Chapter 1 Physical Quantities and Units

1.1 Basic Quantities and International System of Units (SI units)

1.2 Dimensions, and Physical Quantities
1.3 Scalar and Vectors
1.4 Metrology

Introduction
What is physic ?
1. Definition of physics - derives from Greek word means nature.
2.

Each theory in physics involves:

(a) Concept of physical quantities.
(b) Assumption to obtain mathematical model.
(c) Relationship between physical concepts.
-

proportional

inversely proportional

exponential

(d) Procedures to relate mathematical models to actual measurements from experiments.

(e) Experimental proofs to devise explanation to nature phenomena.
1.1 Quantities and International System of Units (SI units)
Learning outcome:
(a) list base quantities and their SI units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s), current (A), temperature (K) and quantity
of matter (mol);
(b) deduce units for derived quantities
Physical quantity
A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured.
Physical quantity consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
Example:
250 ml (magnitude and unit)
Basic quantity
Basic Quantity is cannot be derived from other quantities.

This quantity is important because it

- can be easily produced
- does not change its magnitude
- is internationally accepted
SI units
SI unit is the unit of a physical quantity is the standard size used to compare different magnitudes of the same
physical quantity.
Systems of units
Several systems of units have been in use. Example:
- The MKS (meter-kilogram-second) system
- The cgs (centimetre-gram-second) system
- British engineering system: foot for length, pound for mass and second for time.
Today the most important system of unit is the Systems International or Sl units.

Physical Quantity and the SI Base Units

1. Physical quantities can be divided into two categories:
a) basic quantities and
b) derived quantities.
2. The corresponding units for these quantities are called base units and derived units.
Basic Quantities
1. In the interest of simplicity, seven basics quantities, consistent with a full description of the
physical world, have been chosen.
Dimension
Basic quantity

Symbol

(base

Definition

SI units

quantity
symbol)
Length

length most commonly refers to the

longest dimension of an object

Meter

Mass , more specifically inertial

Mass

mass, can be defined as a

quantitative measure of an object's
resistance to acceleration

Kilogram

Dimension
Basic quantity

Symbol

(base

Definition

SI units

quantity
symbol)
Time

Electric

current

Time is a dimension in which events

can be ordered from the past through
the present into the future, and also
the measure of durations of events
Electric current is a flow of electric
charge through a conductive medium

Second

Ampere

Temperature is a physical property of

Thermodynamic

temperature

matter that quantitatively expresses

Kelvin

the common notions of hot and cold.

Amount of substance is a

Amount of

standards-defined quantity that

substances,

Quantity of

measures the size of an ensemble of

Mole

elementary entities, such as atoms,

matter

molecules, electrons, and other

luminous intensity is a measure of

Luminous intensity

Iv

the wavelength-weighted power

emitted by a light source in a

Candela

particular direction per unit solid angle

Table 1- 1

Base Units
There are only seven base unit in SI system.

SI Base units Symbol

Definition
"The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time

Metre

interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second."

17th CGPM (1983, Resolution 1, CR, 97)
"The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the international

Kilogram

kg

prototype of the kilogram."

3rd CGPM (1901, CR, 70)

SI Base units Symbol

Definition
"The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation
corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground

Second

state of the caesium 133 atom."

13th CGPM (1967/68, Resolution 1; CR, 103)
"This definition refers to a caesium atom at rest at a temperature of 0 K."
"The
ampere
is that
constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel
(Added
by CIPM
in 1997)
conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1

Ampere

metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2
107 newton per metre of length."
9th
"TheCGPM
kelvin,(1948)
unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the
thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water."
13th CGPM (1967/68, Resolution 4; CR, 104)

Kelvin

"This definition refers to water having the isotopic composition defined exactly by
the following amount of substance ratios: 0.000 155 76 mole of 2H per mole of 1H,
0.000 379 9 mole of 17O per mole of 16O, and 0.002 005 2 mole of 18O per mole of
16

O."
"1. The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many
elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12; its symbol
is 'mol.'

Mole

Mol

2. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be
atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such
particles."
14th CGPM (1971, Resolution 3; CR, 78)
"In this
definition,
it is understood
thatinunbound
of carbon
12, atthat
restemits
and in
"The
candela
is the luminous
intensity,
a given atoms
direction,
of a source

Candela

cd

monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 1012 hertz and that has a radiant
intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian."
16th CGPM (1979, Resolution 3; CR, 100)
Table 1- 2

Prefixes
For very large or very small numbers, we can use standard prefixes with the base units.

Prefix

tera

giga mega Kilo

deci

centi

mili micro nano

pico

Factor

1012

109

106

103

10-1

10-2

10-3

10-6

10-9

10-12

Symbol

Table 1- 3

Example 1.1:
Write 2 x 10-7 in a suitable prefix.
Solution:
2 x 10-7 ---- 2 x 10-6 x 10-1 ---- 2 x 10-1 0.2
Derived quantities and derived units
Derived Quantity is derived from basic quantities through multiplication and division.
For example,
Derived quantity

Derive from base quntity of

Derived unit

Area

length x length

m2

Volume

length x length x length

m3

Density

mass
volume

kg m-3

Velocity

l
t

m s-1

Acceleration

velocity
time

m s-2

Frequency

1
T

s-1/hz

Momentum

Mass x velocity

Kg ms-1

Force

Mass x acceleration

Kg ms-2

Pressure
Energy

force
Area
1 2
mv
2
Table 1- 4

N m-2
Kg m2 s-2

 The derived unit change

Example 1.2 :
7854 kg m-3 change into g cm-3.
Solution:

7854 kg
7854 10 3 g
7854 10 3
gcm 3
3
6
1m
10
---- 100cm 100cm 100cm ------ 7.854 g cm-3

1.2 Dimensions and Physical Quantities

(a) use dimensional analysis to determine the dimensions of derived quantities;
(b) check the homogeneity of equations using dimensional analysis;
(c) construct empirical equations using dimensional analysis;

The dimension of a physical quantity is a product of the basic physical dimensions each raised to a rational
power.
1. Each derive quantity in physic can be represent by basic quantity.The dimension of a physical
quantities is the relation between the physical quantity and the base quantities
2. The Bracket [ ] meant The dimension of (pronounce its loudly) or the power of base quantity of
Example :
[v] the dimension of velocity , this means that the power of base quantities in the velocity.
Example 1.3
Write the dimensions for the following physical quantity
(a) Acceleration
Solution:

(a)

v u LT 1 LT 1

LT 2

T
t

Use of dimensions
To check the homogeneity of physical equations
Concept of homogeneous

The dimensions on both sides of an equation are the same.

Those equations which are not homogeneous are definitely wrong.
However, the homogeneous equation could be wrong due to the incomplete or has extra terms.
The validity of a physical equation can only be confirmed experimentally.
In experiment, graphs have to be drawn then. A straight line graph shows the correct equation and the
non linear graph is not the correct equation.
Deriving a physical equation
An equation can be derived to relate a physical quantity to the variables that the quantity depends on.
Example 1. 4
Determine the homogeneous of the equation v2 =u2 +2as.
Solution:
Left hand side :
[v2] = [v]2 = (LT-1)2 = L2 T-2
Right hand side :
[u2 + 2as] = L2 T-2 + L T-2 . L = L2 T-2
Conclusion ; the RHS dimension as same as the LHS dimension, meaning that the above equation is
homogenic.
Derivation of Physical Equation
From observations and experiments, a physical quantity may be found to be dependent on a few other physical
quantity. To find this relationship we use dimension method.
Example 1.5
From the observations speed of sound in medium maybe affected by density d, wavelength , and Young
Modulus E. Derive an equation for the speed of sound in the medium. ([E] =ML-1T-2)
Solution:
Its observe that

vd a b E c suppose the a,b and c are dimensionless constant.

Then

v kd a b E c

Assume that k is the dimensionless constant.

LHS :

v LT 1

RHS :

d (ML

3 a

) M a L3a

L
E (ML T
d E M
b

So

2 c

) M c L cT 2c

a c 3 a b

T 2 c

LHS RHS

LT 1 M a c L3a bT 2c
Pairing the similar physical quantities Dimension indices of both sides.
LHS

RHS

Ma+c
L-3a+b
T-2c

M
L1
T-1

Table 1- 5

M: 0 a c
L : 1 3a c
T : 1 2c
Solve the above equation :

1
1
c
2 , b 0 and
2

So the equation v kd E will become :

a

1
2

v kd E
0

1
2

Meaning that the equation of v is

vk

E
d

Example 6
(a) Given below are the equation of the liquid flow inside the horizontal pipe.
2
(1) p Av W

(2)

BTg
X
v2

(3) p Cgv Y
Where;
W,X,Y have the dimension as same as pressure
A,B,C are the constant without dimension.
g represent gravitational acceleration.
T represent liquid surface tension (its dimension is MT-2)

represent liquid density

v represent liquid velocity
p represent the pressure change
Determine the homogeneity of the above equation.
(b) Below are the reading for p and v :
2.0 103
1.0

p (Nm-2)
v (m s-2)

1.5 103
1.4

1.2 103
1.6

0.7 103
1.9

Table 1- 6

Using the above reading ,

(i) Determine the correct equation.
(ii) Determine the constant for the correct equation using the information below.
[ = 1.0 103 kg m-3, T = 7.4 10-2 N m-1]
Solution :
(a) Equation (1),
has no dimension so its should be term P and Av2 have the same dimension.
[P] = M L-1 T-2
[v2] = M L-3 x L2 T-2 = M L-1 T-2
Equation (2)

Tg
2
X has no dimension so its should be term P and v have the same dimension.
1
Tg
2
2
1 2
v 2 MT LT L2T 2 ML T
Equation (3)
Y has no dimension so its should be term P and gv have the same dimension.

0.3 103
2.1

 gv LT 2 ML3 LT 1 ML1T 3
Its meant that equation (3) is dimensionally wrong.
(b) Verily we can conclude that equation (1) and equation (2) are dimensionally correct.
(i) Equation (1) and equation (2) have to be rearrange into y = mx + c
2
(1) p Av W meaning graph p vs v2 is should be a straight line

(2)

BTg
1
X
2
2
v
meaning graph p vs v is should be a straight line

To confirm which equation is correct the we have to plot both of the graph according to the data given in
the table.
p (Nm-2)

2.0 103

1.5 103

1.2 103

0.7 103

0.3 103

v (m s-2)

1.4

1.6

1.9

2.1

1.96

2.56

3.61

4.41

1
v2

1.000

0.510

0.391

0.277

0.227

Table 1- 7

P, Pressure(103)Nm-2
2.5

2
equation (1)
equation (2)
Linear (equation (1))
Log. (equation (2))

1.5

0.5
y = -0.5011x + 2.5
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Graph 1

10

3.5

4.5

1
v2

From the graph its confirm that the equation (1) is correct because it is a linear graph with negative gradient.
(ii) to find A ;
From the graph the gradient is -0.5011.
From the equation (1) the gradient is A

A 0.5011
A

0.5011

0.5011
5 10 4
3
1.0 10

= 1.0 103 kg m-3

And

W 2.5 10 3 N m-2, W is the intercept of the graph.

1.3 Scalar and Vectors
(a) determine the sum, the scalar product and vector product of coplanar vectors;
(b) resolve a vector to two perpendicular components;

> A scalar quantity is a physical quantity which has only magnitude.

For example, mass, speed , density, pressure, ....
> A vector quantity is a physical quantity which has magnitude and direction.
For example, force, momentum, velocity , acceleration ....
In most cases in physic, the physic quantity is express in vector. If the number(magnitude) can be operated
through Subtract, Add, multiplication and fraction. Then the vector also can be threat the same way except
fraction, but its have to follow the rule that govern them.
Graphical representation of vectors
A vector can be represented by a straight arrow,
Figure 1- 1

The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector.

The vector points in the direction of the arrow.

11

Basic principle of vectors

Two vectors P and Q are equal if:
a) Magnitude of P = magnitude of Q
(b) Direction of P = direction of Q
When a vector P is multiplied by a scalar k, the product is k P and the direction remains the same as P.
The vector -P has same magnitude with P but comes in the opposite direction.
Principles of vectors
(a) Substitute of Vector
(i) To show the relative velocity
Let us look at two cases:
Lets the two object VA = 10 ms-1 (faster) VB = 3 ms-1. (slower), moving in the same axis-x
Case one
The velocity of A relative to B = (VA - VB) (comparing faster toward slower)
= (10- 3) ms
= 7 ms -1 (in forward direction).(mean that A is 7 ms -1 faster than B)
Case two
The velocity of B relative to A = (VB - VA)
= (3 - 10) ms
= -7 ms -1 (in backwards direction).
We observe that(VB - VA) and (VA - VB) are same magnitude but different direction.
(ii) to show change of velocity
Lets the same object VA = 10 ms-1 (faster), then after a while its decrease into VA = 3 ms-1. (slower),
So the change of the velocity is 3 ms-1 subtract with 10 ms-1 then its -7 m s-1 which negative sign mean
that the object is reducing its velocity

(b) Sum of vectors (Resultant of)

If there are two or more vector , these vector can be add to form a single vector called a Resultant vector.
To solve the problem involving vectors in two dimension, we usually used any one of these method depend on
the information given.
Method 1: Parallelogram of vectors
Its the drawing method. The drawing of the parallelogram need to be draw according scale and angle
given in the question. The instrument used for this drawing are:

12

(a) ruler
(b) protractor
(c) sharp pencil

It two vectors OA and OB are represented in magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides OA and
OB of a parallelogram OABC, then OC represents their resultant.

Figure 1- 2

This method is used when there are information about angle and magnitudes of the vector.
Method 2: Triangle of vectors and polygon of vector
Its the drawing method. The drawing of the vectors need to be draw according scale and angle given in
the question. The instrument used for this drawing are:
(d) ruler
(e) protractor
(f) sharp pencil
Use a suitable scale to draw the first vector.
From the end of first vector, draw a line to represent the second vector. (attaching the head with the its
tail)
Complete the triangle/polygon. The line from the beginning of the first vector to the end of the second
vector represents the sum in magnitude and direction.

Figure 1- 3

13

Example 7
A kite flies in still air is 4.0 ms-1. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant velocity of the kite when the air
flows across perpendicularly is 2.5 ms-1. If the distance of the kite is 30 m from the player, what is the time taken
for the kite to fly? Calculate the height of the kite from the ground.
Solution:

2.5 cm

4.72 cm

4 cm

Scaled to 1 cm : 1 m s-1
Figure 1- 4

Draw a straight line from A to B with the length of 4 cm, (1 cm : 1 m s-1). And another line B to C with the length
of 2.5 cm. the angle of ABC is 90 degree. The resultant of the vector can be measured from A to C, 4.72 cm.
This answered can be converted into 4.72 ms-1.
Using the protractor the angle of DAC is 58 degree. Meaning that the kite is moving at speed of 4.71 m s-1 and
58 degree from the ground.
The distance from A to C is 30m, the time taken from A to C is :

s
30m

6.37 s
v 4.71ms 1

And the height of the kite is :

DC
sin
AC
DC 30m sin 58 25.44m
Example 8

14

Figure 1- 5

Five coplanar forces act on a particle, as drown in Figure above. Draw a scaled force polygon for these forces.
State the magnitude and direction of the resultant of these forces.
Solution:

45

D
5 cm
4 cm
45
E

2 cm
4 cm
F
3 cm

A
Scaled to 1 cm: 1 N
Figure 1- 6

Draw the polygon using a scaled 1 cm : 1N, refer to figure1- 6. The angle of the vector must be referred to the
figure 5 while connecting the head and tail of every vector.
The resultant of the vector can be measured using metre ruler from A to F and its length is 3.5 cm, meaning that
3.5 N
And its direction or angle, is 21 degree from the ground.

15

Method 3 : Component Method

Its is a calculation method , because every vector can be replace into x-component and y-component.
Replacing a single vector into its components is called Resolving.
To determine the resultant of the vector using this method, its need to follow these four keyword carefully.
1. Axis
2. Resolve vector
3. add vector component
4. Resultant
Axis
Need to be determine before resolving the vector.
Resolving vector
The vector that is not on any axis have to be resolve into its component. Resolving vector mean resolving :
(a) magnitude
(b) Direction
A vector R can be considered as the two vectors. R refers to the resultant vectors. There are two mutually
perpendicular component Rx and Ry
Resultant,R
Ry: component of vector R on y-axis (+ )

Rx: component of vector R on x-axis (+)

16

Figure 1- 7

Add Vector Component

Fx1 Fx 2 Fx 4 ..............

and

F y1 F y 2 Fy 4 ....

Only the same axis component can be added.

Resultant

Magnitude,

F F
2

tan

and Direction of R,

F
F

Example 9
The figure 8 shows 3 forces F1, F2 and F3 acting on a point O. Calculate the resultant force and the direction of
resultant.

Figure 1- 8

Solution:

Figure 1- 9

17

Step one : Draw the axis x and y

Step two : resolve the vector that is not on any axis into two component, x and y
Step three : determine their angle

Step four : tabulate the component according their axis.

Force
F1
F2
F3

Component X
Mag: 3N

+3N

Dir : to the Right (+)

Mag : 5N Cos 30= 4.33N

Dir : upward (+)

Mag: 4N sin 60

-2N

Dir : downward (-)

-3.33N

Table 1- 8

Step Five : Calculate magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

Magnitude,

F F
2

3.33N 2 0.96 N 2
R 3.47 N
And

tan
Direction of R,

tan

F
F

0.96 N
196
3.33N

18

Mag : 5N sin 30 = 2.5 N

-4.33N

Dir : to the left (-)

Mag: 4N Cos 60= 2N
Dir : to the left (-)

Component Y
No Component

+2.5N
-3.46N

-0.96N

(d) Multiplication of vector

Its have been discuss about subtraction and addition of the vector. From subtraction and addition of vector we
can explain most of the physical quantity. Now is about multiplication of vectors. When two vectors were multiply
the result is called product.
There are two kind of product produced :
1. Dot Product
2. Cross Product
Dot Product :The dot product is fundamentally a projection.

Figure 1- 10

The dot product of a vector with a unit vector is the projection of that vector in the direction given by the unit
vector. This leads to the geometric formula

v . v cos
Furthermore, it follows immediately from the geometric definition that two vectors are orthogonal if and only if
their dot product vanishes, that is

v . 0
Example 10
Calculate the scalar product of vector F and s below.

19

F = 5N
= 60
S = 5M
Figure 1- 11

Solution:

F S (5 N )(5m) cos 60 12.5 Nm

Cross Product : The cross product is fundamentally a directed area.

Figure 1- 12

whose magnitude is defined to be the area of the parallelogram. The direction of the cross product is given by

the right-hand rule, so that in the example shown v points into the page.

v v sin
To determine the direction of the cross product we used the right hand rule. In mathematics and physics, the
right-hand rule is a common mnemonic for understanding notation conventions for vectors in 3 dimensions. It
was invented for use in electromagnetism by British physicist John Ambrose Fleming in the late 19th century.

20

v
Figure 1- 13

21

Example 11
There are two vector a and b, calculate the a b.

b = 18 unit
a = 12 unit

Figure 1- 14

Solution:
Magnitude,

a b (12)(18) sin 90 216

Direction :

b
a

a b
Figure 1- 15

1.4 Metrology (Uncertainties in measurements)

Learning outcome:
(a) calculate the uncertainty in a derived quantity (a rigorous statistical treatment is not required);
(b) write a derived quantity to an appropriate number of significant figures.
Metrology is the science of measurement and its application.

22

Terminology related to measurement uncertainty is not used consistently among experts. To avoid further
confusions lets refer to BIPM-VIM(International Vocabulary of Basic and General Terms in Metrology) and GUM
(Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement).
1.4.1 Error
VIM define the error as below:
error (of measurement) [VIM 3, 2.16] - measured quantity value minus a reference quantity value
There are two type of error
(a) Systematic Error
Characteristics of systematic error in the measurement of a particular physical quantity:
-Its magnitude is constant.
-It causes the measured value to be always greater or always less than the true value.
Corrected reading = direct reading - systematic Error
Sources of systematic Error:
- Zero Error of instrument.
- Incorrectly calibrated scale of instrument.
- Personal error of observer, for example reaction time of observer.
- Error due to certain assumption of physical conditions of surrounding for example, g = 9.81 ms-2
Systematic error cannot be reduced or eliminated by taking repeated readings using the same method,
instrument and by the same observer.
(b) Random Error
Characteristics of Random Error :
- It's magnitude is not constant.
- It causes the measured value to be sometimes greater and sometimes less than the true value.
Corrected reading = direct reading Random Error
The main source of random Uncertainty is the observer.
The surroundings and the instruments used are also sources of random error.
Example of random Error:
- Parallax Error due to incorrect position of the eye when taking reading
Parallax Error can be reduced by having the line of sight perpendicular to the scale reading.
- Error due to the inability to read an instrument beyond some fraction of the smallest division
Reading are recorded to a precision of half the smallest division of the scale.
Random Error can be reduced by taking several readings and calculating the mean.

23

Error contributes to but is different from Uncertainty

1.4.2 The Uncertainty of the Instrumental
VIM define the Uncertainty as below
uncertainty of measurement [VIM 3, 2.6] non-negative parameter characterizing the dispersion of the quantity
values being attributed to a measurand (quantity intend to measure), based on the information used and its
have a statistical concept of standard deviation means.
Instrumental Measurement
When handling the experiment the reading is given by the apparatus used, these apparatus have their own
uncertainty.
instrumental measurement uncertainty(VIM 3, 4.24) - the amount (often stated in the form x) that along
with the measured value, indicates the range in which the desired or true value most likely lies. Instrumental
measurement uncertainty is used in a Type B evaluation of measurement uncertainty
Here the magnitude of x is called the absolute Uncertainty.
Absolute Uncertainty is the smallest scale of the instrument or half of the smallest scale if its can be determine
easily.

Instruments

Absolute Uncertainty

Example of readings

Millimetre ruler

0.1 cm

(50.1 0.1)cm

Vernier calliper

0.01 cm

(3.23 0.01)cm

Micrometer screw gauge

0.01 mm

(2.63 0.01)mm

Stopwatch (analogue)
Stopwatch(Digital)
Thermometer

0.1 s
0.01 s
0.5 C

(1.4 0. 1 )s
(1.452 0.01)s
(28.0 0.5)C

Ammeter (0 - 3A)

0.05 A

(1.70 0.05)A

Voltmeter (0 - 5V)

0.05 V

(0.65 0.05)V

Table 1- 9

The smaller absolute uncertainty of the instrument is contribute to the high accuracy, precision and sensitivity
of the measuring system of the experiment.

1.4.3 Analysing Uncertainty of the data

24

specifically Uncertainty analyzing is refer to Uncertainty that cause by repetition measurement to

produce more accurate data.

Meaning that if we want to measure a mass of cube, of course we cannot just used a single
measurement then we will get the answer. We have to measure the mass with the triple balance beam
more than one time for example 3 time.

While doing the measurement actually we have continually increasing the Uncertainty.

It is a good idea to mention the Uncertainty for every measurement and calculation.

In this subtopic we deal with the repetition reading or data. Its known that if we have more than one
reading so the true value is the mean of the reading.

a1 a2 ....... an
n

Mean value for a is

Mean value of Uncertainty of a,

should be calculated this way

1. Calculated the deviation of every data given:

s1 a1 a
s2 a2 a
.
.
.
sn an a
2. Find the sum of deviation
1

s sn s1 s2 ..... sn
n

3. find the mean of deviation

s
n

Its known that the mean deviation is equally the same as the Uncertainty of the mean
value(true value).
Or

a s
Working example on a single quantity :
1. Aim : to determine the diameter, d of a wire
2. Theory : used outer jaw of vernier caliper
3. Precaution : measure more than one reading
4. Choosing Apparatus and Determine the absolute uncertainty:

25

Uncertainty

Instruments

(Absolute/actual)
0.01 cm

Vernier caliper

Table 1- 10

5. Manage the reading/data:

Diameter ,d of a wire was measured several time to reduce the Uncertainty and the reading is given in the
table below. Find the true value(mean value) and the Uncertainty of the diameter.

(d0.01)/c

i
1.55

ii
1.52

iii
1.54

iv
1.53

v
1.54

vi
1.53

m
Table 1- 11

6. Determine the quantity and its uncertainty

a. Calculating the true value of diameter (mean value) <d>:

1.55 1.52 1.54 1.53 1.54 1.53

1.54cm
6

b. Calculating the uncertainty of diameter:

1.55 d 1.52 d 1.54 d 1.53 d 1.54 d 1.53 d

6

0.01cm

So the diameter of a wire should be written (1.54 0.01)cm

Note: calculating the uncertainty this way is refer to a single quantity and not involving with the graph.

1.4.4 Primary data and secondary data

1. Primary data are raw data or readings (taken directly from apparatus) in an experiment. Primary data
obtained using the same instrument have to be recorded to the same degree of precision i.e to the same
number of decimal places.
2. Secondary data are derived from primary data. Secondary data have to be recorded to the correct
number of significant figures. The number of significant figures for secondary data may be the same (or

26

one more than) the least number of significant figures in the primary data. Measurement play a crucial role
in physics, but can never be perfectly precise.
3. It is important to specify the Uncertainty or Uncertainty of a measurement either by stating it directly
using the notation, and / or by keeping only correct number of significant figures.
Example: 51.2 0.1

Processing significant figures

Addition and subtraction
When two or more measured values are added or subtracted, the final calculated value must have the
same number of decimal places as that measured value which has the least number , of decimal
places.
Example
1.

a = 1.35 cm + 1.325 cm
= 2.675 cm
= 2.68 cm

2.

b = 3.2 cm - 0.3545 cm
= 2.8465 cm
= 2.8 cm

3.

1.15 1.13 1.16 1.14 1.13

cm
5
c=
= 1.142 cm
= 1.14 cm

Multiplication and division

When two or more measured values are multiplied and/or divided, the final calculated value must have
as many significant figures as that measured value which has the least number of significant figures.
Example
1. Volume of a wooden block

= 9.5 cm x 2.36 cm x 0.515 cm

= 11.5463 cm3
= 12 cm3

2. If the time for 50 oscillations of a simple pendulum is 43.7 s, then the period of oscillation = 43.7 50
= 0.874 s

9.15 3.00
6.15

1.5375 1.54
3. The gradient of a graph 0.450 0.050 0.400

27

Note: Sometimes the final answer may be obtained only after performing several intermediate
calculations. In this case, results produced in intermediate calculations need not be rounded off. Round
only the final answer.
1.4.5 Analysing Uncertainty of a derive quantity.
1. Actual Value
- is in the scale reading (pointer reading) of an instrument.(single reading)
Or
- is in the mean value.(of the repetition reading)
2. Fractional and percentage Uncertainty,

(a) The fractional Uncertainty of R :

(b) The percentage Uncertainty of R :

R
R

R
100%
R

3. Consequential Uncertainties/Uncertainty- to state the Uncertainty of a derive quantities

Given
R 1 R1 = Data Absolute Data Uncertainty = 51.2 0.1
R 2 R2 = Data Absolute Data Uncertainty = 30.1 0.1
(a) Addition
W = R1 + R2 = 51.2 + 30.3 = 81.3
W = R1 + R2 = 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2
So W W = 81.3 0.2
(b) Subtraction
S = R1 - R2 = 51.2 - 30.3 = 21.1
S = R1 + R2 = 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.2
So S S = 21.1 0.2
(c) Product
P = R1 R2 = 51.2 30.3 =1541.12

28

P R 1 R 2

P
R
R2
1
From
R1 R 2
P
P

R 2
R1

0.1 0.1

1541.12
51.2 30.1

P 7.71
P P = 1541.12 7.71
(d) Quotient

R1 51.2

1.70
R2 30.1

Q R1 R 2

Q
R
R2
1
From
R 1 R 2
Q

R2
R1

0.1 0.1

1.7
51.2 30.1

Q 0.01
Q Q = 1.70 0.01

Working example:
1. Aim : to determine the value of B
2. Theory :
B is given by

29

( a b) d 2
q T

3. Precaution : B have a combine uncertainty from various apparatus (quantity)

4. Choosing Apparatus and Determine the absolute uncertainty:
Uncertainty

Quantity

Instruments

a,b

meter ruler

(Absolute/actual)
1 cm

Stopwatch(Digital)

0.01 s

Table 1- 12

5. Manage the reading/data:

After the measuring and calculating the uncertainty of the quantity a,b,d,q and T(refer 1.4.2).
The true value (mean value) and the uncertainty of the quantities are witten as below :
a =(1.830.01)m,
b=(1.65 0.01) m,
d=(0.001060.00003)m,
q = (4.28 0.05) s
T = (3.7 0.1) x 103 s.T is
6. Determine the quantity and its uncertainty
(a) Find B use the equation given

( a b) d 2
q T

(1.83m 1.65m)0.00106m 2
4.28s 3.7 10 3 s

B = 7.8 x 10-11 m3 s(b) Find the uncertainty of B

1. Fisrt check the equation for addition and subtraction, by applying 1.4.3 no 3 (b) , subtraction
so (a - b) = (0.180.02)m
2. Second calculate the percentage uncertainties in each of the 4 terms:
Term

Magnitude and uncertainty

30

Fractional

Uncertainty

Uncertainty

percentage

(a - b)

= (0.180.02)m

= (0.001 06 0.000 03) m

= (4.28 0.05) s

= (3.70.1) x 103 s

0.02
0.18
0.00003
0.00106
0.05
4.28
0.1 10 3
3.7 10 3

11%
3%
1.2%
3%

Table 1- 13

- The Uncertainty in (a - b) is now very large, although the readings themselves have been taken
carefully. This is always the effect when subtracting two nearly equal numbers.
- The percentage Uncertainty in d2 will be twice the percentage Uncertainty in d;

- The percentage Uncertainty in

T will be half the percentage Uncertainty in T because a

1
square root is a power of 2 .
This gives:

1
Uncertainty percentage in B = 11% + 2(3%) + 1.2% + 2 (3%) = 19.7% 20%
This gives B = (7.8 1.6) x 10-11 m3 s-1.
the rules for uncertainties therefore :
Operator

Uncertainty

addition and subtraction

ADD absolute uncertainties

multiplication and division

ADD percentage uncertainties

powers

Multiply the percentage Uncertainty by the power

Table 1- 14

1.4.6. Uncertainty of a Linear graph

31

Figure 1- 16: where n is the number of points plotted.

1. The usual quantities that are deduced from a straight line graph are
(a) the gradient of the graph m, and the intercept on the y-axis or the x-axis
(b) the intercepts on the axes.
First calculate the coordinates of the centroid using the formula

x ,y

n
where n is the number of sets of readings4,5.

2. The straight line graph that is drawn must pass through the centroid Figure . The best line is the
straight line which has the plotted points closest to it. This line will give m the best gradient
together with c.

3. Two other straight lines, one with the maximum gradient

m max and another with the least

gradient m min , are then drawn. For a straight line graph where the intercept is not the origin , the
three lines drawn must all pass through the centroid. Here also we can find
4. To find the Uncertainty for the gradient and intercept used this equation

mmax

m min
c c min
c max
2
2
and

Working Example
1. Aim
To determine the acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum.

32

c man and c min

2. Theory : the theory of the simple pendulum, the period T is related to the length l, and the
acceleration due to gravity g by the equation

l
g

T 2 4 2

Hence, the acceleration due to gravity,

l
T2

g 4 2

2
A straight line graph would be obtained if a graph of T against l is plotted.

3. Precaution :
The time t for 50 oscillations of the pendulum is measured for different lengths l of the pendulum.
The period T is calculated using

t
50

4. Choosing Apparatus and Determine the absolute uncertainty:

Uncertainty

Instruments
Millimeter ruler

(Absolute/actual)
0.1 cm

Stopwatch (analogue)

0.1 s

Table 1- 15

5. Manage the table

Note the various important characteristics when tabulating the data as shown in Table 15
Length
(l 0.05) cm

Time for 50 oscillation (t 0.1)s

Period
T(s)

t
50

T2(s2)

(i)

(ii)

Average

90.00

94.7

94.9

94.8

1.90

3.61

80.00

88.5

88.5

88.5

1.77

3.13

70.00

84.0

83.8

83.9

1.68

2.82

60.00

78.4

78.6

78.5

1.57

2.47

50.00

70.1

69.9

70.0

1.40

1.96

40.00

63.2

63.0

63.1

1.26

1.59

30.00

55.8

55.8

55.8

1.12

1.25

20.00

44.7

44.9

44.8

0.896

0.803

10.00

31.9

32.0

32.0

0.640

0.410

33

Table 1- 16

(a) Name or symbol of each quantity and its unit are stated in the heading of each
column. Example: Length and cm, and T(s). The Uncertainty for the primary data,
such as length and t time for 50 oscillations, is also written. Example: (l 0.05) cm
and (t 0.1)s.
(b) All primary data, such as length and time, should be recorded to reflect the precision
(absolute uncertainty) of the instrument used.
For example, the length of the pendulum l is measured using a metre rule. hence it
should be recorded to two decimal places of a cm, that is 10.00 cm, and not 10 cm
or 10.0 cm.
The time for 50 oscillations t is recorded to 0.1 s, that is 32.0 s and not 32 s.
The average value of t is also calculated to 0.1 s. The average value of 31.9 s and
32.0 s is recorded as 32.0 s and not 31.95 s.
(c) The secondary data such as T and T2, are calculated from the primary data.
Secondary data should be calculated to the same number of significant figures as I
hat in the least accurate measurement. For example, T and T2, are calculated to
three significant figures, the same number of significant figures as the readings of t.
(d) For a straight line graph, there should be at least six point plotted. If the graph is a
curve, then more points should be plotted, especially near the maximum and
minimum points.
From the graph we can determine the intercept and the gradient, both of them also have their own uncertainty. In
order to find the uncertainty of intercept and gradient , its have to calculate the centroid point. Centroid point is
the average reading of both in x-axis and y-axis4.

l
The x-coordinate of the centroid

1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 cm
= 9
= 50 cm

34

The y-coordinate of the centroid =

1
0.410 0.803 1.25 1.59 1.96 2.47 2.82 3.13 3.61 s 2
9
=
= 2.00s2
The coordinate for the centroid is (50cm, 2.00s2)

Figure 1- 17

from the equation

g 4 2

l
T2

T 2 4 2

l
g

Hence a graph of T 2 against l is a straight line, passing through the origin, and gradient,

4 2
m
g

35

From the graph,

2.00 s 2
0.50m
2
1
gradient of best line, 4.00 s m
m

3.05s 2
m max
0.75m
2
1
Maximum gradient, 4.07 s m
2.35s 2
0.60m
3.92s 2 m 1
m min
Minimum gradient,

Absolute Uncertainty in the gradient,

m max

m min (4.07 3.92) s 2 m 1 0.15

0.075s 2 m 1
2
2
2

Fractional Uncertainty in the gradient

m 0.075

0.01875 0.0188
m
4.00
percentage Uncertainty in gradient

m
100% 1.88%
m

4 2 4 2
g

9.870ms 2
m
4.00
Acceleration due to gravity,
Hence the percentage Uncertainty in g is the sum of the percentage Uncertainty in m only because
42 is a constant.
Therefore percentage Uncertainty in gravity,g = Uncertainty percentage = 1.88% according
to above equation
Hence acceleration due to gravity,
Written in percentage Uncertainty
g = (9.8701.88%) m s2

36

also can be write in absolute Uncertainty

g 1.88% 9.870 0.2ms 2

g = (9.9 0.2) m s2 Since there is Uncertainty in the second significant figure, the value of g is
given to two significant figures.

37