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Ching Yin Winnie Lo

Professor David McBride
SOC 409U
5 May 2016
9/11 Impact on Specific Ethnic Group Lives: Arab Americans
Arab Americans are the main focus in this research, yet Jewish Americans are also
particularly related to this minority group after 9/11. The purpose of this research is to explore
the impact of 9/11 on Arab Americans in the United States, from the past until today, especially
in the state of New York. Jewish Americans originally migrated from the Middle East. Due to
recent, rising hatred towards Middle Easterners within the States; social problems are emerging
among Jewish Americans.
According to the textbook, American Ethnicity: The Dynamics and Consequences of
Discrimination, the United States government classified immigrants from the following twentytwo countries as Arabs; Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait,
Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, West Bank or Gaza Strip of Palestine, Qatar,
Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. Based on the
statistic from the United States Census Bureau, population of Arabs in the United States in year
2000 was approximately 2 million in total (US Census Bureau, 2000). Before the event of 9/11,
Muslim feminism was increasing; many Arab American women were questioning the Islam
religions impact on their own culture in the United States (Jolls et al.). Consequently, many
Arab Americans converted to other religions; primarily those of Christian denominations, which
made up approximately 66 percent of the Arab population and approximately 12.4 percent, were
Muslims in the United States (Turner & Adalberto, 2011).

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History (Prior 9/11 aTTACKs)

The first wave of Arab immigrations from the Middle East started in the 1880, most of
these immigrants came from Mount Lebanon, which later became part of the Ottoman Empire
(Abdelhady). Many Arab immigrants from the first group were uneducated sojourners, which
were economically desperate and politically oppressed by the Turkish at the time. Many of them
were searching for new opportunities and hope in the United States; some were planning to bring
fortune back to their homeland. Sociopolitical factor played an important role in the economic of
the immigrants (Abdelhady). The start of falling feudalism in Mount Lebanon in the 1840s
caused the increase of social and political instability in the region, which led to the isolation of
certain prosperous groups and triggered massive migration to the United States.
Most early immigrants never felt the need of setting roots, nor felt the need of getting
involved in United States politics, due to their self-understanding of being sojourners. Very
soon after the first wave of Arab immigration, institutionalized racial segregation had formed
against this them. Nativists were trying to protect their own customs and cultural values, forcing
the Arabs to rapidly assimilate to American societies (Higham, 1955). An example of
institutionalized racial segregation included white only signs hung on the entrance of
restaurants, retail stores, and even bathrooms. At the time, Arab Americans were not considered
as white due to the Naturalization act of 1790, which limited the eligibility for US citizenship
to free white people; obviously, Arab Americans are not included in the free white people
category. Until 1915 (during World War I), a series of successful court cases finally resulted in
the official recognition of the government, as Arab Americans were part of the white
communities (McMillan, et al.).1 Arab Americans gained more privileges and freedom in the
United States, that it encouraged more Middle Easterners immigrate to the United States.

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Not long after the first wave of Middle Easterners migration, World War I occurred

between 1914 and 1918. In addition, this war made some impacts on the Arab Americans
cultural status. During the First World War, the United States government restricted the growth
of immigrations to protect the country; therefore, many early Arab immigrants were isolated
from their homeland. Mainly women and children from homelands were separated from their
family members, who worked in the United States. Later, the Immigration Restriction Act of
1921 and Johnson-Reed Act of 1924 allowed limited numbers of Arab women and children
immigrants to enter the country and reunite with families; yet at the same time, it caused the new
immigrants to feel isolated from their homeland. This sense of isolation had made a huge impact
on the Arab Immigrant communities in the United States (Abdelhady).
First off, the sense of isolation causesd more immigrants to oppose the inter-sectarian
conflicts, that facilitated the mergence of an ethnic identity (Abdelhady). It promoted the growth
of self-help community organization during the Great Depression between the 1929 and 1939, to
protect their own racial community from the inter-sectarian conflicts. Secondly, the sense
isolation from the Arab communities had also strengthened the assimilations for most Americanborn Arab children of the early immigrants. Most of the American-born Arab children spoke
only English and they started to assimilate into the local, American culture, which cause many of
them to gradually drift away from their ethnic religions. This group of American-born Arab
children was characterized as the most assimilated group out of all Arab immigrants to the
United States (Orfalea, 2016). This assimilation process is also called the Americanization.
Within a short period of time, the early Arab immigrants were able to gain the American
societys acceptance in the dominant white culture. Some of the early Arab immigrants
desperately wanted to fit into the American society that they changed their last names and

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religions. This type of phenomenon fits into Milton Gordons cultural and structural
assimilation theories, including the attitude and behavioral receptional assimilation that the
American Arab children of the earliest immigrants tried to avoid alienation, prejudices, and
stereotypes from the American society, by altering their ethnic life habits and cultures (Turner &
Adalberto, 2011).
Many early Arab immigrants first settled in large cities, such as New York, Boston,
Pittsburgh, and Detroit, where there were many promising peddling, textile, and automotive
industries, that provided many opportunities.7 During the 1900s, due to the settlement of Arab
immigrants in many industrial areas, they provided much needed labor that assisted the United
States industrial revolution, which transformed the United States from a semi-agricultural
society, to the worlds most advanced industrial country (Daraiseh, 2012).

Socio-economic History in Education (Post- 9/11 attack)

Arab Americans highly value education and learning. Early Arab immigrant came from
rural areas, where there was little to no formal educated. Many of them ended up coming to the
United Stated to work rigorous and time intensive jobs, such as peddling (Orfalea, 2016 &
Daraiseh, 2012). These early Arab immigrants were hoping that their children would have more
opportunities in the future, by providing more educational opportunities in hopes for a better
living environment. Many Arab children of the early immigrants obtained college degrees and
then decided to remain in the US, instead of traveling back to their homeland (Daraiseh, 2012).
According to the United States Census, Arab Americans have a higher level of educational
achievement than many other ethnic groups; 85 percent of Arabs American at least have a high

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school diploma, 40 percent obtains a bachelors degree or higher and 17 percent have postgraduate degree.
After the terrorist attack of September 11th, it brought Arab Americans to public
attention, including the Arab children at school. Any individual who looks Arab or has a foreign
name that sounds Arab, were targeted. The effect of Arab American discrimination in the context
of educations was dramatically increased from years 2000 to 2001 (Moradi & Nadia, 2004). As
aforementioned, this minority group of individuals tends put a high value on education. The
mental stresses of negative stereotyping against Arab students in school, could directly,
negatively affect their school performance. Many teachers, professors at large were sensitized to
Arab students behaviors in classrooms (Moradi & Nadia, 2004). Many students suffered
academically and have lower self-esteem and the feelings of inferiority, due the media, news,
movies and televisions, outside school. According to the report from the journal of counseling
psychology in 2004, 70 percent of the students experienced at least one of the discrimination
events, 53 percent of the students experienced unfair treatment by strangers and 46 percent of
them had been called racists names at least once in the past year (Bousquet, 2012).
Today, it is frustrating that many American schools fail to meet the need of protection for
the Arab children. Many Arab American students still face prejudices and discrimination
(Beilock, 2010); this means other Americans stereotype Arabs students. According to the
neuroscientist, Sian Beilock, increased anxiety levels will decrease the performance in highly
skilled individuals, and stereotyping is one of the indirect causes of anxiety in Arab students
(The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2002).

Socio-economic History in Work (Post- 9/11 attack)

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In the late 1800s, peddling was one the most attractive and popular profession among the

Arab immigrants (Daraiseh, 2012). This profession did not require the knowledge of English
literature, yet brought relatively decent income for the immigrants. The great development in the
peddling business was spreading to many regions of the country, as the Arab laborers sold their
goods to nearly every household in small towns and rural areas. Eventually, some of the
suppliers ended up settling in certain towns with their own peddling business. These peddling
business owners started their businesses by hiring their own peddlers and supplying them with
provisions and housing. However, there were also some peddlers that decided to use their income
from peddling to start their own businesses, such as grocery stores (Daraiseh, 2012). Those who
started their own businesses had an advantage compared to the workers, not only would they
make more money, but they were also able to recruit their family members from their homeland
to the United States for a guaranteed job. The growth of non-peddling, small business owners
was a major turning point in the development of the Arab communities (Daraiseh, 2012). Arab
immigrants began to take over grocery stores and retail businesses; mostly due to the fact many
early Arab immigrants were able to assist new immigrants with credit and loans, by providing
them job opportunities. Nowadays, the majority of the Arab Americans have work experience in
restaurant management, travel agencies, and real estate firms. Thanks to all the opportunities that
were given by early immigrants hard work and assistance. Although many of the early
immigrants opened their small businesses, expecting their next generation would take over the
business; however, most of the owners children moved out of their roots and began search for
other specialties, due to the hard work and long hour requirement for continuing their family
business (Daraiseh, 2012). Besides owning small business and peddling, the early Arab
immigrants found employment in the steel industry in different cities such as Birmingham,

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Buffalo, Pittsburgh, and Allentown (Daraiseh, 2012). Many Arab immigrants also found
employment in auto industry in Detroit, which explains many Arab American communities that
live in Michigan today. In modern centuries, Arab Americans are not only involved in hard
working industries; due to their focused priority on education and careers, many Arab Americans
became lawyers, doctors, and engineers.
Workplace discrimination began to be a huge complication in the Arab American
societies, after the 9/11 terrorists attack. A report from the government in 2001 has claimed that
the number of charges filed nationwide, alleging discrimination on the basis of several specific
religions, were four time larger within a year. States with the greatest number of charges include
Texas, California, Florida, Illinois and Arizona; workplace discrimination, hate mail and public
harassment towards Arab Americans workers were also increased (Daraiseh, 2012 & Rabby,
2009). There is also other research on the impact of the 9/11 on the United State labor market
(Raddy and Rodgers 2009). It explained that the most targeted group was mostly Arab
Americans, with higher education that concentrated in sales, business, and hotel and restaurant
industries. It also showed a decline in employment of Muslims and that the targeted group was
mostly young Arab American men between the ages of 16 to 25. These young males also
suffered an increased in work hours without proper compensation from the industries (Clay,
2011).
Arab Americans Communities in the US based on Middle-Man
Minority theory & Power theory
After the 9/11 terrorist attacks, social problems such as discrimination, prejudice, and
racial stereotyping were an ongoing problem for Arab Americans. Race stratification among this
ethnic group is emphasized. Caste System based on Muslims and Arab Americans economic

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powers were ranked and were around average, where economic powers were proved to be rising
and Muslims began to assimilate into American society before the 9/11 attacks. They even made
a huge tuning point in American labor markets. The Arab immigrants had once established the
socio-economic position in American Industries across the United States, where the early Arab
immigrants were employed in peddling, steel, and auto industries. Later on, many of their
descendants (Arab Americans) were abled to gain even higher economic position by getting jobs
in Law firms, Engineering firms, and hospitals; however, all has changed after the attack; Arab
Americans became the lowest in the caste system due to racial discrimination in all aspect in the
American society. Based on the statistics and research aforementioned, Arab Americans
dramatically lost their power, yet no one in the society, nor the government had helped them to
regain their status or power in the country.
Based on the Middle-Man Minority theory, when the early Arab immigrants started to
open their own small retail or grocery stores, most of the owners would rather hire their own
family members from oversea who first settled in the United States, and many of others who
were considered Arab Americans.2 These Arab owners would increase their profits and tried to
help their employees to pay for their credits and loans. On the other hand, the owners could also
save a larger portion of the incomes and had little interaction with the natives. Before the 20th
century, most these owners were in working class. Their class status had gradually increased
before the 9/11 events, but fell dramatically after the terrorist attacks.

The 9/11 attack impacts on Arab Americans communities based on

Robert Parks Race Relations Cycle Theory

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There are three stages of assimilation phase in Robert Parks Theory. They are the

competitive phase, accommodation phase and assimilation phase. During the early 19th centuries,
the early Arab immigrants went through a competitive phase and tried to find employment to pay
for loans and other debts. The locals were not exactly welcoming this group of early immigrants;
in the opposite, prejudice and discrimination against them had risen. The next generations of
these early Arab immigrants were mostly English speaking American-born Arabs, who had tried
so hard to fit into the nativists communities, by even changing their own familys religion and
last name; which is the accommodation phase. At the end of the cycle, assimilation phase
gradually began by the acceptance from the locals. However, the Arab American communities
believed that they had been smashed back down to the competitive stage, the toughest phase of
the three. The biggest problem that Arab Americans are facing today was not restarting the cycle,
yet it is the fear of ossifying in the same phase due of the hatred and constant targeting from the
White Americans. Due to the impalpable future of Arab Americans in the Unites States, it is
having an enormous negative psychological impact on their mental health according to Dr. Amer
(US Government Homeland Security, 2016). The result of Dr. Amers research had shown that
cases that included death threats from the public, workplace discrimination, verbal assaults, and
unprovoked interrogation by government, had been increasing since the 9/11 attack, causing high
levels of depression and anxiety experienced by the majority of the Arab Americans in the
United Stated (US Government Homeland Security, 2016). Unfortunately, the disorientation of
Muslims and Arab Americans are still happening today.

Conclusion

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After the 9/11 terrorist attacks, Muslim Americans became the main target of all ethnic

groups. Over time, numerous researches and studies had shown that Muslim Americans were not
the only victims, but also Arab Americans and immigrants from the Middle East such as Jews,
Turks, and many others who are not considered as Muslims. The challenges of being a Muslim in
the United States are difficult. Several critical social problems that were mentioned in the earlier
text are the real struggles in todays Arab American lives. Many Arab children are struggling for
their future and pursing higher educations, there has been a decrease in employments for most
Arab Americans due to institutionalized discrimination, they are suffering increased cases of
death threats from the public, and experienced black mailing. Arab Americans and Muslim
Americans are constantly facing the informal acts from the public compared to other racial
groups post 9/11 attacks. For example, women who wear Hijab became the victims of vicious
stares in public, and many cartoons display Arab culture in highly negative ways, which tends to
cause white children to verbally insult and disrespect the Arab children in school. This type of
discrimination is very informal; therefore, it is very difficult to put the offenders into justice.
Legal discrimination against Arab Americans is worsening over the past decade post
9/11.3 The United States Department of Homeland Security is enhancing the security around the
national borders and at the airport gates, causing many inconveniences for international business
traders and affecting global economies (US Homeland Security, 2016). In this matter, it is not
only affecting the Arab Americans in the United States, but also the civilians from around the
world. The United States government has made the decisions for building the homeland security
enterprise to protect its own people from terrorist threat. The U.S. citizens do not have much say
in the governments decisions over national defense, nor is there anything they can do to change
the decision that the government has made.

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Religious and educational discrimination are happening in our daily lives. Comparing to

the other types of discriminations, the current society may be able to do much more in helping to
change the quality of Arab American lives, through different programs. For example, state
governments can promote effective educational programs in certain school districts with severe
institutional discrimination against Arab communities, such as Detroit, where many Arab
immigrants began to settle, since early 19th century. Through educational programs, the state
education department can also indirectly assist schools to alter the incorrect mindset of young
children who were affected by social media. Teaching the young ones about respecting others
religious beliefs, as they respect each others; ultimately, persuading them about fact that not all
Muslim Americans are terrorists, especially for non-Arab white children. Emphasizing the
equality of human rights among all races in United States of America, despite their skin colors,
religious beliefs, and cultures.
Educate young people about racism and discrimination in the societies is the best chance
of building a better and racist-free environment in the United States. No one can change the
damages caused by the 9/11 event; however, people can start helping each other to move pass the
hatred against Arab Americans and build a better future for those generations to come. Racism,
discrimination, stereotyping, genocide would only hinder the development of societies of every
aspect in American life. Negative effects include increased unemployment rates, crime rates, and
encouraged violence, which can be correlated to increased death rates, etc. Young people
symbolize the possibilities of the future. Teaching the youth about using correct, sensitive
attitudes toward critical social problems seen today will be the most effective way to gradually
amend all types of societal problems in the United States.

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Notes

1. In Bio-psychosocial perspective son Arab Americans: Culture, Development, and Health,

successful cases were included the judges who ruled in their favor were persuaded by a set of
pseudo-scientific, legal, and religious arguments, including skin color, Christian identity,
more cases details are between page 20-21.
2. As said in American Ethnicity, Aguirre and Turner define Middle-man as small shop
owners in rural areas in the American heartlands
3. The Transportation Security Administration began using AIT, advanced imaging
technology, on all travelers, post 9/11.

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Work Cited

Aguirre, Adalberto, and Jonathan H. Turner. American Ethnicity: The Dynamics and
Consequences of Discrimination. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011. Print.

Abdelhady, Dalia. "The Sociopolitical History of Arabs in the US: Assimilation, Ethnicity
and Global Citizenship." Springer, 2014. Web. 26 Apr. 2016.

Bousquet, Sarah. Arab American Experiences in Education. Feb. 2012. 26 Apr. 2016. Print

Beilock, S. (2010). Choke: what the secrets of the brain reveal about getting it right when
you have to. New York: Free Press.

Clay, Rebecca A. "Muslims in America, Post 9/11." September 2001 Monitor on Psychology.
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Daraiseh, Isra (2012) "Effects of Arab American Discrimination Post 9/11 in the Contexts of
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Higham,J. 1966(orig. 1955). Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 18601925. New York: ... New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. 26 Apr. 2016. Print.

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Moradi, Bonnie, and Nadia Talal Hasan. "Arab American Persons' Reported Experiences of
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Orfalea, G. (2006). The Arab Americans: A history. New York: Olive Branch Press.
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