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Introduction
With the advances in computer power in recent years, there
has been increasing interest in the development of models
to predict the microstructure of steel products, particularly
those processed by thermomechanical treatments1 4 or
fabricated by welding.5 1 1 The driving force for much of
the modelling work has been the need for computer based
systems to control and optimise microstructure and mechanical properties. Linear regression analysis on large databases of information has proved a useful tool in generating
composition structure property relationships.More recently,
neural network techniques9 have enabled prediction of situations too complex for simple analytical models or multiple
regression techniques. Regression and neural network
models often nd use as online models for process control.
However, they are restricted to well de ned data over limited
ranges of composition and process parameters. Such constraints can to a large extent be circumvented by the
development of physical models based on fundamental
metallurgical principles. The major advantage of physical
models is their general applicability. They can be used as
design tools for a wide variety of new materials and products. Classical nucleation and growth theory may, for
example, be used to predict the microstructure of steels
processed to a given austenite grain size and cooled at
different rates through the austenite to ferrite transformation temperature range.4 ,6 8 The transformation sequence
during cooling and the phase proportions of allotriomorphic ferrite, pearlite, Widmanstatten ferrite, bainite and
martensite may be the outputs. The latter are the principal
DOI 10.1179/026708304225010325
February 2004
Vol. 20
143
144
RECONSTRUCTIVE TRANSFORMATION
REGIME
In the high temperature, reconstructive transformation
regime, a change from the austenite to ferrite crystal structure occurs by a reconstruction process involving movement
of atoms across the c/a transformationinterface. The principal
Materials Science and Technology
Ferrite
In low hardenability materials, the rst phase usually
forming on prior austenite grain boundaries during cooling
below the Ae 3 temperature is classically referred to as
allotriomorphic ferrite, as shown schematically in Fig. 1.
The ferrite nuclei have a Kurdjumov Sachs (K S) orientation relationship with one austenite grain and grow into
the adjacent austenite grain with which they should normally
have a random orientation relationship.2 3 At some lower
temperature, ferrite may begin to nucleate on inclusions
inside the austenite grains2 2 ,2 4 and this is termed idiomorphic ferrite (see Fig. 1). The indications are that ferrite
idiomorphs do not have a xed orientation relationship
with the matrix grains into which they grow.2 5
Growth at reconstructive transformation temperatures
tends to be controlled by substitutional element diffusion
away from the c/a interface at low undercooling and carbon
diffusion at high undercooling. Various growth modes
are recognised, in order of decreasing transformation
temperature:2 6
(i) local equilibrium with bulk partition of substitution alloying elements (PLE)
(ii) local equilibrium with negligible partition of substitutional alloying elements (NPLE)
(iii) paraequilibrium, where only the interstitial carbon
atoms diffuse.
The diffusion rate of carbon in austenite may be many
orders of magnitude greater than that of substitutional
atoms at reconstructive transformation temperatures. True
equilibrium segregation during phase transformations at
migrating interfaces is therefore unlikely to be achieved with
regard to all components. Growth under diffusion control
with local equilibrium at the interface is then envisaged.
Two phases may differ either signi cantly (PLE) or
negligibly (NPLE) in terms of substitutional alloy content.
Element concentration or depletion spikes are invoked to
satisfy the thermodynamic constraints. In many cases, as
the transformation temperature is decreased, the relative
rates at which elements are able to diffuse negate the
assumption of local equilibrium, since the interface composition spike would be only several atomic layers thick. In
such cases, the concept of paraequilibrium is applied, i.e.
there is no redistribution of iron or substitution atoms at the
interface between the phases and only the interstitial carbon
atoms diffuse The different growth modes described above
may result in signi cant changes in ferrite growth morphology from equiax grains towards a plate shape (see
below).
Dube et al.1 7 refer to prior austenite grain boundary
allotriomorphic ferrite as GBF. The IIW classi cation
scheme refers to the rst phase forming at reconstructive
transformation temperatures as primary ferrite, termed PF.
Prior austenite grain boundary primary ferrite allotriomorphs are termed PF(G) in the IIW classi cation scheme
2 Morphologies of ferrite at prior austenite grain boundary and intragranular sites in 0.06%C, 1.46%Mn submerged arc weld metal, continuously cooled, iced
brine quenched from 670C22
Pearlite
Classically, pearlite transformation may occur at austenite
grain boundaries or an inhomogeneitysuch as an inclusion.2 3
Ferrite or cementite nucleation may initiate the pearlite
transformation depending on whether the steel is hypo- or
hyper-eutectoid in composition. Growth of a pearlite nodule
into an austenite grain proceeds with the formation of
alternate ferrite and cementite plates or lamellae. Both the
cementite and ferrite possess unique crystallographic orientations within the pearlite nodule.2 3 Edgewise growth of the
plates may occur and also branching of the cementite
lamellae. The rate controlling process in the growth of
pearlite is the diffusion of carbon. As the transformation
temperature is lowered, the driving force for the reaction is
increased but the diffusivity of carbon is decreased so that the
pearlite interlamellar spacing is decreased.
At high transformation temperatures, pearlite is generally
observed as nodules of alternate ferrite and cementite
lamellae that may be quite coarse and degenerate. When
viewed in cross-section, the lamellae may appear as a
ferrite carbide aggregate. As the transformation temperature is lowered, the lamellae become increasingly ne
until the structure becomes irresolvable under the light
145
pearlite
in
0.83%C,
microscope (see Fig. 3). The pearlite may then have a light
etching response. Alternatively, the lamellae may become
subjected to distortion and bending, appearing as a dark
etching, ferrite carbide aggregate or barely resolvable,
somewhat non-lamellar pearlite, often described in older
nomenclature as primary troostite.2 8 ,2 9
In the IIW scheme, FC(P) is used to describe lamellar
pearlite, degenerate or coarse pearlite, and ne colony
or irresolvable pearlite. The term FC is used to describe
ferrite carbide aggregate. At reconstructive transformation temperatures, large islands of pearlite or ferrite
carbide aggregate may be interspersed with prior austenite
grain boundary primary ferrite PF(G). A similar situation
may occur with idiomorphic primary ferrite I(PF) (see
Fig. 4).2 7 In some cases pearlite may be present as microphase (see below).
February 2004
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146
Widmanstatten ferrite
A classic feature of Widmansta
tten ferrite formation is that
it may occur at relatively low undercooling.2 3 The growth
mechanism is thought to involve the simultaneous formation of pairs of mutually accommodating plates so that less
driving force is required for transformation than with
bainite or martensite.3 0 The ferrite plates grow rapidly with
a high aspect ratio (~10 : 1), resulting in parallel arrays.
Widmanstatten ferrite is not the result of a purely displacive
transformation but forms by a paraequilibrium mechanism,3 0 ,3 1 involving the rapid diffusion of interstitial carbon
atoms across the advancing interface into the remaining
austenite during the shear transformation. At the relatively
low undercooling required for Widmansta
tten ferrite formation, microphases of retained austenite, martensite or
ferrite/carbide aggregate (pearlite) may be formed between
the growing ferrite plates.
Widmansta
tten ferrite can easily be confused with bainite.
Dube et al.1 7 describe both prior austenite grain boundary
Widmanstatten ferrite and bainite as ferrite sideplate FS but
reference is also made to intragranular plates IP. The IIW
classi cation scheme refers to all forms of Widmansta
tten
ferrite and bainite as ferrite with second phase FS, although
a distinction may be made in the terminology when
Widmanstatten ferrite can be positively identi ed, e.g.
FS(SP).
Characteristically, primary Widmansta
tten ferrite plates
grow directly from a prior austenite grain boundary, whereas
secondary Widmansta
tten ferrite plates grow from allotrimorphic ferrite at the grain boundaries, as shown schematically in Fig. 5. Primary Widmansta
tten ferrite plates
may also grow from inclusions, while secondary Widmanstatten ferrite plates grow from intragranular idiomorphic
ferrite.2 2 ,3 2
Widmansta
tten ferrite that grows from prior austenite
grain boundary sites is usually seen as colonies of coarse
sideplates with aligned microphase (see Fig. 6), which are
termed FS(A) in the IIW scheme. The individual plates
within an array are separated by low angle boundaries that
are dif cult to resolve under the light microscope, although
careful specimen polishing and etching may reveal them.
Depending on the plane of observation, the microphases
may appear non-aligned. When viewing a cross-section of
ferrite laths that have grown from prior austenite grain
boundaries beneath the plane of observation, all that may
be seen are islands of microphase in a matrix of ferrite
within the prior austenite grains (see Fig. 6). The Widmanstatten ferrite is then classi ed as FS(NA). The present
author and co-workers2 2 have referred to the different
forms of prior austenite grain boundary Widmansta
tten
ferrite as GB(WF) so that a distinction may be made with
intragranular Widmanstatten ferrite as described below.
In the intragranular regions of weld metals and in
some steels,2 2 ,2 7 ,3 2 multiple large plates (aspect ratio>
4 : 1) of Widmanstatten ferrite with aligned microphase
Materials Science and Technology
1: idiomorphic ferrite; 2: prior austenite grain boundary Widmanstatten ferrite with aligned microphase; 3: prior austenite grain
boundary Widmanstatten ferrite with non-aligned microphase
Bainite
Bainite is generally recognised as forming at temperatures
where diffusion controlled transformations are sluggish and
has features in common with low temperature martensitic
1: idiomorphic ferrite; 2: individual plate of Widmanstatten ferrite nucleated on large intragranular inclusions
147
10
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148
12 Growth of bainite sheaves from intragranular inclusions in 0.38%C, 1.39%Mn, 0.039%S, 0.09%V,
0.013%N steel, isothermally transformed, 38 s at
450C: arrow indicates multiple laths of bainite with
carbide particles between as well as within subunits
14
15
Martensite
16
149
Acicular ferrite
Conventionally,2 6 acicular ferrite is recognised as an intragranular nucleated morphology of ferrite in which there are
multiple impingements between grains. The acicular ferrite
nucleates on inclusions inside the prior austenite grains
during the cda transformation. Provided there is a high
density of inclusions, a ne interlocking structure (generally
<5 mm) can be produced.
In the IIW scheme, acicular ferrite is designated AF. For
a long time acicular ferrite was thought to be a single
transformation product. Early work3 8 suggested that it
was intragranularly nucleated Widmansta
tten ferrite. Later
research2 6 provided evidence for intragranularly nucleated
bainite. However, recent research by the author and coworkers2 2 has demonstrated that the nature of acicular
ferrite may be as shown schematically in Fig. 16. Different
reaction products may nucleate on intragranular inclusions
at reconstructive and displacive transformation tempera-
a
a
b
a idiomorphic ferrite (arrowed) nucleated on large inclusions;
b Widmanstatten ferrite plates (arrowed) nucleated on small
inclusions
17
b
a intragranular primary ferrite Widmanstatten ferrite in C Mn
weld metal;22 b intragranular Widmanstatten ferrite bainite
in Ti Mo B alloyed weld metal32
18
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150
Microphases
The different ferrite growth modes of the principal structures described above result in carbon enrichment of the
remaining austenite, leading to associated second phases of
retained austenite, martensite, bainite or ferrite carbide
aggregate (pearlite), depending on the degree of carbon
enrichment of the austenite and the prevailing cooling
conditions. The second phases associated with Widmanstatten ferrite and acicular ferrite are generally quite small
(2 5 mm), and are termed microphases.
PRIMARY FERRITE
In low alloy weld metals, care has to be taken in identifying
primary ferrite due to stereological effects. Ferrite allotriomorphs growing from prior austenite grain boundaries
beneath the plane of observation may appear as polygonal
ferrite grains in the intragranular regions (see Fig. 1). If
these ferrite allotriomorphs are of a size approximately
three times greater than those of surrounding acicular
ferrite laths or grains, it is likely that they are the constituent
PF(I) described in the IIW scheme. It is unlikely that such
large grains are idiomorphic ferrite, I(PF), nucleated on
inclusions as referenced in the literature,2 2 since the latter
tend to nucleate at lower temperatures with relatively little
time for growth (see Fig. 2).
PEARLITE
Problems may arise in classifying pearlite when it is present
along with displacive transformation products.
Materials Science and Technology
FERRITE SIDEPLATE
Bainite and Widmanstatten ferrite may be present in
signi cant amounts in heat treated steels and the coarse
grained HAZ of welds but they are dif cult to classify
individually so that both structures have been generally
referred to as ferrite sideplate.
Widmanstatten ferrite
Classi cation of Widmansta
tten ferrite can prove dif cult
because of its similarity to upper bainite, but certain
guidelines may be followed to avoid confusion.
The free energy requirement or driving force would be
expected to be lower for Widmansta
tten ferrite formation
than for the upper bainite transformation, since the former
is thought to grow by the mutual accommodation of plates
and the latter by sub-units (see above). All else being equal,
therefore, Widmansta
tten ferrite may be expected to occur
at higher temperatures than upper bainite and exhibit a
generally coarser structure with a lower dislocation density.
Furthermore,the microphasesbetween Widmansta
tten ferrite
laths may be expected to be a mixture of pearlite, bainite,
martensite or retained austenite, whereas the nature of
bainite formation (see above) means that cementite particles
may generally be observed between the bainitic ferrite
plates.2 6 Microphases may be revealed by the use of different chemical etchants (see below).
The identi cation of secondary Widmansta
tten ferrite
with aligned microphase, FS(A) in the IIW scheme, is
relatively easy since it grows from existing allotriomorphic
ferrite, but care has to be taken in distinguishing the
boundary between the two structures. Identi cation of
primary Widmansta
tten ferrite is signi cantly more dif cult; it grows directly from prior austenite grain boundaries
and may be more easily confused with upper bainite. The
use of colour etching methods4 0 ,4 1 in conjunction with
Bainite
The effects of steel composition may compound many of the
problems associated with distinguishing Widmansta
tten
ferrite from upper bainite described above.
Low carbon content in bainitic steels can increase the
transformation temperature and result in a coarse lath size
so that bainitic ferrite with aligned second phase, FS(A) in
the IIW scheme, appears similar to Widmanstatten ferrite.
High silicon content in bainitic steels (generally >1%) can
retard the precipitation of carbide from austenite2 6 and
result in martensite or retained austenite microphases
between the bainitic ferrite laths, thereby creating confusion
with Widmansta
tten ferrite. Granular bainite, which tends
to form in continuously cooled, low carbon bainitic steels,
poses a similar problem.2 6 This structure appears as a
relatively coarse aggregate of bainitic ferrite and retained
austenite or martensite islands; the bainitic sub-units have
very thin regions of austenite between them, which cannot
be resolved under the light microscope.2 6 Ultimately, high
resolution SEM, TEM or electron back-scattering diffraction (EBSD) techniques4 3 ,4 4 may be needed to distinguish
these forms of bainite from Widmansta
tten ferrite by
revealing the crystallographic sub-structure and thereby the
mechanism of formation, but some electron metallographic
techniques are time consuming and often dif cult.
When trying to distinguish upper, FS(UB), and lower,
FS(LB), bainite in the IIW scheme, stereological effects may
151
MARTENSITE
Martensite is often present together with bainite in the HAZ
of laser welds and to some extent electron beam welds; these
phases also occur in high strength weld metals.3 2 Most low
carbon steels have martensite start temperatures above
room temperature so that, at slower cooling rates, carbon
atoms can redistribute and precipitate, i.e. autotempering
can take place. It is then dif cult to distinguish between
autotempered martensite, M, and lower bainite, FS(LB), in
the IIW scheme. The carbides precipitated inside the laths in
lower bainite are, however, likely to be coarser and some
interlath carbide should be evident (see above).
Colour etching methods4 0 ,4 1 may be investigatedas a means
of distinguishing between bainite and martensite. Comparatively simple nanohardness measurements4 2 may also
prove useful in separating martensite from other principal
structures,and in distinguishingthe different forms of martensite. Since carbon content generally governs the martensitic
hardness, twinned martensite, M(T), may be expected to
exhibit a much higher hardness than lath martensite, M(L).
ACICULAR FERRITE
Distinguishingthe intragranulartransformationproducts that
compose acicular ferrite, AF in the IIW scheme, is likely to be
very dif cult comparedwith identifying the structure itself. It is
recommended, therefore, that for the purposes of calibrating
models, a pragmatic solution be adopted. Thus measured
volume fractions of acicular ferrite should be compared with
the sum of the intragranularconstituents I(PF)zI(WF)zI(B)
predicted by modelling. However, care should be taken to
distinguish between acicular ferrite, AF, where multiple
impingementoccurs between the different intragranularferrite
morphologies, and the intragranular transformation products
I(PF), I(WF) and I(B), which may grow relatively unimpeded
and may be identi ed in their own right.
MICROPHASES
Microphases are normally revealed using a standard etch
polish technique with a 2% nital etch. However, problems
may arise in distinguishing martensite and retained
austenite, which often occur together as MA phase. TEM
techniques may be employed to separate the phases but are
time consuming and dif cult. The proportion of austenite in
the MA phase may be determined using X-ray diffraction
techniques. In some cases, etching in picral can reveal the
nature of the microphases. Thus cementite may appear
black; a light brown coloration indicates lath martensite; a
yellow-brown colour is likely to be twin martensite while a
grey-white colour is indicative of retained austenite.
February 2004
Vol. 20
Overall
Main
Category terminology
Sub
P*
P*
FC*
FC(P)*
PF(I)
Lamellar pearlite
Degenerate pearlite
Fine colony pearlite
Ferrite carbide aggregate
Idiomorphic ferrite
Bainite
B(GB)
WF(I)
FP(I)
Upper Bainite
Lower bainite
FS(A)*
FS(NA)*
FS(UB)*
FS(LB)*
AF*
FS(I)
FS(NA)*
Pearlite
PF(I)
Principal structure
classication
Colonies of parallel ferrite laths (or sideplates) with microphases aligned between the laths ranging
from pearlite to martensite. Lath boundaries are difcult to resolve. Primary Widmanstatten ferrite
grows from the prior austenite grain boundaries, whereas secondary Widmansta tten ferrite
grows from allotriomorphic ferrite at the boundary
Aggregate of microphase islands and Widmanstatten ferrite within the prior austenite grains;
cross-sections of Widmanstatten ferrite sideplates that grow from prior austenite grain boundaries below
the plane of observation
Multiple coarse Widmanstatten ferrite plates (aspect ratio greater than 4 : 1) with aligned microphases,
which grow from intragranular inclusions. Primary intragranular ferrite sideplates grow from
inclusions, whereas secondary sideplates grow from ferrite idiomorphs associated with inclusions
Individual coarse plates of Widmansta tten ferrite that grow relatively unimpeded from intragranular
inclusions
Fine interlocking structure formed by multiple impingements of individual Widmansta tten ferrite
plates growing from intragranular inclusions
Sheaves of parallel ferrite laths (or sub-units) with cementite particles aligned between the laths. Lath
boundaries are generally irresolvable under the light microscope. Sheaves grow from prior austenite
grain boundaries; sympathetic nucleation of laths from existing sheaves is a common feature
Aggregate of coarse carbides and bainitic ferrite within the prior austenite grains; cross-sections of
bainite sheaves that grow from prior austenite grain boundaries (or existing sheaves) below the plane
of observation
Carbide particles are precipitated between the bainite sub-units. Upper bainite has a higher dislocation
density than primary Widmanstatten ferrite. Bainite may appear as a microphase between Widmansta tten
ferrite sideplates
Fine cementite particles precipitated within as well as between bainitic ferrite plates. Lower bainite
has a generally darker etching response than upper bainite. Difcult to distinguish lower bainite from
autotempered martensite
Polygonal ferrite grains within the prior austenite grains, of a size approximately three times greater
than the surrounding ferrite laths or grains; cross-sections of ferrite allotriomorphs that have grown
from prior austenite grain boundaries below the plane of observation
Ferrite idiomorphs associated with intragranular nucleation sites (large oxide/sulphide inclusions)
in weld metals and particle dispersed steels
Nodules of alternate ferrite/cementite lamellae, which are often difcult to resolve under the optical
microscope. The structure has a rapid etching response in 2% nital and a generally low hardness.
Pearlite may be present as a microphase
Pearlite lamellae viewed in cross-section. Distorted pearlite lamellae may appear as a dark etching
virtually irresolvable ferrite/carbide aggregate known as primary troostite. Difcult to distinguish
ferrite/carbide aggregate from bainite
Ferrite veins or polygonal grains aligned with prior austenite grain boundaries
Comments
152
Thewlis Classication and quantication of microstructures in steels
Lath martensite
Twin martensite
M(L)*
M(T)*
DEFINITION
Using the information gained above, the traditional IIW
classi cation scheme has been modi ed and new terminology de ned as in Table 1. The main and sub-categories of
microstructural constituents of the table re ect the mechanisms of formation of the principal structures and the
characteristic ferrite morphologies produced in the reconstructive and displacive transformation regimes of steels.
Traditionally, the IIW classi cation scheme terminology
places the transformation product rst and the location
second, whereas the reverse is often the case in the wider
published literature.1 7 ,2 2 ,3 2 For consistency, therefore, the
terminology described in Table 1 follows the traditional
IIW notation. Thus, the constituents GB(PF), I(PF),
GB(WF), I(WF), GB(B), I(B) described in the literature2 2
are replaced by PF(GB), PF(I), WF(GB), WF(I), B(GB),
B(I) as main category terms in Table 1. Likewise, the
constituent IFP in the literature3 2 is replaced by the subcategory constituent FP(I) in Table 1.
To avoid con ict in Table 1 between the terminology
adopted for idiomorphic primary ferrite PF(I) and that for
cross-sections of ferrite allotriomorphs growing from prior
austenite grain boundaries below the plane of observation,
the latter terminology has been changed from PF(I) to
PF(NA), i.e. primary ferrite not aligned with prior austenite
grain boundaries. PF(NA) may be added together with
PF(G) to give an overall quantity of reconstructive prior
austenite grain boundary nucleated ferrite PF(GB).
It should be noted in Table 1 that the new sub-category
component terminology automatically de nes its location
either at prior austenite grain boundaries or in intragranular
regions. In practice, therefore, an identi cation system may
be employed which directly links a sub-category component
to the principal structure, e.g. B-FS(A) and WF-FS(A).
Flow charts that incorporate the classi cation and
terminology of Table 1 but provide detailed guidance on
identifying principal structures are shown in Fig. 19. The
key to the ow charts is given in Fig. 20. Separate charts are
provided for austenite grain boundary and intragranular
microstructural components. Progression through the charts
from sub-category component structures to the principal
structures is dependent on answering a number of boxed
questions on a yes/no basis. The questions are derived from
the considerations made in this paper. If the answer to a
question is yes, progression is made to the right of the
chart towards the principal structure. If the answer is no
a move vertically downwards is needed to obtain more
information before, eventually, progress is made to the right
again. The ow charts thus potentially provide a means of
quantifying complex steel microstructures in terms of the
principal structures, thereby enabling the generation of either
database information or data for calibration of theoretical
models.
*Retained IIW terminology.
M*
M*
Martensite
153
Sheaves of ne bainitic ferrite plates with aligned carbide, which grow from intragranular inclusions
Individual ne plates of bainitic ferrite that grow relatively unimpeded from intragranular inclusions.
Very ne interlocking structure formed by multiple impingements of individual bainitic ferrite plates
growing from intragranular inclusions
Low carbon martensite with a lath structure and heavily dislocated sub-structure. Lath martensite has
a slow etching response in 2% nital and a generally high hardness. Colonies of martensite may form
within the prior austenite grains. Smaller colonies may be treated as microphases. Microphases may
consist of martensite with retained austenite (MA)
High carbon martensite with a plate structure and twinned sub-structure
FS(I)
FP(I)
AF*
B(I)
Sub
Main
Category terminology
Overall
Principal structure
classication
Table 1
(Continued )
Comments
APPLICATION
To assess the accuracy of the new classi cation scheme and
identify discrepancies between operators, exercises were
carried out to quantify widely different microstructures.
The microstructures were obtained by thermally cycling
steels of compositions 0.051 0.17%C, 0.51 1.46%Mn in a
dilatometer to peak temperatures of 900 1300C and
cooling at rates between 2 and 200 K s2 1 . Full details of the
quanti cation exercises, including a complete statistical
Materials Science and Technology
February 2004
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154
20
155
Key to ow charts
February 2004
Vol. 20
156
f
a 0. 051%C, 0. 51%Mn, 1200C, 10 K s2 1; b 0.17%C, 0.52%Mn, 1300C, 10 K s2 1; c 0.13%C, 1.02%Mn, 1300C, 2 K s2 1; d 0.13%C,
1.02%Mn, 1200C, 10 K s2 1; e 0. 13%C, 1.02%Mn, 1300C, 50 K s2 1; f 0.13%C, 1.02%Mn, 1300C, 200 K s2 1
21 Microstructural elds of steels thermally cycled in dilatometer to temperatures of 1200 or 1300C and cooled at
rates between 2 and 200 K s2 1 (800 500C)
157
Table 2 Volume percentages of microstructural constituents obtained by single operator point counting microstructural
elds (see Fig. 21) using traditional IIW and new classi cation schemes
New scheme
Principal structure
IIW scheme
Phase, %
6.4
WF
21.0
B
0
M
0
2
0.17%C, 0.52%Mn, 1300C, 10 K s 1 (Fig. 21b)
PF
19.7
P
54.7
WF
25.6
B
0
M
0
0.13%C, 1.02%Mn, 1300C, 2 K s2 1 (Fig. 21c)
PF
28.4
P
9.4
WF
36.4
B
20 .6
M
5.2
0.13%C, 1.02%Mn, 1200C, 10 K s2 1 (Fig. 21d)
PF
14.7
P
2.6
WF
55 .5
B
22 .6
M
4.6
0.13%C, 1.02%Mn, 1300C, 50 K s2 1 (Fig. 21e)
PF
0
P
WF
0.5
B
82.4
M
17.1
0.13%C, 1.02%Mn, 1300C, 200 K s2 1 (Fig. 21f)
PF
0
P
WF
B
M
0
0
0.3
99.7
Component structure
Phase, %
72.6
0
0.7
5.7
10.8z10.2
PF(G)
PF(NA)
FC(P)
FC
FS(A)zFS(NA)
M
0
19.7
0
2.4
52.3
17.7z7.9
PF(G)
PF(NA)
FC(P)
FC
FS(A)zFS(NA)
M
PF(G)
PF(NA)
FC(P)
FC
FS(A)zFS(NA)zFS(LB)zFS(I)
28.4
0
1.6
7.8
34.1z20.9z1.7z0.3
5.2
M
PF(G)
PF(NA)
FC(P)
FC
FS(A)zFS(NA)zFS(LB)
14.7
0
2.6
0
30.2z31.2z16.7
4.6
M
PF(G)
PF(NA)
FC(P)
FC
FS(A)zFS(NA)zFS(LB)
0
0
0
0
25.1z14.6z43.2
17.1
PF(G)
PF(NA)
FC(P)
FC
FS(A)zFS(NA)zFS(LB)
99.7
0
0
0
0
0z0z0.3
EVOLUTION
The new classi cation scheme de ned above has attempted to
place knowledge of the classi cation and quanti cation of
steel microstructures on a rm contemporarybasis. However,
it is of interest to consider possible future developments.
The guidelines proposed for phase recognition in the new
scheme are based on the mechanisms of formation of principal structures, but there are still questions to be addressed
with respect to the kinetics of reactions, notably clari cation of the growth mechanism of bainite. Improved knowledge in this area should result in greater accuracy in
distinguishing bainite from other phases. Overall, a better
understanding is needed of the dynamics of phase transformations under continuous cooling transformation conditions, where phases may form simultaneously and local
uctuations in transformation conditions can make it
dif cult to recognise the transition between one phase
Materials Science and Technology
February 2004
Vol. 20
158
23
24
159
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Dr S. V. Parker, Dr N. A.
Whittaker, Dr P. L. Harrison, Dr C. Wildash, Dr J. Butler,
Dr S. A. Butler, Professor A. A. Howe and I. W. Martin of
Corus RD&T, for helpful discussions and suggestions. The
author is also grateful to Professor R. C. Thomson,
Loughborough University, and Dr D. J. Abson, TWI, for
helpful comments. Thanks are nally extended to ECSC
partners at TWI (UK), CSM (Italy), CEIT (Spain) and
IRSID (France) for support under ECSC steel research
programme 7210.PR/245(F5.01/00).
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