can be verified electronically through ELMS, thus reducing survey costs.
Improved electrical safety and reliability
ELMS provides for ground fault detection and notification of system malfunction.
Energy savings
Energy saving lighting curfews are facilitated through

remote or automatic control of lighting systems.
~~
Reduced maintenance costs
ELMS facilitates advance knowledge of problems,

parts needed, and types of personnel needed. This
results in better overall contractor information and
supervision of maintenance work.
Reduced life-cycle costs
ELMS can provide the information and documentation needed to write specificationsand modify
approved products lists, thus lowering maintenance
costs and improving reliability.
The recent avalanche of technical advances is about to bring a wave of new technologies to organizations that operate and maintain street lighting systems. These technologies have the potential to improve
service quality, lower maintenance costs, increase productivity, and conserve energy. But the implementation of new technologies also holds risk because of technical and commercial complexities. The key to
reducing this risk is to make the new technologies compatible with existing systems, and to ensure that
the systems of different suppliers are interoperable.
Master lighting plans and ELMS allow coordination, through the traffic management centers, of all
interested subjects and parties including cities, department of transportation personnel, police, special
events, traffic management, state and local ordinances, landscape lighting, landscape installation (especially trees), landscape maintenance, pedestrians, cyclists, and central business district interests.
9
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Benefits of ELMS Standardization

Interoperability and compatibility standards for ELMS results in four significant benefits, as outlined
in the following table.
Benefits of ELMS Standardization
Benefit
Explanation
Reduction in the complexity of integrating

systems
This translates into lower risk of implementation

delays and fewer resources required for system installation and introduction.
Creation of more open and competitive market
Proprietary technologies tend to lock buyers into single-source supply arrangements. Such arrangements
give the incumbent supplier undue leverage in future
purchases and make substitution of non-performing
suppliers expensive. Standardization discourages this
tendency.
Allowance for the mixing of systems from

different suppliers
Various systems have their own strengths and weaknesses, given the differing situations in which they
are used. If a buyer wishes to implement a system
with best of breed components, then interoperation
and compatibility between these components make
that possible.
Evolution through open participation in which

all views are considered
Due process through a public forum ensures validation

and utility of the underlying technologies.
Interoperability and compatibility standards lead to a more competitive environment for suppliers.
However, suppliers benefit from standards as well. In general, buyers are suspicious of single-source
market conditions, and therefore simply delay purchases until a competitive environment has evolved.
History has shown that the establishment of standards accelerates adoption of new technologies and
causes the market to expand more rapidly.
2.6 CONDUCTING STUDIES
Introduction
Before developing a master lighting plan, a study should be conducted by traffic and lighting engineers. The study is needed for the following reasons:
to determine how the various lighting systems can best be optimized and coordinated
to justify the implementation of lighting curfews
to justify expenditures for technological improvements such as ELMS.
This section describes the recommended scope of such a study. Generally, the study should cover the
following items:
electrical system
purpose of the lighting system
benefits and effects of curfews and dimming
traffic studies
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10

surrounding land use and surrounding lighting

security concerns
sky glow and light trespass issues
community goals
coordination with navigation authorities
traffic management interaction
controls
curfew monitoring
ELMS Implementation
coordination with roadway maintenance and construction activities
budget.
These items are discussed in this chapter and following chapters under separate headings.
Electrical System
The study should evaluate electrical energy use and potential for savings.
Benefits and Effects of Curfews and Dimming

Dimming should be considered if light levels are higher than those required by AASHTO. In some
instances lighting is installed at levels higher than the minimum required because of safety or work zones.
It may be reasonable to dim this to only the required level after heavy traffic subsides. The same logic can
be applied to dimming as is applied to curfews.
Traffic Studies
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Assess the hourly nighttime traffic volumes and crashes. Consider reducing continuous lighting to partial interchange lighting at the point during the nighttime hours when fatal crashes, analyzed over a threeyear period, is found to drop to half of the peak rate. Consideration may be given to the type of crashes
and a study to determine if lighting is a factor in the specific traffic safety problem.
Community Goals
Conduct a survey of community goals for lighting.
Budget
Consider how the master lighting plan relates to the following budgetary factors:
How will the plan affect the budget for lighting installation and maintenance?
How will the plan affect the budget and methods for other traffic safety devices?
What is the budget for installing controls?
11

Chapter 3
3.1 OVERVIEW
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Introduction
Industry development and general experience on lighting of roadways has resulted in a reasonably
well-developed technique for the design of lighting systems. Accepted methods exist for achieving a
given lighting condition known as either level of illuminance or level of luminance. These methods permit ready analysis of alternative lamps, luminaires, mounting height, luminaire spacing, energy consumption, etc., to determine a preferred design. As more efficient light sources and better luminaires are
developed, they are incorporated into current designs.
The design of a roadway lighting installation is a process of applying known or specified photometric characteristics of selected lamp-luminaire combinations. Since illuminance considers only incident
light, photometric information about the luminaire and proximity and orientation to the pavement surface is the only required information. To achieve the desired luminance, pavement reflectance should be
known. A trial-and-adjust process of assumed luminaire locations is used in making calculations of
either the average amount of illuminance or the average luminance over the roadway. For each lampluminaire combination, the manufacturersdata will show photometric performance of luminaires. These
data can be used, along with pavement reflectance characteristics in the case of luminance, to theoretically determine luminaire positions to produce the desired luminance over the given pavement area. It is
important to test luminaires to determine that luminaires supplied match the photometric performance of
luminaires used in the design process. Experience has shown that disregard for testing has yielded disappointing results.
Calculations are performed by computer programs designed for lighting design purposes. The values
of the average amount of illuminance or luminance and variations in the average level are the basis of
design.
Level and Uniformity of Illuminance and Luminance

The level and uniformity of illuminance or luminance along a highway depends on several factors,
including the lumen output of the light source, luminaire distribution, mounting height, luminaire position, pavement reflectance, and spacing and arrangement. The same average level can be obtained by different installation arrangements, such as a few high-output light sources or a greater number of
low-output sources. A concern in comparing of such alternate systems is the uniformity of illuminance or
luminance over the traveled way to be lighted.
Luminaires are available in a wide range of types, sizes, and photometric outputs. Lighting systems
using high-efficacy and large-lumen lamps can be designed to provide a satisfactory level and uniformity of illuminance or luminance. Higher luminaire mounting heights offer a number of advantages and
should have full consideration when selecting design criteria. All appropriate light sources should be
considered, and the size or sizes that will give the most effective and economical lighting system should
be used.
13

Illuminance Considerations
Illuminance in roadway lighting is a measure of the light incident on the pavement surface. It is measured in foot-candles (Lux). Illuminance and luminance values are empirically derived from many years
of experience. Illuminance design may be accomplished with lighting design software or with iso-footcandle templates. The illuminance at any certain point will be the sum of illuminance from one or several
contributing sources.
Luminance Considerations
Luminance in roadway lighting is a measure of the reflected light from the pavement surface that is
visible to the motorists eye.
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Pavement Reflectance Important. In addition to knowing the position, distribution, and intensity of
the luminaire, the calculation of luminance requires a knowledge of the reflectance characteristics of the
pavement and the location of the observer. See Fig. 3-1.
A system of pavement reflectance values used since 1970 by C.I.E. and adopted by ANSUESNA
divides the reflectance characteristics of pavements into four categories: R1, R2, R3, and R4. (Tables A3A6 CIE 132-1999 and Tables Al-A4 ANSI/IESNA RP-8-00). Each category has its own table of values
of reflectance for specified angles and are commonly known as r-tables. The r-tables have been adopted
for the purpose of this guide. Road surface classifications are described in Table 3-1. When designing a
roadway lighting system using these classifications,the final type of road surface in place, when the lighting system is operative is usually selected. (See the online Literature Review at httu://downloads.transportation.ordiighting.pdf for more information on pavement reflectance).
A calculation of reflected light toward the eye of the observer is made for each roadway point 83 m
from the observer, summing the luminance from each luminaire.
Figure 3-1. Calculation points for luminance and illuminance design methods.
14

TABLE 3-1. Road Surface Classifications
Description
Mode of Reflectance
0.10
Portland cement concrete road surface. Asphalt

road surface with a minimum of 12 percent of the
aggregates composed of artificial brightener
(e.g., Synopai) aggregates (e.g., labradorite, quartzite).
Mostly diffuse
R2
0.07
Asphalt road surface with an aggregate composed

of minimum 60 percent gravel [size greater than
1 cm (0.4 in.)].
Asphalt road surface with 10 to 15 percent artificial
brightener in aggregate mix. (Not normally used in
North America).
Mixed (diffuse and

specular)
R3
0.07
Asphalt road surface (regular and carpet seal) with

dark aggregates (e.g., trap rock, blast furnace slag);
rough texture after some months of use (typical
highways).
Slightly specular
R4
0.08
Asphalt road surface with very smooth texture.
Class
R1
QO*
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Mostly specular
* Q, = representative mean luminance coefficient.

Reprinted from American National Standard Practice for Roadway Lighting, A N S U E S RP-8-00, Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America. Used by permission.
The observer moves with points. For example:
The calculation for point A, is made from observer position A,.
The calculation for point Bp is made from observer position Bo, same one quarter lane line.
The calculation for point C, is made from observer position Co, lane 4.
The number of points to be considered is calculated as follows:
Number of Points
Luminaire Cycle Distance

10
The distance between points should not exceed 15 feet ( 5 m). Calculations should include a minimum
of three luminaire cycles downstream and one luminaire cycle upstream from reference (0.0) REF.
Luminance calculations place the observers (motorists) eye height at 4.8 ft. (1.45 m) above grade.
The 4.8 ft. (1.45 m) is a design figure used internationally and does not affect the driver eye height of
3.5 ft. (1.O7 m). The observers line of sight is downward at one degree below horizontal and parallel to
the edge of the roadway along lines one-quarter roadway lane width from the edge of each lane. The
observer is positioned at a point 272 ft. (83.07 m) before the first point in the cycle to be evaluated.
Luminance Unqormity Calculation. Luminance uniformity is calculated both as the ratio of average
level to minimum point and maximum point to minimum point. The average-to-minimum-point method
uses the average luminance of the roadway design area between two adjacent luminaires divided by the
lowest value at any point in the area. The maximum-to-minimum-point method uses the maximum and
minimum values between the same adjacent luminaires. Luminance uniformities correlate closely with
the observers ability to detect differences in brightness levels.
15

Ghre Evaluation. In conjunction with the luminance method, the evaluation of glare from the fixed
lighting system is relevant and included with the luminance criteria. The disability glare (veiling luminance)
has been quantified to give the designer the information to identify the veiling effect of glare as a percent
of average overall luminance.
Visibility-Based Design Methods
An alternate design method named small target visibility (STV) was proposed by the Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) in RP-8-1990 and was not adopted. With some modification, the STV method was adopted as RP-8-2000. The STV method has not been adopted by this
guide, because it does not adequately describe visibility in the roadway scene for the following
reasons:
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The research shows that minor changes in the roadway lighting system that may cause large changes
in the target visibility level (VL) values-because only the targets and their immediate background
are considered-may not have a significant effect on the information content of the overall scene.
Isolation on the VL of a small target is clearly too restrictive.
The potential error in the calculation of target visibility is unacceptably high for engineering
calculations.
Calculations do not include off-roadway sources or headlamps of multiple vehicles, as is typically
found in practice.
The visibility of objects varies substantially with respect to observation distance. Static observation
distance does not describe the visibility of small targets in general on a roadway and certainly does
not describe the overall visibility of the roadway environment.
The visibility of small targets on an empty roadway does not describe driver information needs sufficiently to be used as a measure of safety.
STV methods require too many simplifying assumptions that introduce unrecognized error into the
result. This makes it an approximation at best, and totally inaccurate at worst.
The contribution of pavement reflectance to visibility-based design is not adequately recognized.
Background luminance is one of two fundamental design parameters. Before a reliable visibilitybased design methodology can be developed, modern pavement reflectance data must be obtained,
the change in pavement reflectance with respect to traffc must be well known, and the effect of
variable pavement reflectance on contrast must be known. In addition, the effect of driver observation angle change must also be fully understood before pavement reflectance can be accurately
estimated.
The validity of the design calculations are further questioned because many of the physical parameters used are variable over time. The pavement?s reflective characteristics will change with
age. The luminaires will accumulate dirt and bum out, thus changing their output characteristics.
The amount of off-road lighting that contributes to visibility on the road changes as development
along the lighted area changes. Finally, normal weather variations such as rain and ice totally
invalidate the design calculations by changing the pavement?s reflective characteristics from diffuse to specular.
Recent research on information theory (and the calculation tools provided by similarity theory) (1) furnish a powerful and attractive tool for analyzing roadway lighting design. The combination of digital
imaging and IT-based processing algorithms was successfully used to quantify a predictable function of
visibility. These are likely to be the future of visibility based designs in lieu of target visibility.
16

3.2 WARRANTING CONDITIONS
General
This discussion summarizes available conclusions for the selection of those sections of freeways on
which fixed source lighting may be warranted. These warrants may be applied to roadways other than
freeways, as practicable.
The investment of public funds in roadway lighting returns benefits to the public in several ways.
Lighting benefits motorists by improving their ability to see roadway geometry and other vehicles at
extended distances ahead. This results in greater driver confidence and improved safety, particularly in
inclement weather. Lighting may also improve roadway capacity. Other benefits include improved pedestrian safety, improved public safety and security, convenience, and civic pride and recognition.
It is generally recognized that traffic safety benefits resulting from fixed source lighting correspond in
some proportion to traffic volume. High volume is inevitable on freeways in urban and suburban areas.
The number of stalled vehicles and other emergency stops is proportional to traffic volume.
Rural Interchanges
An unlighted rural interchange often presents unique conditions that require special consideration
before conclusions regarding lighting can be reached. Rural interchanges normally have ample space for
sign installation. Where the interchange type and detail are typical of most others on the freeway, and a
delineator system is included, the diverging and merging areas may be well understood and reasonably
discernible without lighting. However, installation of a few lighting units at the point of on- or off-movements and ramp terminals could contribute to driver ease by providing visual indication for the maneuver
areas. Many rural interchanges with low traffic volumes do not warrant roadway lighting. However, there
are circumstances under which partial interchange lighting is appropriate and still other conditions where
complete interchange lighting is the preferred treatment.
Warranting Conditions
The warranting conditions in this section are for the purpose of establishing a basis on which lighting
for freeways may be justified. The warrants provide minimum conditions to be met whenever an agency
is contemplating lighting for new or existing facilities. Meeting of the warrants does not obligate the highway agency to provide lighting. Jurisdictions may adopt higher numerical warranting values or more
restrictive subjective values for local use.
Master lighting plan ideas may be implemented in order to provide lighting at the times and places
most likely to provide the highest benefit to citizens.
The decision to provide lighting, and the extent of that lighting once warranting conditions are met,
rests with the highway agency. In determining when and where lighting is to be provided, the agency may
adopt a policy that includes these warrants and is also based on such factors as availability of funds, traffic and crash data, roadway safety rating, etc. The warrants are not to be construed as the only criteria for
justifying lighting. The warrants are intended to be an easily understood tool to assist administrators and
designers in considering lighting on roadways.
Local conditions, such as frequent fog, ice, snow, roadway geometry, ambient lighting, sight distance,
signing, etc., could justify modification of these warrants.
17

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Benefits of Lighting
The following are separate warrants for continuous freeway lighting, complete interchange lighting,
and partial interchange lighting.
Continuous Freeway Lighting
Description. A continuous lighting system provides relatively uniform lighting on all main lanes and
direct connections, and complete interchange lighting of all interchanges within the section. Frontage
roads are not normally continuously lighted. The lighting units may be conventional luminaires or high
mast assemblies or both.
Continuous lighting may be warranted under one of the conditions described in the following table.
TABLE 3-2. Warranting Conditions for Continuous Freeway Lighting (CFL)
Case
CFL- 1
Sections in and near cities where the current average daily traffic (ADT) is 30,000 or greater.
CFL-2
Sections where three or more successive interchanges are located with an average spacing of
1.5 miles or less, and adjacent areas outside the right-of-way are substantially urban in
character.
CFL-3
Sections of two miles or more passing through a substantially developed suburban or urban
area in which one or more of the following conditions exist:
a. local traffic operates on a complete street grid having some form of street lighting, parts
of which are visible from the freeway
b. the freeway passes through a series of developments-such as residential, commercial,
industrial and civic areas, colleges, parks, terminals, etc. that include lighted roads,
streets, parking areas, yards, etc.-that are lighted
c. separate cross streets, both with and without connecting ramps, occur with an average
spacing of 0.5 miles or less, some of which are lighted as part of the local street system
d. the freeway cross section elements, such as median and borders, are substantially reduced
in width below desirable sections used in relatively open country.
CFL-4
Sections where the ratio of night to day crash rate is at least 2.0 times the statewide average for
all unlighted similar sections, and a study indicates that lighting may be expected to result in a
significant reduction in the night crash rate. Where crash data are not available, rate
comparison may be used as a general guideline for crash severity.
Definition. Complete interchange lighting is defined as a lighting system that provides relative uniform lighting within the limits of the interchange, including:
main lanes
direct connections
ramp terminals
frontage road or crossroad intersections.
18
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Complete interchange lighting may be warranted under one of the conditions described in the following table.
TABLE 3-3. Warranting Conditions for Complete Interchange Lighting (CIL)
h a r r a n i n g Conditions
Where the total current ADT ramp traffic entering and leaving the freeway within the
interchange areas exceeds 10,000 for urban conditions, 8,000 for suburban conditions, or
5,000 for rural conditions.
CIL-1
Where the current ADT on the crossroad exceeds 10,000for urban conditions, 8,000 for
suburban conditions, or 5,000 for rural conditions.
CIL-3
Where existing substantial commercial or industrial development that is lighted during hours
of darkness is located in the immediate vicinity of the interchange, or where the crossroad
approach legs are lighted for 0.5 mile or more on each side of the interchange.
CIL-4
Where the ratio of night to day crash rate within the interchange area is at least 1.5 times the
statewide average for all unlighted similar sections, and a study indicates that lighting may be
expected to result in a significant reduction in the night crash rate.
Where crash data are not available, rate comparison may be used as a general guideline for
crash severity.
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e(
Partial Interchange Lighting

Definition. Partial interchange lighting is defined as a lighting system that provides illumination only
of decision making areas of roadways including:
acceleration and deceleration lanes

ramp terminals
crossroads at frontage road or ramp intersections
other areas of nighttime hazard.
Partial interchange lighting may be warranted under one of the conditions described in the following
table.
TABLE 3-4. Warranting Conditions for Partial Interchange Lighting (PIL)
Case
PIL- 1
Where the total current ADT ramp traffic entering and leaving the freeway within the
interchange area exceeds 5,000 for urban conditions, 3,000 for suburban conditions, or 1,000
for rural conditions.
PIL-2
Where the current ADT on the freeway through traffic lanes exceeds 25,000 for urban
conditions, 20,000 for suburban conditions, or 10,000for rural conditions.
PIL-3
Where the ratio of night to day crash rate within the interchange area is at least 1.25 times the
statewide average for all unlighted similar sections, and a study indicates that lighting may be
expected to result in a significant reduction in the night crash rate.
Where crash data are not available, rate comparison may be used as a general guideline for
crash severity.
19


Special Considerations
Bridges
It may be desirable to provide fixed source lighting on long bridges in urban and suburban areas even
though the approaches are not lighted. On bridges without full shoulder, lighting enhances both safety and
utility of the bridges. Where bridges are provided with sidewalks for pedestrian movements, lighting is
warranted for pedestrian safety and policing.
3.3 DESIGN VALUES FOR FREEWAYS

General
The previously described warranting conditions should be used in deciding whether and where fixed
source lighting will be installed. Where continuous lighting is to be provided, lighting should be designed
to comply with the requirements of the Illuminance and Luminance Design Values Table (Table 3-5) for
either the Illuminance design method or the Luminance design method. Both methods should meet the
Veiling Luminance Ratio requirements.
Design Considerations
The selection of light source, luminaire distribution, mounting height and luminaire overhang is an
engineering decision based on such factors as geometry and character of the roadway, environment,
proposed maintenance, economics, aesthetics, and overall lighting objectives. Maintenance considerations for roadway lighting design are covered in Chapter 11. Light loss factors are covered in the
online appendices located at http://downloads.transuortation.ordlighting.pdf.
Lighting Levels on Crossroads

Lighting levels on the crossroad approaches should not be reduced through the interchange area. If
existing crossroad illuminance currently is deemed inadequate, it should be considered for upgrading.
20

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Continuous, complete-interchange or partial-interchange lighting is considered justified where the

local governmental agency finds sufficient benefit in the forms of convenience, safety, policing, community promotion, public relations, etc. to pay an appreciable percentage of the cost of or wholly finance the
installations, maintenance, and operation of the lighting facilities. For detailed discussions of these issues,
see the section on Master Lighting Plans.
Where there is continuous freeway lighting, there should be complete interchange lighting. When continuous freeway lighting is warranted, but not initially installed, partial interchange lighting is considered
justified under the continuous freeway lighting warrants CFL-1 or CFL-2. This would preclude the
requirements of satisfying the partial interchange lighting warrants P E - 1 or PIL-2.
Where complete interchange lighting is warranted, but not initially fully installed, a partial lighting
system that exceeds the normal partial installation in number of lighting units is consideredjustified.
Lighting of crossroad ramp terminals is warranted regardless of traffic volumes, where the design
requires the use of raised channelizing or divisional islands, or where there is poor sight distance.
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Where partial interchange lighting is provided, luminaires should be located to best light the through
lanes and speed change lanes at diverging and merging locations (decision-making areas). Figure 3-2
shows examples of partial interchange lighting as used by some agencies with separate illustrations for
different ramp conditions. Other agencies may find more or fewer lighting units than shown in Figure 3-2
to be appropriate for their needs.
u(
"E"
____._______..*--.------
ENTRANCE RAMP
.-_-_.----
"C"
SIMPLE CROSSROADRAMP TERMINALS
"0"
COMPLEX CROSSROADRAMP TERMINALS
Figure 3-2. Typical Luminaire Locations-Partial Interchange Lighting.
21

Adaptation (Transition) Lighting

Rapid and extreme changes in levels of illuminance or luminance, especially those occurring when
leaving an area lit to levels much higher than normal roadway areas may be compensated for by using
transition lighting or adaptation techniques. The designer should recognize this phenomenon. Consideration may be given to various methods to avoid rapid and extreme changes in light levels.
Bridges and Overpasses

On continuously lighted freeways and lighted interchanges, the lighting of bridges and overpasses
should be at the same level as the roadway. It is a practice by some agencies to consider the roadway
width to extend to the parapet, curb, or abutment, whenever the proximity of such barriers constitutes a
hazard.
Lighting poles on bridges should be located within the protection of railings or parapets. Poles located
on the inside of curves of superelevated bridges may be vulnerable to collision by trucks overhanging the
inside curb line.
Other Considerations
Aesthetics. The installed lighting system should have a pleasant daytime appearance. The design
should reflect aesthetic considerations.
Fuhre Lighting. Provisions for present or future lighting may be included with roadway and structural work. Such provisions include underpavement conduit, concrete encased junction boxes and conduit, and pole anchorage in structures.
Area Classifications
Commercial.That portion of a municipalityin a business development where ordinarily there are large
numbers of pedestrians and a heavy demand for parking space during periods of peak traffic or a sustained
high pedestrian volume and a continuously heavy demand for off-street parking space during business
hours. This definition applies to densely developed business areas outside of, as well as those that are
within, the central part of a municipality.
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Intermediate. That portion of a municipality which is outside of a downtown area but generally within
the zone of influence of a business or industrial development, often characterized by a moderately heavy
nighttime pedestrian traffic and a somewhat lower parking turnover than is found in a commercial area.
This definition includes densely developed apartment areas, hospitals, public libraries, and neighborhood
recreational centers.
Residential. A residential development, or a mixture of residential and commercial establishments,
characterized by few pedestrians and a low parking demand or turnover at night. This definition includes
areas with single family homes, townhouses, and/or small apartments. Regional parks, cemeteries, and
vacant lands are also included.
22

3.4 STREETS AND HIGHWAYS OTHER THAN FREEWAYS

(INCLUDING WALKWAYS AND BICYCLEWAYS)
General
The literature is replete with data demonstrating the value of fixed lighting for facilities without access
control and the resulting benefits to the public. Some of the elements that warrant the lighting of urban
streets and highways are traffic volumes (both vehicles and pedestrians), at-grade intersections, turning
movements, signalization, and varying geometria. The need for street and highway lighting in areas with
frequent inclement weather should be considered. In addition to its safety benefits, lighting may serve as a
crime deterrent, may aid law enforcement agencies, may contribute to user comfort, and often contributes
to community pride. These benefits may serve as a basis for the local government agency to pay an appreciable percentage of the cost of, or wholly finance, the installation, maintenance, and operation of the
lighting facilities.
It is not practical to establish specific warrants for the installation of roadway lighting that satisfy all
conditions. In general, lighting may be considered for those locations where the relevant governmental
agencies agree that lighting would contribute substantially to the safety, efficiency, and comfort of vehicular or pedestrian traffic.
Lighting may be provided for all major arterials in urbanized areas and for locations or sections of
streets and highways where the ratio of night to day crash rates is higher than the statewide average for
similar locations, and a study indicates that lighting would significantly reduce the nighttime crash rate.
Rural Highways. Lighting of spot locations in rural areas should be considered whenever the driver is
required to pass through a section of road with complex geometry or raised channelization.The lighting
design treatment is typically similar to that for freeway ramp terminals.
The suggested lighting design values are provided in Table 3-5. Either the illuminance or luminance
technique may be used in the design of roadway lighting to meet the values set forth.
Average maintained luminance and illuminance levels in the tables are minimum levels when the output of the lamp and luminaire is diminished by the maintenance factor.
Other Considerations
In using the values shown in Table 3-5, bear in mind that these values are for continuous lighting at
non-intersections. Special conditions may make somewhat different luminance and illuminance levels
desirable or necessary. For example, intersections with high pedestrian traffic volumes, curbs or divisional islands may require somewhat higher levels. The lighting designer should use all available pertinent information in reaching a decision regarding the lighting level for any specific street or highway.
Intersections of two continuously lit streets are typically lit to a value equal to the sum of the individual
lighting level values.
There are many locations where very high levels of luminance or illuminance are provided for streets
in the central city business district. The reasoning is basically a commercial consideration and directed
toward making the downtown business area more appealing to visitors. Considerablyhigher luminance or
illuminance levels than those levels shown in the table may be justified on some basis other than enhancing the safe and efficient flow of traffic.
23

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Lighting Design Levels
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25

3.5 POLE PLACEMENT GUIDELINES
Introduction
The careful and strategicplacement of lighting poles along the roadway is an important concern for the
lighting engineer. Along with providing a lighting system that supplies the required levels of illumination,
it is important to provide lighting support structures are properly designed and carefully located to minimize adverse effects on the traveling public.
The guidelines listed in this section have been established to simplify the pole placement process for
the lighting engineer. These guidelines address some of the more common situations encountered during
the design of a roadway lighting system.
Obstruction of View
Structural supports for lighting units should be designed and located so that they do not distract the
attention of the motorist or interfere with their view of the roadway and other important roadway features.
Supports should be placed so that they do not obstruct the view of signs.
Height Restrictions
The Federal Aviation Administration may have certain height restrictions for lighting poles placed
adjacent to airports and in their landing zones.
Medians
Locating structural supports for lighting units within a median area may be appropriate if the width of
the median is sufficient or if concrete median barriers are used. Locating poles in medians provides several lighting and economic advantages that cannot be overlooked. Advantages include:
The number of lighting poles is approximately half that required for house-side lighting.
The amount of wiring required is reduced.
Lighting otherwise wasted on the house side is used instead on the opposite roadway.
Construction and maintenance costs are reduced.
Visibility on the high-speed lanes is improved.
Disadvantages include:
Inside lanes may need to be closed for maintenance of luminaires.
Gore Areas
Locating structural supports for lighting units within the clear zone of both a main lane and a ramp at
a gore area is not usually desirable unless located behind or atop a longitudinal traffk barrier or behind a
crash cushion.
Maintenance Considerations
The maintenance and servicing of roadway and sign lighting units should be considered when designing the lighting system. Inspection for structural supports for lighting systems may detect corrosion or
fatigue problems. Some breakaway connections may require periodic maintenance so that the specified
26
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torque requirements of the bolts are maintained so that the connection will function properly. The selection of the lighting pole location should also include consideration of the potential hazards imposed on
maintenance personnel servicing and maintaining the lighting equipment.
Adjacent to Deflecting Barriers

Structural supports for lighting units should not be located on the traffic side of guide rail or deflecting
barrier. In locating lighting poles behind rail, consideration should also be given to the distance necessary
for rail deflection in the barrier.
General Safety Concerns

On freeways, roadside design encompasses the area from lane edge line to lane edge line, in medians
and side separations (between main lanes and ramps or frontage roads) and from frontage road edge line
to right-of-way line. Roadside design on highways encompasses the area between the outside lane edge
and the right-of-way limits. A roadside environment free of fixed objects and with stable, flattened slopes
helps reduce crash severity when errant vehicles leave the roadway. The forgiving roadside concept
(AASHTO Roadside Design Guide) allows for the possibility of errant vehicles leaving the roadway, and
supports a roadside design that reduces the serious consequences of such an incident.
How Poles Fall on Impact. As a general rule, a luminaire support will fall near the line of path of a
vehicle after impact. Research shows (4)that 95 percent of run off the road vehicles depart the roadway
at an angle of 20 degrees or less. The mast arm on single mast arm poles usually rotates so that it is pointing away from the roadway when resting on the ground. This action generally prevents the pole from
going into other traffic lanes if sufficient falling area is provided. The provision of a falling area is
most beneficial on higher speed roadways. Sufficient falling area is generally considered to be 2/5 of the
pole mounting height.
Design Options
While the first three options (shown below) are the preferred choices, these solutions are not always
viable for the lighting engineer, because the lighting supports must remain near the edge of the roadway
in order to provide adequate levels of illumination on the roadway surface.
Option 1: Remove the Obstacle

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Removing the obstacle may not always be a viable solution for the lighting engineer, because lighting
supports must be installed adjacent to the traveled roadway in order to provide adequate lighting levels on
the roadway surface. However, the number of lighting supports installed can be minimized by careful examination of the surroundings. For example, it may be possible to use a single support to serve more than one
purpose. Combination poles, serving multiple functions for lighting, traffic control, and electrical power,
should be considered as a way to reduce the number of poles along the edge of the traveled roadway.
Option 2: Redesign the Obstacle

Investigate options for redesigning the lighting system so that the lighting supports are located outside
the clear zone. This can be accomplished through higher mounting heights or off-set luminaires. The ultimate design in this respect features the use of tower or high-mast lighting, because far fewer supports are
needed and they are located much farther away from the roadway. High-mast poles are an especially useful method for lighting major interchanges.
27

Individual agencies must weigh the relative benefits of using off-set luminaires mounted on poles outside the clear zone against the benefits of using fixtures on break-away poles inside the clear zone which
can provide benefits of less veiling glare, lower light trespass and sky glow, and less visual clutter
Option 3: Relocate the Obstacle

Non-breakaway lighting poles should not be installed within the clear zone along the edge of the traveled roadway unless protected from impact by guard rail or other barriers. The clear zone is defined as the
total unobstructed roadside border area desired. It starts at the edge of the traveled way and may include
shoulders, recoverable and non-recoverable slopes, and clear run-out areas. The clear zone is available for
the safe, unobstructed use and recovery of errant vehicles: placing non-breakaway lighting poles within
the clear zone should be avoided. Various agencies may have more or less extensive definitions and applications of clear zones. See the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide for more information on clear zones.
Option 4: Use Appropriate Breakaway Device

The design of the lighting system should include breakaway supports when the lighting standards cannot be placed outside of the roadside clear zone or behind a longitudinal traffic barrier or crash cushion.
A breakaway support is a design feature that allows a luminaire support to yield, fracture, or separate near
ground level upon impact by an errant vehicle. See the AASHTO publication, Structural Supports for
Highways Signs, Luminaires, and Trafic Signals, for breakaway structural requirements.
When breakaway poles are placed inside the clear zone of freeways, they should be located at a minimum of 15 feet (4.5 m) preferably 20 feet (6 m) from lane edge lines.
Breakaway devices should not be used outside the parameters that have been tested and approved by
FHWA. Mounting height and weight limits are particularly addressed by FHWA.
Angle of Impact. The breakaway mechanism is designed to activate when loaded in shear rather than
bending, and is designed to release in shear when impacted by a vehicle bumper at normal bumper height.
Locating supports along the edge of the roadway where they are likely to be loaded in bending rather than
in shear may result in more severe impacts and injuries to the occupants of the vehicle. Super-elevation,
side slope, rounding and offset, and vehicle departure angle and speed are design components that influence the striking height of a typical errant vehicle. If the breakaway support is stnick at a point higher than
28 inches typical bumper height, the bending moment in the breakaway support may be sufficient to bind
the mechanism, resulting in non-activation of the breakaway device. For this reason, it is critical that the
breakaway supports are not located near ditches, on steep slopes, or at similar locations where a vehicle
is likely to be partially airborne at the time of impact. Limiting the negative side slopes to 1:6 between
roadway and luminaire supports should ensure acceptable striking height.
Surroundings. Breakaway supports should not be used in very confined urban areas with high pedestrian activity where there is a high possibility of a support striking a pedestrian, private property, or
another vehicle after impact.
Soil and Terrain. The type of soil surrounding a luminaire foundation may affect the performance of
the breakaway mechanism. If a support foundation is allowed to push through the soil, the luminaire support may bend rather than shear, resulting in the breakaway mechanism not being activated. After installation of the foundation, the surrounding terrain should be graded to permit vehicles to pass over any
non-breakaway portion of the support that remains in the ground or that is rigidly attached to the foundation after impact.
Electrical Disconnects. The electrical circuitry contained within the breakaway support shall be
equipped with electrical disconnects to facilitate the breakaway mechanisms and to reduce the risk of
electrical shock from the exposed wiring after impact. The electrical disconnects must be used in all new
28
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installations and considered for existing installations that experience frequent knockdowns. See Chapter
8 for more information on electrical requirements.
Conclusion. As a general rule, breakaway supports should be considered in some urban and most rural
areas, wherever vehicle speeds are moderate to high, or when the lighting standards cannot be placed
behind a longitudinal traffic barrier or crash cushion. The designer should weigh the relative risks
involved in these situations before selecting an appropriate design. If the use of breakaway supports is not
feasible, then shielding the obstacle may be the only viable solution.
Option 5: Shield the Obstacle
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Only when the use of breakaway supports is not practical should a traffic barrier or crash cushion be
used exclusively to shield light poles.
Structural supports for high mast lighting systems should be placed outside the clear zone or they
should be protected with proper guide rail or other deflecting barrier. High mast lighting supports are considered fixed-base support systems that do not yield or break away on impact. The large mass of these
support systems and the potential safety consequences of the systems when they fall to the ground necessitate a fixed-based design.
When a luminaire support is located near a traffic barrier, a breakaway bases may or may not be applicable, depending on the type and characteristicsof the barrier. In general, the support should not be located
within the design deflection distance of the barrier or the railing should be strengthened locally to minimize the resultant deflection distance.
Another alternative would be to mount the lighting standards on top of concrete median barriers, a
practice that oftentimes requires modifications to the lighting standard, median barrier, or both. For high
angle impacts into the concrete barrier or crashes involving trucks or buses, a luminaire mounted on top
of a concrete barrier may be struck. This type of installation generally does not use breakaway supports,
because of the risk a downed pole might present to opposing traffic or traffic below an elevated structure.
Poles should not typically be placed atop bridge rails on main lanes, connectors, or ramps that cross
other roadways since even non-breakaway poles are sometimes dislodged. Rather, the pole should be
placed on footings behind rails in such locations.
Option 6: Delineate the Obstacle

If the above alternatives are not appropriateor if a particular situation requires that additional measures
be taken, the designer should investigate delineating the obstacle to provide quicker recognition and
opportunity for response by the motorist. For example, providing reflectorized banding at the eye level of
the motorist for the poles that are in gore areas may provide quicker recognition by the motorist.
3.6 REFERENCES
1. AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 5th Edition, 2004.
2. AASHTO, Roadside Design Guide, 2002.
3. AASHTO, Standard Specijkationsfor Structural Supports for Highway Signs,Luminaires, and Trafic
Signals, 4th Edition, 2001.
4. Rowan, N.J., Walton, N.E., (1972) Roadway Illumination Systems, Texas Department of Transportation Research Report 137-2(F).
29

Chapter 4
High-Mast Lighting
High-mast lighting is comprised of groups of luminaires mounted on free-standing poles at mounting

heights that can vary from approximately 60 feet (18 meters) to 180 feet (55 meters). High mast poles are
usually provided with luminaire lowering devices that lower the luminaires for maintenance.
High-mast lighting is used principally at interchanges, toll plazas, rest areas, parking areas, and for
continuous lighting on highways that have wide cross sections.
Recommended lighting levels are on Table 3-5 in Chapter 3. Higher lighting levels than indicated in
Table 3-5 may be required after consideration of such factors as the complexity of the interchange, the
existence of high brightness from competing light sources near the roadway, and the prevailing level of
lighting on connecting roadways.
The benefits of high-mast lighting include excellent uniformity, lower glare, and fewer pole locations
when compared to conventional lighting systems. Traffic control requirements are reduced for maintenance because the poles can be located out of the clear zone or recovery area and away from the roadway.
Surrounding off road areas receive incidental illumination that provides the motorist with a panoramic
view, compared to the tunnel of light effect provided by conventional systems. Another benefit is the
visibility of vertical surfaces of the roadway system such as guardrail, bridge columns, abutments and
drainage headwalls. High-mast lighting systems perform well under adverse weather conditions such as
rain, fog, and snow.
The most common type of luminaire used in high-mast lighting is the area type which is usually
offered with symmetric or asymmetric distribution. Both types of distribution are frequently used. Cutoff
style luminaires are recommended.
Scheduled inspections of the pole and lowering system may detect corrosion, fatigue, or other problems.
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31
Chapter 5
Tunnels and Underpasses
5.1 OVERVIEW
The designer may review and become familiar with resources that exist related to the lighting design
of underpasses and tunnels. Literature is available on the technical aspects of visibility and lighting of
vehicular tunnels. A review of the research material included in the references of this guide as well as
other research efforts is encouraged and will provide considerably more detailed information than is possible in this guide. In addition to independent studies, IESNA and CIE offer recommendations for various
tunnel and underpass lighting applications.
Lighting levels are typically presented in luminance format. Surface reflectance, luminaire placement,
and luminaire orientation affect results. It is difficult to equate illuminance levels to luminance levels
given the various surface reflectance and luminaire orientation possibilities.
Future surface reflectance changes should be avoided unless the design allows for specific changes.
5.2 UNDERPASSES
General Scope and Guide Application

An underpass is defined as a portion of a roadway that extends through and beneath some natural or
man-made structure, which, because of its limited length to height ratio, requires no supplementary daytime lighting. Underpasses of multiple highway structures will normally be treated separately where the
space between these structures permit good penetration of daylight on the underpass roadways, rather
than as one composite length. Daytime lighting may not be necessary in cases where the overhead structure allows relatively direct daylight penetration.
The specific geometry and roadway conditions, including vehicular and pedestrian activity, should
be considered in evaluating the need for daytime lighting. These features are more fully covered in the
tunnel lighting section.
Although tunnel designs are typically designed using luminance methods, underpass lighting can be
designed using the same method used for the roadway lighting design.
Warrants for Nighttime Underpass Lighting

Underpass lighting is warranted in areas that have frequent nighttime pedestrian traffic; or where
unusual or critical roadway geometry occurs adjacent to or in the underpass area.
Continuous lighting on the associated freeway lanes warrants the installation of underpass lighting.
Luminaires positioned adjacent to the underpass can often provide adequate lighting without supplemental underpass lighting.
33
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Design Values for Underpass Lighting

Nighttime lighting levels and uniformities should target the lighting levels on the adjacent roadways.
Higher levels of lighting may result because of luminaire mounting height and spacing limitations.
Increased levels should not exceed approximately twice that of the roadway adjacent to the underpass.
High nighttime ambient brightness produced by lighting from other nearby sources may justify higher
lighting levels.
Luminaires attached to the structure along the roadside in full or partial view of the motorist may
necessitate glare control or the use of lower wattages. It is generally better to minimize source glare by
using several lower output luminaires than to provide one or two high output luminaires. The use of lower
lumen output fixtures tends to improve the uniformity of lighting while maintaining lighting levels.
Wall mount luminaires are usually easier to maintain, and they are less affected by structure vibration.
5.3 VEHICULAR TUNNELS

General Scope and Guide Application
A structure of any type that surrounds a vehicular roadway and is longer than an underpass is recognized by this publication as a tunnel. Tunnels normally require supplementaryday lighting to provide adequate roadway visibility necessary for safe and efficient traffic operation.
Literature is available on the technical aspects of visibility and lighting of vehicular tunnels. A review
of the referenced material included in this guide as well as other research efforts is encouraged and will
provide considerably more detailed information than is possible in this guide.
Figure 5-1. Example of a Vehicular Tunnel.

34

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Selection and Placement of Underpass Luminaires
Short Tunnels
A tunnel is considered short if its length from portal to portal is equal to or less than the wet
pavement minimum stopping sight distance as recommended by the latest AASHTO Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets for the vehicle operating speeds of the tunnel roadway and
approaches. A tunnel zone is a length of tunnel roadway equal to the wet pavement minimum stopping
sight distance. A short tunnel has only one zone.
LongTunnels
A tunnel is considered long if its portal to portal length is greater than the wet pavement minimum
stopping sight distance. A long tunnel has two or more zones.
The installation of daytime lighting is warranted when tunnel user visibility requirements are not met
with sunlight. Tunnel visibility factors include such items as the geometry of the tunnel and its
approaches, the traffic characteristics,the treatment of roadway and environmental reflective surfaces, the
climate, and the orientation of the tunnel.
The following criterion adapted from a procedure used in The Netherlands may be used as a guide for
deciding when daytime lighting should be provided. Refer to Figure 5-2. When viewing the tunnel from
the perspective of an approaching motorist and while the entire entrance is in view, if
1. The exit portal encompasses 50 percent or more of the entrance portal, daytime lighting is not likely
warranted.
2. The exit portal encompasses less that 20 percent of the entrance portal, daytime lighting is warranted.
3. If the condition is between 1 and 2 above, a detailed study should be conducted to determine if daytime lighting is warranted.
From Figure 5-2, the percent that the view of the exit portal occupies the view of entrance portal is:
100 * (EFGH)/(ABCD)
Entrance Portal,
rectangI e ABCD
D
Figure 5-2. Entrance and Exit Portal comparison method.
35

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Warrants for Tunnel Lighting
1. If rectangle EFGH is larger than 50 percent of rectangle ABCD then daytime tunnel lighting is not
recommended.
2. If rectangle EFGH is smaller than 20 percent of rectangle ABCD then daytime tunnel lighting is
recommended.
3. If the size of rectangle EFGH is between 20 percent and 50 percent of the size of rectangle ABCD
then a more detailed study is needed in order to formulate a recommendation.
Visibility Optimization of the Tunnel and Approach Features

It is important in the physical design of a tunnel structure that due consideration be given to lighting
needs.
The physical features of a tunnel can have a significant effect on reducing the day lighting needs.
The following items contribute to improved tunnel visibility and should be explored in the development of daytime tunnel lighting designs.
1. Reduction of Ambient Daytime Brightness
Tunnel portals, adjacent walls, approach pavement, and other external features in the motorists
field of view should be darkened to the extent possible. Admixtures, overlays, vegetation, or other
methods that result in low reflectance, non-specular surfaces are recommended. Dark features
increase the degree of advance eye adaptation of the entering motorist and improves contrast with the
lower luminance levels in the tunnel interior. Tunnels with a predominant sky background above
the entrance should be reviewed for the use of plantings, screens, or panels that increase the size of
the darkened area above the portals.
2. Portal Design Factors

Upsweep ceilings may increase daylight penetration, but can result in increased tunnel structure
costs.
Sun screens have not been effective. Dirt accumulation, permanent depreciation of reflective
and light-transmittingproperties, and snow and ice accumulation have posed serious problems. The
high initial costs of sun screens coupled with high maintenance costs have practically eliminated
their use.
3 . Vsibility Optimization of Tunnel Interiors

It is recommended that ceiling and wall surfaces be of an easily maintained finish with a nonspecular reflective efficiency of at least 70 percent. High wall brightness is of great value in meeting visibility needs in tunnels that have curved roadways or approach roadways. Relatively narrow tunnels
where the width-to-height ratios are approximately 3 or less will develop interreflectivity that can
enhance tunnel visibility as a result of the reflected light from the walls.
Natural sunlight penetration in entrance portal areas can be improved by the use of wall, ceiling,
and roadway surface texture control. The use of vertical wall corrugations, coarse finished pavements, or other treatments which produce surface relief, increase the retro-reflection of light entering the portai over that of smooth surfaces.
4. Types of Pavement Surfaces

The use of bituminous concrete on the approach road surface to the tunnel portal and portland
cement concrete on the road surface inside the portal for a distance at least equal to the safe sight
stopping distance will reduce the luminance contrast between the outside and the inside of the tunnel. This will in turn reduce entrance zone luminance and illuminance requirements. Future resurfacing should account for the designed roadway surface.
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36

5.4 DAYTIME LIGHTING OFTUNNEL INTERIORS
Short Tunnels-Silhouette Visibility

Short vehicular tunnels that have relatively straight and level approach alignments with corresponding
straight and level tunnel roadways may offer adequate visibility to the entering motorist by silhouette
viewing of other vehicles and objects on the roadway against the far side exit portal. These tunnels are
treated as underpasses in the guide. Silhouette visibility should be carefully evaluated with respect to the
tunnel geometry to provide visibility of objects within the tunnel. The roadway surface details will normally be indiscernible to the motorist with silhouette visibility.
In multi-lane one-way tunnels, or unseparated two-way tunnels, lighting should be provided to the
extent the motorist can distinguish lane markings or other delineation important to safe travel through the
tunnel.
Entrance Portal Lighting

The most critical portion of a tunnel that affects visibility is at the portal. This is commonly called the
?black hole? effect. Visibility of this first entrance zone, while still outside the tunnel, is essential to the
motorist in identifying and safely reacting to the presence of vehicles and objects that may be present on
the tunnel roadways. This is accomplished by lighting the entrance zone in proper proportion to the outside ambient luminance to which the motorists?eyes are adapted.
The luminance of the approach pavement, adjacent landscape, sky, and the portal area itself, are all
integrated over time by the motorist?s eyes in adapting to overall ambient conditions. It is suggested that
an evaluation of brightness conditions be made for the actual roadway and tunnel prior to establishing a
lighting design.
A model simulation may be necessary for new facilities in order to duplicate the anticipated tunnel
approach conditions.The motorist?s field of view of adapted luminance should be evaluated at a location
along the approach roadway equal to the minimum stopping sight distance in advance of the portal. See
the CIE or IESNA tunnel lighting design guides for extensive discussion of these details.
Two and three lane one-way tunnels having favorable alignments of the approaches and tunnel structure, and which are of relatively short length, have been adequately lighted with relatively low artificial
lighting levels. The optimization of portal entrance conditions, in some cases, has produced adequate
entrance visibility at artificial luminance levels in the range of about 100 to 200 candelas per square meter
reflected from an in-service roadway surface.
Entrance zone lighting levels should be designed to accommodate the greatest ambient luminance
expected at the location. The stopping sight distance defined previously determines the length of entrance
zone lighting. Most tunnel approach roadways, except for extreme cases of vertical and horizontal curvature, have entrance characteristics such that a point relatively close to the tunnel portal will confine the
motorist?s view to the predominance of the darkened tunnel structure. It is an acceptable practice to
include this ?fixation? distance in the minimum stopping sight distance to reduce the length of the
entrance interior lighting. Preadaption should not normally be used to reduce portal lighting levels.
Lighting Beyond the Entrance Zone

If the tunnel is classified as a short tunnel, the entrance zone lighting level applies throughout its entire
length. However, in long tunnels, lighting beyond the minimum stopping sight distance should be reduced
progressively until an established minimum level is reached. It is recommended that beginning at the end
of the entrance zone lighting the levels be reduced in steps to a level not less than 5 horizontal footcandIes (54 lux) or 5 candelas per square meter on the roadways. Each stepped zone should have a length at
least equal to the minimum stopping sight distance.
37
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NighttimeTunnel Lighting
Nighttime lighting should, if practical, make use of a portion of the daytime lighting system, rather
than be a separate system. Nighttime levels in a tunnel should be somewhat higher, but not exceeding
three times that of the lighting requirements for the roadways adjacent to the tunnel. Uniformity of lighting should closely match that of the requirements for the adjacent roadways.
Tunnels located on non-continuously lighted roadways should be lighted to the minimum standards
required for the highway type and character as contained in this guide.
Selection and Placement of Tunnel Luminaires

The choice of particular types of tunnel luminaires and light sources should be made by considering
such items as luminous efficacy, source glare, light distribution characteristics, physical placement limitations, frequency of maintenance, and resistance to damage. An important consideration in the choice of
a particular system for both daytime and nighttime lighting in long tunnels is the stroboscopic effect of
alternate bright-dark areas where luminaires do not provide a continuous line of luminance. Frequencies
in the range of 5 to 10 cycles per second have been observed to result in eye annoyance and should be
avoided at the particular design speed of the tunnel.
Tunnel Lighting Control Systems

Lighting levels for the entrance zone may be adjusted to match the ambient conditions created due to
varying light levels from season to season and during cloudy or inclement weather. If such system variances are determined to be economical and feasible, lighting levels in subsequent tunnel zones should
vary in the same proportion. Lighting systems for tunnels should be designed as fail safe as practical to
reduce the possibility of a total tunnel outage in the event of a circuit failure or other malfunction.
Maintenance Factor for Tunnel Lighting Design

The reduction of initial lighting levels becomes an important factor in tunnel lighting design. Initial
design levels should consider the frequency and degree of maintenance that is to be performed. Factors in
the range of 50 percent are commonly applied to tunnel lighting designs.
38
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Chapter 6
Work Zone Lighting and Temporary
Roadway Lighting
Introduction
Safety in work zones is an important consideration to highway agencies. Work zones frequently have
detours, reduced shoulders, reduced lane widths, limited pull-off areas, unusual maneuvering, temporary pavement markings, rough pavement, and many other conditions that make navigating the work zone
more difficult than completed roadway sections.
Roadway lighting can be an especially effective tool in work zones. Lighting can provide additional
visual information by reducing veiling glare through the mitigation of other light sources and by providing additional positional information with respect to other vehicles and objects.
Temporary lighting, when used, should be integrated with the traffic control plan.
cost
The benefit-cost ratio for temporary roadway lighting is generally very high. Costs should be expected
to be similar to permanent lighting. Planned costs for temporary lighting should be with respect to the
length of time that the construction will take place.
Qpes of temporary lighting include installing the permanent lighting early in the project, installing
temporary fixtures on permanent poles, or installing the permanent poles in temporary locations. If high
mast is used, the high-mast poles can be placed in temporary locations, fitted with temporary light fixtures, and powered by temporary overhead wiring.
An attempt should be made in the design of temporary roadway lighting to meet or even exceed the
requirements shown in Table 3-5 of Chapter 3. However, it is often not practicable to meet uniformity and
light level requirements because of various factors of construction. In these cases, it is allowable to relax
requirements as necessary.
Since temporary roadway lighting is a safety enhancement and not an aesthetic enhancement, standard
equipment requirements (such as galvanized poles and cutoff fixtures) may also be relaxed.
Safety
Safe roadside design remains an important issue for temporary lighting. The safety benefit of temporary roadway lighting does not take precedence over safe roadside design. Hence, temporary lighting
should meet all the protection or breakaway requirements that permanent lighting must meet. Breakaway
39

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Design Values
light poles should not be wired overhead unless they are designed with effective breakaway devices (such
devices are not yet developed as of the publication of this guide but may be possible).
An increasing amount of highway construction is being performed at night to avoid daytime congestion. Lighting is a key factor in performing construction at night. Research project NCHRP 5-31 developed guidelines for work zone lighting for workers and inspectors as well as roadway lighting for
motorists traveling through the work zone. Interested readers are referred to those reports for more information. Temporary lighting for work zones should not be installed without considering the glare effect on
motorists and, if necessary, making accommodations for temporary roadway lighting.
40

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Work Area Lighting
Chapter 7
Roundabouts
Introduction
Experience shows that roundabouts require special attention with respect to lighting. Motorist unfamiliar with the roundabout will need considerably more navigational information than typical intersections. Depending on geometric factors and landscape factors in the center island, motorists may be faced
with limited sight distances, weaving traffic, extensive direction and other signs, and the need for quick
decisions. Good lighting will improve driver confidence and performance in navigating through the
roundabout.
Warrant Conditions
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The warranting conditions in this section are for the purpose of establishing a basis on which lighting
for freeways may be justified. The warrants provide minimum conditions to be met whenever an agency
is contemplating lighting for new or existing facilities. Meeting of the warrants does not obligate the highway agency to provide lighting. Jurisdictions may adopt higher numerical warranting values or more
restrictive subjective values for local use.
The decision to provide lighting, and the extent of that lighting once warranting conditions are met,
rests with the highway agency. In determining when and where lighting is to be provided, the agency may
adopt a policy that includes these warrants and is also based on such factors as availability of funds, traffic and crash data, roadway safety rating, etc. The warrants are not to be construed as the only criteria for
justifying lighting. The warrants are intended to be an easily understood tool to assist administrators and
designers in considering lighting on roadways.
Local conditions, such as frequent fog, ice, snow, roadway geometry, ambient lighting, sight distance,
signing, etc., could justify modification of these warrants.
Lighting for roundabouts is considered justified for any roundabout where the local governmental
agency finds sufficient benefit in the forms of convenience, safety, policing, community promotion, public relations, etc. to pay an appreciable percentage of the cost of or wholly finance the installations, maintenance, and operation of the lighting facilities.
Recommended Lighting Level

Roundabouts should be lit to a level that is 1.3 to 2 times the values used on the best lit approach.
Uniformity should be 3: 1 or better. The illuminance method should be used. These light levels should also
be extended 6 to 10 feet outside the outer curb to the sidewalk or other roadside features.
The lighting should be extended a minimum of 400 feet along each road connecting to the roundabout.
Light levels on these should meet the values shown in Table 3-5 or as otherwise required.
Providing good pedestrian recognition is an important issue at roundabouts. Crosswalks at roundabouts should typically be lit with the pedestrians in positive contrast. Light poles placed 10 to 30 feet
before the crosswalk is recommended for this purpose. Roundabouts should be lit from the outer edge of
the roadway will also aide in providing this positive contrast to pedestrians. Other typical light pole recommended locations are also shown in Fig 7- 1.
41

Figure 7-1. Typical light pole locations.
Many extenuating circumstances, such as brightly lit objects in the center medians (often fountains),
alternative pedestrian crosswalk identification, landscape lighting, retroreflective panels, etc., may alter
these recommendations.Lighting engineers should study the motorist visual field carefully and design the
lighting system to coordinate with all the design elements of the roundabout.
42
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Chapter 8
Electrical Systems Requirements
Disconnects
Breakaway rated fuse holders should be used anytime breakaway pole devices are used. Several types
of wiring devices from various manufacturers suitable for this purpose have been in use for some time
with a great deal of success.
Breakaway poles should not be wired from overhead, unless some adequate means of electrical disconnecting is designed.
Guidelines Available
The AASHTO publication entitled Standard Specjcationsfor Structural Supportsfor Highway Signs,
Luminaires, and Trafic Signals has guidelines for breakaway capability and stub height remains.
Requiring electrical disconnects to break away as close to the foundation as possible is not applicable to
all circumstances. While it may be a good idea to limit the distance that a pole may move prior to disconnecting the wiring, this as close as possible requirement is overly restrictive and should not be considered mandatory.
Grounding
Equipment should be grounded in accordance with the National Fire Protection Associations publication titled, National Electrical Code, including the installation of an equipment grounding conductor.
Ground rods as the sole return path are not adequate. All metal parts of the raceway should be connected
to the grounding conductor including metal ground box lids, exposed metal conduit, metal poles, and supplemental ground rods at pole foundations (and other locations).
Voltage Drop
The voltage available at each light pole affects the light output of the fixture. Voltage drop values
should be considered in the determination of lumen maintenance factors. This may be alleviated with the
use of electronicballasts, which could offer better light output regulation and lower losses. Electronic ballasting of HID light sources is anticipated to be available in the near future, and it is expected to be worth
the increased costs.
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Chapter 9
Safety Rest Areas
OVERVIEW
Rest areas typically offer complete rest facilities, Le., including comfort station and picnic area. By
their very nature, these facilities incorporate both vehicular and pedestrian usage, and constitute an
important highway feature to the traveling public. They are available for use at night as well as by day,
and their general appearance should generate a feeling of safety and security. This condition can exist
only if the facility is adequately lighted for nighttime use. An exception may be made for all or part of rest
areas where darkness is desired, such as for sleeping, for enjoyment of the natural nighttime environment,
or for rural areas.
Properly designed lighting, conventional or high mast, will enhance the architectural and landscape
features of the facility, promote safety by easing the task of policing, and contribute to the rest and relaxation of the motorist.
Warrant
Any rest area offering complete rest facilities may be lighted.
Design Values
The overall design of the lighting has been divided into general areas as follows:
entrance and exit
interior roadways
parking areas
activity areas
mainlanes
(For a summary of recommended lighting criteria, see Tables 9-1 and 9-2.)
These have been defined for separate consideration as each is to be used for a specific and different
purpose. The design, however, should also consider the interrelationshipof all of these areas.
The light values recommended in this section are the average maintained values as previously defined
in this guide. The following guidelines should be used except as noted at the beginning of this chapter.
Entrance and Exit
These are defined as the deceleration and acceleration lanes adjacent to the main roadway, leading to
and from the gore areas.
The entrance and exit lanes may be lighted so that the driver desiring to enter or leave the rest area can
safely make the transition from the main roadway to the rest area and vice-versa.
Lighting should be provided along the deceleration lane. An average maintained illuminance of
0.6 footcandle (6 lux), or a luminance of 0.4 candela per square meter (O. 12 footlambert), should occur at
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45

TABLE 9-1. Recommended Maintained Lighting Levels for Rest Areas-Illuminance
Location
Footcandles
Lux
Uniformity Ratio
Entrance and Exit Gores* and Main Lanes
0.6
3:l to4:l
Interior Roadways
0.6
3:l to4:l
Parking Areas
1.o
11
3:l to4:l
Active Areas:
Major
Minor
1.o
0.5
11
3:l to 4:l
6:1
* The illuminance values for entrance and exit gores and for interior roadways are for R3 surfaces. If an R1 surface is
used, the values may be reduced by approximately 25 to 30 percent.
This table assumes a rural setting. For rest areas in urban settings, use the values of Table 3-5.
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the gore point between the deceleration lane and the beginning of the interior roadways. This is based on
the use of from three to five luminaire locations along the length of the speed change lanes.
Similarly at the exit, an average maintained illuminance of 0.6 footcandle (6 lux) or a luminance of
0.4 candela per square meter (0.12 footlambert) should occur at the exit gore.
In the event that the main roadway is continuously lighted beyond the confines of the rest area, deceleration and acceleration lanes should be lighted to a level equal to that of the main roadway.
Interior Roadways
These are roadways between the entrance gore point and the parking areas and from the parking areas
to the exit.
When lighting is provided, it is recommended that the average maintained illuminance should be
0.6 footcandle (6 lux) or a maintained luminance of 0.4 candela per square meter (0.12 footlambert). This
continues the lighting level obtained at gore points.
TABLE 9-2. Recommended Maintained Lighting Levels for Rest Areas-Luminance

~~
Lavg
Uniformity
Foot
cam2 Lamberts
Location
Veiling Luminance
Ratio"
LavgLmin
LmaxLmin
Lv(max)/Lavg
3.5:1
6:1
0.3:l
3.5:l
6:1
0.3:l
~~
Entrance and Exit Gores
0.4
Interior Roadways
0.4
Parking Areas &

Activity Areas
o. 12
o. 12
Use Illuminance Method
* The above uniformity ratios are the maximum allowable. Lower numerical ratios produce better uniformity and are
desirable.
This table assumes a rural setting. For rest areas in urban settings, use the values of Table 3-5.
46

Safetv Rest Areas
Parking Areas
Lighting of the parking areas, both automobile and tnick, should be such that the motorist, while still
in his vehicle, can distinguish features of the area, as well as discern pedestrians moving about the area.
An average maintained lighting level of 1 .O footcandle (1 1 lux) with a uniformity ratio of 3: 1 to 4:1
should be used over all parking facilities.
Attention should be applied to special areas, such as handicap ramps, sanitary disposal stations, and
other items, which may require special detailing. This may be done by placing a luminaire in close proximity to a particular spot so that maximum visibility may be obtained by special task lighting or other special treatment.
The activity areas are those designed for pedestrian use.

The major activity areas are those which include such facilities as rest rooms, information centers, etc.,
as well as the walkways to and from these locations and to the parking area.
The minor activity areas are those which include picnic tables, dog walks, etc., and their associated
walkways and facilities.
It is recommended that the main walkways around the structures and major walkways leading to and
from the parking facilities be lighted to 1.0 average maintained footcandle (1 1 lux) with a 3: 1 to 4:1 uniformity. This is in keeping with the recommendation for the parking areas.
Those walks leading to the shelter table, picnic tables, dog walks, etc., should be lighted to 0.5 average
maintained footcandle (5 lux) utilizing a 6:l or better uniformity ratio.
Main Lanes
Lighting the area adjacent to the roadway without also lighting the roadway will create a veiling glare.
Since the rest area is a part of the highway facility and under the jurisdiction of the governing authority, this veiling glare should be mitigated. The main lanes through this area therefore should also be
lighted unless the rest area is spaced a sufficient distance from the main lanes or otherwise blocked from
view so as not to cause an adverse veiling glare for main lane motorists.
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Activity Areas
Chapter 10
Roadway Sign Lighting
10.1 OVERVIEW
Introduction
Traffic signs are placed along the roadway in strategic locations and are used to convey specific, consistent messages to the motorist. The standards used in the design of traffic signs are discussed in the
Manual on Uniform Trufic Control Devices (MUTCD). The intent of these standards is to ensure that all
traffic signs are designed to provide a message that can quickly and accurately convey the necessary information and to provide consistency in the design of signs nationwide.
Sign legibility at night can be achieved in one of two ways:
the retro-reflection of the letters and background of the sign by vehicle headlights
the illumination of the sign face by an internal or external fixed-source sign lighting system.
The retro-reflection concept is used almost universally for traffic signs place along the edge of the
roadway. The illumination of the sign face by a fixed-source sign lighting system has generally been used
on traffic signs placed over the roadway or in cases where the retro-reflective properties of the sign will
not provide adequate legibility.
A sign designed to be legible under daylight conditions can be illuminated to fulfill its basic purpose
at night. A properly designed sign lighting system can aid the motorist with the rapid and accurate recognition of the signs shape, color, and message. This serves to improve safety by reducing the possibility
that motorists will stop or significantly reduce their speed at locations where signs may be otherwise difficult to read. Sign lighting can also be used on signs installed in locations having a high level of ambient
light in order to make the sign legible against the surrounding area.
Key Elements of Roadway Sign Lighting

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The following elements of roadway sign lighting are key in making the sign message visible and
legible to the passing motorist during the hours of darkness:
Ambient Luminance
The amount of ambient luminance adjacent to the sign determines the amount of sign lighting
required to accurately convey the sign message to passing motorist. If the amount of ambient luminance is high, then sign lighting can be provided to make the sign legible against the surrounding
area.
Sign Luminance Above Ambient
The sign luminance in excess of the ambient luminance determines how well the sign can be viewed
against the bright background. When the difference between sign luminance and ambient luminance
increases, the ability of a passing motorist to rapidly and accurately recognize the shape and color of
the sign as well as the sign message against the competing distractions in the surrounding area also
increases.
49

Uniformity Ratio of Light Levels

A suitable level of uniformity of light over the entire face of the sign will add to its effectiveness and
ablity to accurately convey the sign message to the passing motorist. In performing sign lighting
calculations, the maximum-to-minimum uniformity ratio has been established as the standard means
by which the uniformity of light levels on the face of a sign is to be determined.
Reflectivity of Legend and Background
The reflectivity of the letters that make up the legend as well as the background that they are installed
on should be optimized without delivering excessive glare to the passing motorist. The color of the
sign and the retro-reflective material utilized will control the amount of light that is reflected. The
standards that dictate the colors of a sign are discussed in the MUTCD.
Contrast Between Legend and Background
The contrast between the letters that make up the legend and the background that they are installed
on should be optimized in order for a passing motorist to quickly read and process the sign message.
The color of the sign and the retro-reflectivematerial utilized will control the amount of contrast that
is achieved. The standards that dictate the colors of a sign are discussed in the MUTCD.
The above elements will be described in more detail in the sections that follow. An evaluation of each of the
above elements should be made during the design of the sign lighting system in order to ensure that the
sign message is adequately conveyed to the motorist during the hours of darkness.
10.2 SIGN LIGHTING WARRANTS

The standards that are used as a basis for warranting the installation of sign lighting are discussed in
the MUTCD. The MUTCD states signs shall be retro-reflective or illuminated to show the same shape
and similar color by both day and night. Therefore, sign lighting is warranted when the retro-reflective
properties of the sign face alone will not perform effectively or provide sufficient legibility without external sources of nighttime illumination.
Although there are many materials currently available for the retro-reflection of signs as well as for the
illumination of signs, it is important to keep in mind that the standard requirements for daylight sign color
should be maintained by nighttime illumination. Sign lighting can also be used on signs that are made
with retro-reflective materials in order to enhance their visibility. This becomes especially important in
areas that exhibit frequent and severe conditions of condensation or frost or in areas where there is a high
level of dirt particles in the atmosphere that could accumulate on the sign face.
In an effort to reduce utility costs for electrical energy and subsequent maintenance costs associated
with sign lighting systems, the retro-reflection properties of signs alone may perform effectively without
the need for additional nighttime illumination. However, the following conditions should be satisfied:
1. The sign is in an area that contains a low-to-intermediateambient light level, and
2. There is at least 1200 feet (366 meters) or more of tangent sight distance in advance of the overhead
sign.
Exceptions to the above conditions that may warrant the installation of sign lighting to overhead or
ground mounted signs are:
1. The signs are diagrammatic.

2. The signs are for Exit Only lane drops.
3. The signs are contained within a high-volume interchange.
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10.3 ILLUMINATED SIGN TYPES

Signs can be illuminated in a variety of different ways in order to make the sign message visible and
legible to the passing motorist during the hours of darkness. The three main ways of providing illumination to a sign are as follows:
1. Externally Illuminated
Externally illuminated signs are traffic signs that are illuminated by a source of light that is mounted
external to the sign and the sign message becomes understandable when uniformly illuminated by
this source.
2. Internally Illuminated
Internally illuminated signs are traffic signs that are illuminated by a source of light that is enclosed
within the sign and the sign message becomes understandable when illuminated from within
because of the difference of color and transparent nature of the material that makes up the sign face.
3 . Luminous Source Message

Luminous source message signs are dynamic signs that formulate messages by lighted pixels or
characters against a dark or black background. They electronically vary the sign display and provide
the motorist with real-time information on current traffic, roadway, or environmental conditions.
This type of sign also provides the greatest amount of flexibility and control because the sign message can be changed virtually instantaneously from a remote location as traffic conditions warrant.
Luminous source message signs are becoming more widely used due to their ability to compensate for
a multitude of environmental and roadway conditions. Various types of luminous source technologies are
available in both non-matrix and matrix formats.
Non-matrix format signs are often called blank-out signs and offer a fixed selection of messages.
The sign messages are displayed by activating the appropriate light source and extinguishingall others.
Matrix format signs use matrices of pixels where each pixel represents an individual light source.
The sign messages are displayed by activating the appropriate pixels that are used to form the individual characters and extinguishing all others.
Since roadway lighting primarily focuses on fixed-source lighting, the discussion that follows in this
guide will cover externally illuminated signs only.
The amount of ambient light in the area adjacent to where a roadway sign is present plays an important role in determining the amount of sign lighting that is required in order to adequately convey the sign
message to the motorist at night. This ambient light is called the ambient luminance and is defined as the
background luminance against which a sign is to be viewed by a passing motorist. High levels of ambient
luminance may make sign lighting warranted regardless of the retro-reflective properties of the sign face
material. Since there is no approved method for measuring ambient luminance, the three classificationsof
ambient luminance that are listed below have been developed as a guide for the lighting engineer:
1. Low
Low levels of ambient luminance exist in rural areas without roadway andor intersection lighting.
Objects at night are visible only in bright moonlight. There is very little or no other lighting in the area.
2. Medium
Medium levels of ambient luminance exist in intermediate areas with some roadway andor interchange lighting. May contain small areas of commercial lighting.
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Ambient Luminance Classifications
Roaa'wav Linhtinn Design Guide
3. High
High levels of ambient luminance exist in urban areas with high levels of roadway lighting. May
contain brightly lighted commercial advertising signs, building facades, and/or highly illuminated
parking facilities.
10.4 SIGN LIGHTING RECOMMENDATIONS

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Once it has been determined that sign lighting is warranted, the lighting engineer should select a light
source that will light the sign so that it exhibits the same color rendering properties during the hours of
darkness as it did under daylight conditions. The amount of light that is required to adequately light the
sign during the hours of darkness is defined as the quantity of light.
There are several different types of light sources available from which to light roadway signs. Each
light source has its own set of unique characteristics that may make it more desirable than others for a
given sign installation. Energy consumption is a major consideration in choosing a light source and
should be considered. However, there are other factors such as color rendering, operating temperature,
efficiency, and ease of maintenance that are equally important and should also be evaluated.
The light source that is selected should be able to adequately light the face of the sign without interfering with the contrast between the letters that make up the legend and the background of the sign that
they are installed on. The contrast between the letters and the background will determine how quickly and
accurately a passing motorist can recognize the shape and color of the sign as well as the interpretation of
the message that is being displayed.
The amount of sign lighting that is required in order to adequately convey the sign message to the
motorist at night is also dependent on the amount of ambient luminance in the area adjacent to where the
sign is present. The recommended average maintained levels of illuminance or luminance for the three
classifications of ambient luminance are shown in the table below.
Ambient
Luminance
Sign Illuminance
Footcandles
Sign Luminance""
LUX
Candelas per
Square Meter
Candelas per
Square Foot
Low
10-20
100-200
2 2 4
2.24.4
Medium
20-40
200-400
44-89
4.4-8.9
High
40-80
400-800
89-78
8.9-17.8
* Adapted from The IESNA Lighting Handbook, Reference & Application, 9th Edition, Illuminating EngineeringSociety
of North America. Used by permission.
** Based on a maintainedreflectance of 70 percent for white sign letters.
The lighting engineer may utilize either the illuminance or luminance recommendations that are provided in the above table.
52

Lighting Uniformity
Uniformity of lighting is an indication of the quality of illumination and can be defined as either the
average-to-minimum, maximum-to-minimum, or maximum-to-average ratios of light levels that are present on the face of the sign. In performing sign-lighting calculations, the maximum-to-minimum ratio has
been established as the standard means of determining the uniformity of light levels that appear on the
face of a sign.
The uniformity of the light levels that appear on the face of the sign should be controlled if the sign is
to be effective in conveying the sign message to the motorist at night. Suitable uniformity over the entire
face of the sign will provide consistent and proportional contrast that is similar to daytime conditions.
Maximum and minimum points that are spaced too close together will provide poor contrast between the
letters that make up the legend and the background of the sign making it more difficult to read.
A maximum-to-minimum uniformity ratio of 6 to 1 is recommended as an acceptable ratio of lighting
levels on the face of the sign. Since lower ratios will produce a more pleasing appearance and a more legible sign, lower maximum-to-minimum uniformity ratios are preferred. Because the mode of reflectance
of the sign material is assumed to be mostly diffuse, this recommended uniformity ratio would apply
whether illuminance or luminance values are used.
Sign Color Standards

The standards that are used as a basis for sign colors are discussed in the MUTCD. The sign colors
have been standardized nationwide so it is essential that the face of the sign be properly illuminated in
order to retain the colors for identification purposes. The lighting engineer should verify that the color
rendering properties of the illuminated sign are not degraded from that viewed during daylight conditions.
Placement of Lighting Units

The lighting units that illuminate the face of a sign may be located on either the top of the sign, the bottom of the sign, or may be remotely located on an adjacent support. The lighting engineer should evaluate the following considerations before selecting the mounting arrangement that is to be utilized.
1. The luminaire housing should not obstruct the view of the sign message.
2. The reflected light should not reduce the visual performance of the sign message
3. Contribution to sky-glow should be limited as much as is practicable.
4. The spill light should not be directed into the eyes of motorists.
5 . The luminaire mounting arrangement should not create maintenance problems.
Locating the lighting units on the bottom of the sign, if practical, is generally the preferred alternative
for the following reasons.
1. The reflected light is less likely to reduce the visual performance of the sign message or produce
reflected glare into the eyes of motorists.
2. The lighting units do not produce daytime shadows and reflections from the sun on the face of the sign.
3. The lighting units are easier to access for maintenance.
4. The lighting units may collect snow and dirt, but may also be cleaned by rain.
5 . The face of the sign may only partially shield the light that spills onto traffic approaching from the
rear of the sign. However, a separate shielding mechanism can be provided on the lighting units that
will minimize this effect.
6. Excess sky-glow or light pollution may be inherent. However, a separate shielding mechanism can
be provided on the lighting units or optical control equipment can be utilized in order to minimize
these effects.
53
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7. The lighting units may obstruct the view of the sign message at some viewing angles. However,
proper placement and installation of the lighting units can minimize this problem.
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In addition to the above considerations, the lighting engineer should also verify that the adjacent roadway lighting system, if present, does not adversely impact the lighting levels on the face of the sign or
physically block the face of the sign. The adjacent roadway lighting system is not intended to perform the
lighting of the adjacent overhead retro-reflective signs.
10.5 REFERENCES
1. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, IESNA RP- 19-01, Roadway Sign Lighting.
IESNA, New York, NY, March 2001.
2. Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, The IESNA Lighting Handbook, Reference and
Application, 9th Edition. IESNA, New York, NY.
3. Federal Highway Administration, Manual on Uniform Trafic Control Devices (MUTCD). FHWA,
Washington, DC, 2003.
4. Federal Highway Administration, Trafic Control Systems Handbook. USDOT, FHWA, Washington,
DC, February 1996, Report No. MA-SA-95-032.
54

Chapter 11
Maintenance Considerations
in Roadway Lighting Design
General
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All lighting systems depreciate with time and need continuing surveillanceand maintenance to provide
the service for which they were designed and installed. Lamps, luminaires, support structures, and other
electrical system components cannot be expected to stay efficient and effective without a well-planned
maintenance program. The lighting systems in public facilities, whether they are small with a few light
fixtures or they consist of many high-mast poles in a freeway interchange, are a significant investment of
limited public resources. Good maintenance is warranted as a protection of that investment. It should be
kept in mind that the lighting systems on the roadway, while not required for safety, may enhance nighttime safety.
The design of lighting should consider the extent and frequency of maintenance, which will be provided by operating agency. In the initial design stage, the designers should select and specify quality
products with high reliability and long life as much as practicable to achieve favorable conditions for the
system operation and maintenance workers.
Lighting maintenance can be categorized into several basic areas including luminaires, support structures, electrical distribution and control, and external factors. Each of these areas is important to the overall utility and efficiency of a lighting installation and should be included in the planning of any good
maintenance program.
Maintenance Factors
Luminaire Dirt Depreciation (LDD)
The general accumulation of dirt due to airborne particles deposited on the surface of the lamp and
luminaire and deterioration of optical material (luminaire lens), reduce luminaire lumen output and
change the distribution characteristics on the roadway. It is necessary for the lighting designer to estimate
the effect of dirt accumulation and to allow for this depreciation in the design values. The selection of
luminaire type, mounting height, environment of the luminaire location (urban or rural setting), traffic
volume and roadway offsets will affect the rate of dirt depreciation.Technical information included in the
references in this design guide and in other published data will provide more information on minimizing
dirt accumulation on luminaires. This information can be used to determine the frequency of luminaire
cleaning to maintain the lighting system close to the designed lighting values.
Lamp Lumen Depreciation (LLB)

The gradual loss of lumen output of light source due to normal in-service aging, varies depending on
the type of light source. Manufacturers published data for each lamp type and size offers statistical
information which can be used to predict the rate of loss in lamp lumen output as well as to estimate
lamp failure rates. These predicted output losses and life expectancies should be used in developing a
maintenance plan. It is important to use this maintenance schedule to keep the lighting system above the
55

minimum values established in the lighting design and to achieve the most favorable economy of lamp
operation. Group replacement of some types of lamps near the end of their expected life may result in
the lowest overall cost of lamp replacement and provide the most effective service to the public.
Equipment Factor (EF)

Equipment factor is a general factor encompassing luminaire losses due to all other factors such as
ballast factor, manufacturing tolerances, voltage drop, lamp position, ambient temperature, and lumniaire
component depreciation.
For design values in lighting levels as presented in this design guide, designers should consider
appropriate reduction in the initially calculated values. The reduction factor, referred to as the total LLF
(Light Loss Factor, See the online appendices at http://downloads.transportation.ordlighting.pdf), is a
combination of LDD (Luminaire Dirt Depreciation), LLD (Lamp Lumen Depreciation), and EF
(Equipment Factor, including voltage drop). Values in the range of 60 to 80 percent (of initial design
value) are used for high-pressure sodium (45 to 65 percent for Metal Halide) general application such
as regularly maintained outdoor luminaires installed on lighting poles. The use of realistic luminaire
depreciation, dirt, and equipment factors, is essential in lighting design to achieve the expected lighting
levels on the roadway after the lighting system is installed. Values for these factors are obtained from
manufacturers?product data, and engineering judgement based on the designer?s experience.
Support Structure Maintenance

The selection of luminaire mounting heights, location, and material of supports and their foundations,
should be made with a full knowledge of maintenance practices and costs as well as structural design
practice by the responsible agency. An important consideration in facilitating maintenance activities is to
provide for the safety of maintenancepersonnel and ease of access to the lighting system. Lighting equipment should be located where it can be serviced with the minimum exposure of the work crew and minimum inconvenience to the motoring public.
Prior to the selection of poles, brackets, junction boxes and other equipment which will be exposed to
the weather, it is essential to consider both the initial cost and the long-term cost of maintenance. The daytime appearance of a lighting installation may be important in the view of the public. A poorly maintained
and unsightly appearing lighting installation can become a source of complaint of the public to the
responsible agency, and can leave unfavorable remarks on the agency?s overall public service.
Electrical Distribution and Control System Maintenance

A variety of distribution and control systems are used in roadway lighting. It is not the purpose of this
design guide to prescribe specific types of cable or control equipment for roadway lighting. The designer
should consider the necessary control functions, and make careful evaluation on available control systems
for their advantages and long-term maintenance requirements. In terms of maintenance costs and dependability of operation, generally the simplest form of control equipment that performs the desired function
is preferred. Complex control and distribution systems increase the potential for failure and require more
frequent attention by maintenance personnel. In areas where vandalism is anticipated, equipment should
be designed to the extent practicable to preclude intentional damage attempts and prevent persons from
coming in contact with energized electrical components.
56
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SCOH Ballot Draft 1-05
External Factors
Many external factors can have a significant effect on the maintenance of lighting. Some of these are
listed as follows:
Low hanging trees located close to luminaires can disrupt light distribution on the roadway, rendering the system ineffective, and possibly confusing motorist with shadows on the roadway. The pruning of trees may be a necessary as a part of lighting maintenance activities.
High dirt conditions, as in industrial areas and roadways with high truck traffic volumes, require
more frequent cleaning of luminaires.
Corrosive atmospheres may dictate the selection of luminaires, poles, brackets, and other material in
the lighting system that can resist these influences.
Excessive vibration of luminaires and their supports may occasionally be experienced, particularly
on bridge structures where a combination of wind and mechanical structure movement due to
vehicle traffic can damage the lighting units. The use of vibration dampers or auxiliary supports
and prudent selection of light pole locations on the bridge structure, have been effective in reducing these forces to tolerable limits.
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57

Chapter 12
Sky Glow and Light Trespass
12.1 OVERVIEW
Introduction
Departments of transportation should be aware of how lighting systems affect the area surrounding the
roadway. Across the country, momentum is growing to recognize the objectionable side effects of roadway lighting as a problem and to address the situation directly. Unless lighting engineers are sensitive to
these issues and achieve some measures of abatement, regulations may be implemented that do not
always provide for optimum roadway lighting.
In an effort to resolve the objectionable side effects of outdoor lighting in general, many communities
are not adopting outdoor lighting ordinances. Some of these rules specify measurable limits for allowable
trespass of lighting, in terms of horizontal or vertical illuminance at or within property lines. Others dictate pole heights or luminaire lamp power (wattage). While municipal lighting ordinances do not usually
apply to work by departments of transportation, such ordinances do indicate a public desire for quality
lighting. Furthermore,more and more states are considering state-levellimitations on outdoor lighting, or
may authorize limitations within municipalities.
Outdoor lighting ordinances can actually be very beneficial to improving visibility on roadways, by
limiting the impacts of off-roadway lighting (principally from commercial sites or municipal facilities
such as parks) on drivers. Implementing Master Lighting Plans, coordinated with local citizen input, may
also be used to address objectionable effects of outdoor lighting systems. See the section on Master
Lighting Plans.
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Types of Objectionable Roadway Lighting

Four terms often used to described effects from roadway lighting that may be considered objectional
be are shown below:
1. Sky Glow
Sky glow is defined as the added slcy brightness caused by the scattering of light into the atmosphere.
Unless absorbed, light emitted by an outdoor luminaire will propagate through the atmosphere.
Depending on atmospheric conditions, some or even most of that light will be scattered. That portion of
scattered light that is redirected back towards the ground is, in essence, light that is emitted by the sky. At
high enough levels, the sky will appear as a self-luminous body, and will glow. Sky glow is of great concern to astronomers and others who like to see the moon and stars, or just wish to enjoy the natural nighttime environment. It is an unavoidable side effect of outdoor lighting, however, much can be done to
minimize the impact.
Recent research in Europe and the United States indicate that most of the light contributing to sky glow
does not come from luminaires with a small percent of output lumens at or above the 90 degree plane, as
was originally thought. A much larger amount of flux is reflected from the roadway and other surfaces
than the amount directly emitted above the horizontal plane by the luminaire. This indicates that the use
of full-cutoff luminaires is not automatically better than the use of a cutoff or even semi-cutoff lumi59

naires with a beam pattern that best utilizes luminous flux to meet drivers needs. In all cases, alternative
lighting designs should be evaluated in order to achieve the best balance between the needs of the public,
while minimizing sky glow and energy consumption.
2. Light Trespass
The term light trespass describes light that strays from its intended target and illuminates adjacent properties. Most complaints about this impact are from the public, when lighting from roadway luminaires
shines into their windows or onto their property.
3. Glare
In the context of this discussion, glare is defined as when some portion of the emitting or reflecting surface of the luminaire is directly observable by drivers, and the resulting illuminance at the eye of the
driver results in either discomfort or disability glare. Poor lighting designs that result in glare may significantly reduce, or possibly eliminate, the positive benefits of the lighting system. To a lesser extent,
the public may complain of glare on private property due to light trespass from roadway lighting luminaires. In most cases, this impact does not actually result in discomfort or disability glare, but is an
annoyance.
4. Visual Clutter
Visual clutter is a term used to describe a subjective evaluation of a visual field in which there are numerous light sources. The appearance of many luminaires in the field of view, while insufficient to have significant impacts on visibility, may be distracting or even confusing to drivers, and may reduce a persons
ability to appreciate the nighttime environment.
12.2 MITIGATING SKY GLOW AND LIGHTTRESPASS
Perform a review or walk-through of the site during the pre-design stage. This should include an
analysis of adjacent property and nearby developments as well as an investigation into the community desires for lighting systems.
Select a luminaire whose candela distribution pattern matches the need. Establish the position of the
luminaire precisely. If calculations then show the light distribution will be objectionable, make modifications to wattage or mounting height, or select another luminaire.
Consider internal and external shields if necessary to limit the candela in certain directions. Also
consider that internal and external shields will alter the photometric distribution of the fixture and
account for such alterations in the lighting system design.
Consider pole location, mounting height, spacing, finished terrain, and landscaping as design variables that can be used to mitigate light trespass. Take advantage of natural and man-made obstacles
such as tree lines and retaining walls.
Remember that glare or visual clutter can be produced by almost any luminaire when observed
against a dark background. Choose luminaires and placements with care.
60

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The least expensive and most successful approach to objectionable light problems is prevention. For
prevention efforts to work the designer should:
Glossary
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absorptance
The ratio of the flux absorbed by a medium to the incident flux.
NOTE:The sum of the hemispherical reflectance, the hemispherical transmittance, and the absorptance is one.
adaptation
The process by which the retina becomes accustomed to more or less light than it was exposed to
during an immediately preceding period, resulting in a change in the sensitivity of the eye to light.
atmospheric transitivity
The ratio of the directly transmitted flux incident on a surface after passing through unit thickness of
the atmosphere to the flux that would be incident on the same surface if the flux had passed through
a vacuum.
average initial illuminance
The average level of horizontal illuminance on the pavement area of a traveled way at the time the
lighting system is installed when lamps are new and luminaires are clean; expressed in average footcandles (lux) for the pavement area.
average maintained illuminance
The average level of horizontal illuminance on the roadway pavement when the output of the lamp
and luminaire is diminished by the maintenance factors; expressed in average footcandles (lux) for
the pavement area.
ballast
A device used with an electric-discharge lamp to obtain the necessary circuit conditions (voltage,
current, and waveform) for starting and operating.
bike lane
Any facility that explicitly provides for bicycle travel.
bracket (mast arm)
An attachment to a lamp post or pole from which a luminaire is suspended.
candela (cd)
(formerly candle)
The unit of luminous intensity.
candela per square meter
The International System (SI) unit of luminance (photometric brightness) equal to the uniform luminance of a perfectly diffusing surface emitting or reflecting light at the rate of one lumen per square
meter, or the average luminance of any surface emitting or reflecting light at that rate. One candela
per square meter equals 0.2919 footlambert.
candlepower (cp)
Luminous intensity expressed in candelas (not an indication of total light output).
61

candlepower distribution curve

A curve, generally polar, representing the variation of luminous intensity of a lamp or luminaire in a
plane through the light center.
central (foveal) vision
The seeing of objects in the central or foveal part of the visual field, approximately two degrees in
diameter. It permits seeing much finer detail than does peripheral vision.
CIE
International Committee on Illumination. Publishers of lighting references and design guides.
coefficient of utilization (CU)

The ratio of the luminous flux (lumens) from a luminaire received on the surface of the roadway to
the lumens emitted by the luminaires lamps alone.
complete interchange lighting
The lighting of the freeway through traffic lanes through the interchange, the traffic lanes of all
ramps, the acceleration and deceleration lanes, all ramp terminals, and the crossroad between the
outermost ramp terminals.
constant-currenttransformer
A device (sometimes erroneously referred to as a constant-current regulator) that automatically
maintains a constant current in its secondary circuit under varying conditions of load impedance
when supplied from a constant potential source.
contrast sensitivity
The ability to detect the presence of luminance differences. Quantitatively, it is equal to the reciprocal of the contrast threshold.
contrast threshold
The minimal perceptible contrast for a given state of adaptation of the eye. It also is defined as the
luminance contrast detectable during some specific fraction of the times it is presented to an
observer.
cutoff
Designation for luminaire light distribution limiting up lights. See IESNA classifications.
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diffuse reflectance
The ratio of the flux leaving a surface or medium by diffuse reflection to the incident flux.
diffuser
A device to redirect or scatter the light from a source, primarily by the process of diffuse transmission.
disability glare
Glare resulting in reduced visual performance and visibility-often accompanied by discomfort. See
veiling luminance.
discomfort glare
Glare producing discomfort. It does not necessarily interfere with visual performance or visibility.
Equipment Factor
A factor used in illuminance or luminance calculations to compensate for light losses due to normal
production tolerances of commercially available luminaires when compared with laboratory photometric test models.
fixture
See luminaire.
62

Glossary
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footcandle (fc)
The unit of illumination when the foot is taken as the unit of length. It is the illumination on a surface one square foot in area on which there is a uniformly distributed flux of one lumen, or the illumination produced on a surface, all points of which are at a distance of one foot from a directionally
uniform point source of one candela.
footlambert (E)
A unit of luminance (photometricbrightness) equal to l/ncandela per square foot, or to the uniform
luminance of a perfectly diffusing surface emitting or reflecting light at the rate of one lumen per
square foot, or to the average luminance of any surface emitting or reflecting light at that rate. See
luminance and candela per square meter.
glare
The sensation produced by luminance within the visual field that is sufficiently greater than the luminance to which the eyes are adapted to cause annoyance, discomfort, or loss in visual performance
and visibility. See disability glare and discomfort glare.
NOTE:The magnitude of the sensation of glare depends on such factors as the size, position, and
luminance of a source, the number of sources, and the luminance to which the eyes are adapted.
high-intensity discharge lamps
A general group of lamps that includes mercury, metal halide, and high pressure sodium lamps.
high mast lighting
Illumination of a large area by means of a group of luminaires designed to be mounted in fixed orientation at the top of a high mast, generally 80 feet (25 meters) or higher.
high pressure sodium lamp
A sodium vapor lamp in which the partial pressure of the vapor during operation is on the order of
lo4N - m- (0.1 atmosphere).
IESNA
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. Publishers of lighting references and design
guides.
illuminance
The density of the luminous flux incident on a surface; it is the quotient derived by dividing the luminous flux by the area of the surface, when the latter is uniformly illuminated.
isocandela line
A line plotted on any appropriate coordinates to show directions in space, about a source of light,
in which the candlepower is the same. For a complete exploration, the line always is a closed
curve. A series of such curves, usually for equal increments of candlepower, is called an isocandela
diagram.
isolux (isofootcandle) line
A line plotted on any appropriate coordinates to show all the points on a surface where the illumination is the same. For a complete exploration, the line is a closed curve. A series of such lines for various illumination values is called an isolux (isofootcandle) diagram.
lambert (L)
A unit of luminance (photometric brightness) equal to l l n candela per square centimeter.
lambert surface
A surface that emits or reflects light in accordance with Lamberts cosine law. A lambert surface has
the same luminance regardless of viewing angle.
63

lamp lumen depreciation factor (LLD)

The multiplier to be used in illumination calculations to relate the initial rated output of light sources
to the anticipated minimum rated output based on the relamping program to be used. (See Light
Loss Factor discussion earlier in Chapter 11).
light center (of a lamp)
The center of the smallest sphere that would completely contain the light-emitting element of the
lamp.
iight center length (of a lamp)
The distance from the light center to a specified reference point on a lamp.
lighting unit
The assembly of pole or standard with bracket and luminaire.
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Light Loss Factor

A depreciation factor applied to the calculated initial average luminance or illuminance.
low pressure sodium lamp
A sodium vapor lamp in which the partial pressure of the vapor during operation is on the order of
30 millimeters of mercury (0.04 atmosphere).
lumen (im)
The unit of luminous flux. It is equal to the flux through a unit solid angle (steradiam), from a uniform point source of one candela (candle), or to the flux on a unit surface all points of which are at
unit distance from a uniform point source of one candela.
luminaire
A complete fixture consisting of a lamp or lamps together with the parts designed to distribute the
light, position and protect the lamps, and connect the lamps to the power supply.
luminaire efficiency
The ratio of luminous flux (lumens) emitted by a luminaire to that emitted by the lamp or lamps used
therein.
luminance (photometric brightness)

1. Luminance in a direction, at a point on the surface of a source of a receiver, or of any other real
or virtual surface is the quotient of the luminous flux leaving, passing through, or arriving at an
element of the surface surrounding the point, and propagated in directions defined by an elementary cone containing the given direction, by the product of the solid angle of the cone and the area
of the orthogonal projection of the element on the surface on a plane perpendicular to the given
direction. See candela per square meter.
2. The luminous intensity of any surface in a given direction per unit of projected area of the surface
as viewed for that direction.
NOTE:In the defining equation, 8 is the angle between the direction of observation and the direction
normal to the surface.
In common usage, the term brightness usually refers to the intensity of sensation resulting from
viewing surfaces or spaces from which light comes to the eye. This sensation is determined in part
by the definitely measurable luminance defined above and in part by conditions of observation, such
as the state of adaptation of the eye. In much of the literature the term brightness, used alone, refers
to both luminance and sensation. The context usually indicates which meaning is intended.
luminance ratio
The ratio between the luminances (photometric brightness) of any two areas in the visual field.
64

Glossarv
luminous efficacy of a source of light

The quotient of the total luminous flux emitted by the total lamp power input. It is expressed in
lumens per watt.
lux (lx)
The International System (SI) unit of illumination. It is the illumination on a surface one square
meter in area on which there is a uniformly distributed flux of one lumen, or the illumination produced at a surface all points of which are at a distance of one meter from a uniform point source of
one candela.
mean lamp lumens

Mean lumen output of a lamp, calculated by determining the area beneath the lumen maintenance
characteristic curve of that source over a given period of time and dividing that area by the time
period in hours.
mercury lamp
An electric discharge lamp in which the major portion of the radiation is produced by the excitation
of mercury atoms.
metal halide lamp
A discharge lamp in which the light is produced by the radiation from a mixture of a metallic vapor
(for example, mercury) and the products of the disassociation of halides (for example, halides of
scandium or sodium).
mounting height (MH)
The vertical distance between the roadway surface and the center of the apparent light source of the
luminaire.
non-cutoff
The luminaire light distribution category when there is no candlepower limitation in the zone above
maximum candlepower. See IESNA classifications.
overhang
The distance between a vertical line passing through the luminaire and the curb or edge of the
roadway.
Lighting consisting of a few luminaires located in the vicinity of some or all ramp terminals, intersections, or other decision-making areas.
pedestrian ways
h b l i c sidewalks for pedestrian traffic generally not within rights-of-way for vehicular traffic roadways. Included are skywalks (pedestrian overpasses), subwalks (pedestrian tunnels), walkways giving access to park or block interiors and crossings near centers of long blocks.
point of fixation
A point or object in the visual field at which the eyes look and upon which they are focused.
rapid start fluorescent lamp
A fluorescent lamp designed for operation with a ballast that provides a low-voltage winding for
preheating the electrodes and initiating the arc without a starting switch or the application of high
voltage.
65

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maintenance factor (MF)

A factor formerly used to denote the ratio of the illumination of a given area after a period of time to
the initial illumination on the same area.
reaction time
The interval between the beginning of a stimulus and the beginning of the response of the observer.
reflector
A device used to redirect the luminous flux from a source by the process of reflection.
refractor
A device used to redirect the luminous flux from a source, primarily by the process of refraction.
semi-cutoff
Designation for luminaire light distribution when the candlepower per 1000 lamp lumens does not
numerically exceed 50 (5 percent) at an angle of 90 degrees above nadir (horizontal),and 200 (20 percent) at a vertical angle of 80 degrees above nadir. This applies to any lateral angle around the luminaire.
spacing
For roadway lighting the distance between successive lighting units, measured along the center line
of the street.
spacing-to-mounting height ratio (S/MH)
The ratio of the distance between luminaire centers to the mounting height above the roadway.
street lighting luminaire
A complete lighting device consisting of a light source together with its direct appurtenances such as
globe, reflector, refractor, housing, and such support as is integral with the housing. The pole, post,
or bracket is not considered part of the luminaire.
street lighting unit
The assembly of a pole or lamppost with a bracket and a luminaire.
transverse roadway line (TRL)
Any line across the roadway that is perpendicular to the curb line.
uniformity of illuminance
The ratio of average footcandles (lux) of illuminance on the pavement area to the footcandles (lux)
at the point of minimum illuminance on the pavement, commonly called the uniformity ratio.
uniformity of luminance
The ratio average level-to-maximum point of luminance or the maximum-to-minimumpoint. The
average to minimum method uses the average luminance of the roadway design area between two
adjacent luminaires, divided by the lowest value at any point in the area. Maximum-to-minimum
point method uses the maximum and minimum values between the same adjacent luminaires. The
luminance uniformity (avg./min. and max./min.) considers traveled portion of the roadway, except
for divided highways having different designs on each side.
utilization efficiency
A plot of the quantity of light falling on a horizontal plane both in front of and behind the luminaire.
It shows only the percent of bare lamp lumens that fall on the horizontal surface, and is plotted as a
ratio of width of area to mounting height of the luminaire.
veiling luminance
A luminance superimposed on the retinal image that reduces the image contrast. The veiling effect
may be produced by bright sources in the visual field.
visibility
The quality or state of being perceivable by the eye. Visibility may be defined in terms of the distance
at which an object can be just perceived by the eye or it may be defined in terms of the contrast or
size of a standard test object, observed under standardized view-conditions, having the same threshold as the given object.
66
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Glossary
visual acuity
A measure of the ability to distinguish fine details. Quantitatively, it is the reciprocal of the angular
size in minutes of the critical detail that is just large enough to be seen.
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visual angle
The angle subtended by an object or detail at the point of observation. It is usually is measured in
minutes of arc.
walkway
A sidewalk or pedestrian way.
67

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Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, User=Villa, Jose

Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, User=Villa, Jose

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

Publication Code: GL-6

Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, User=Villa, Jose

AASHTO 2004-2005 Executive Committee

Harold Linnenkohl, Georgia, One-Year Term

Frank Busalacchi, Wisconsin, One-Year Term

David Sprynczynatyk, North Dakota, One-Year Term

Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, User=Villa, Jose

Technical Committee on Highway Lighting

Carl Andersen, FHWA

Ernest Kim, P.E., Oregon

Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, User=Villa, Jose

Jon Dickinson, Nevada

AASHTO Highway Subcommittee

Timothy C. Taylor, P.E.

Kurtis J. Smith, P.E.

Mike Manthey, P.E.

John F. Carey, P.E.

Donald D. Weber, P.E.

Douglas E. Noble, P.E.

Lap Thong Hoang, P.E.

Keith Golden, P.E.

David A. Church, P.E.

Duane H. Thomas, P.E.

Charles Adams, P.E., PTOE

Bruce A. Ibarguen, III, P.E.

Thomas Hicks, P.E.

Copyright American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, User=Villa, Jose

Duane Williams, P.E.

Bruce W. Smith, P.E.

J. Kevin Lacy, P.E., CPM

Edward L. Fischer, P.E., PTOE

Robert Rocchio, P.E.

John Adler, P.E.

Margaret (Meg) A. Moore

Raymond J. Khoury, P.E.

Theodore Trepanier, P.E.

Barry Warhoftig, P.E.

Port, and Toll

Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, User=Villa, Jose

Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, User=Villa, Jose

Don T. Arkle, P.E.

Gary Hogins, P.E.

Phillip L. McConnell, P.E.

Mark Leja, P.E.

Mithilesh Mitch Kumar

Brian A. Blanchard, P.E.

James Ben Buchan, P.E.

Gary C.P. Choy

Gary Mroczka, P.E.

Licensee=Aramco HQ/9980755100, User=Villa, Jose

AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Design

James O . Brewer, P.E.

Kenneth Sperry, P.E.

Jerome A. Casey, P.E.

John Blundo, P.E.