Metal Cutting PDF

The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process;
By Dr. Saied. M. Darwish
CHAPER ONE: Fits and Tolerances
CHAPTER ONE:
FITS AND TOLERANCES
1.1 Dimensional Tolerances Some of the dimensional tolerances terms are defined as
following:
1.1.1 Dimension:
A geometrical characteristic such as length, diameter, angle, center distance, etc.
1.1.2 Size:
Size is the designation of magnitude (when a value is assigned to a dimension, it is referred to
as the size of the dimension.)
1.1.3 Actual size (of a part):

The value of the size as practically obtained by measurements.
1.1.4 Basic size:

The size by reference to which the limits of size are fixed.
Figure: 1 Basic terms of dimensions and limits
1.1.5 Design size:

The combination of the basic size and the limits of size chosen by the designer.
11..6 Limits of size:

The two extreme permissible sizes of a part between which the actual size should lie.
1.1.7 Maximum limit of size:

The greater of the two limits of size.
1.1.8 Minimum limit of size:

The smaller of the two limits of size.
1.1.9 Maximum material limit:

The maximum limit of size of an external dimension or the minimum limit of size of an
internal dimension.
1.1.10 Minimum material limit:

The minimum limit of size of an external dimension or the maximum limit of size of an
internal dimension.
1.1.11 Tolerance:
Difference between the maximum limit of size and the minimum limit of size (difference
between upper deviation and the lower deviation).
Tolerance zone
Tolerance
Zone line
1.1.12 Zero line:

The zero line is the line of zero deviation and represents the basic size.
1.1.13 Upper deviation:

Algebraical difference between the maximum limit of size and the corresponding basic size.
1.1.14 Lower deviation:

Algebraical difference between the minimum limit of size and the corresponding basic size.
1.1.15 Tolerance zone:

Zone comprised between the two lines representing the limits of tolerance, and defined by its
magnitude (tolerance) and by its position to the zero line.
1.1.16 Unilateral tolerance:

Is the tolerance in which the variation in size is permitted only in one direction from the basic
size.
1.1.17 Bilateral tolerance:

Is the tolerance in which the variation in size is permitted in both directions from the basic
size.

1.1.18 Shaft:
Term used by convention to designate all external features of a part, including parts which are
not cylindrical.
1.1.19 Hole:
Term used by convention to designate all internal features of parts, including parts which are
not cylindrical.
1.1.20 Basic shaft:

It is the shaft, the upper deviation of which is zero. It is the shaft chosen, as a basis for a shaft
basis system of fit.
Basic shaft
1.1.21 Basic hole:
It is the hole, the lower deviation of which is zero. It is the hole chosen, as a basis for a hole
basis system of fit.
Basic hole
1.1.22 Fit: Relationship resulting from the difference, before assembly, between the sizes of
the two parts which are to be assembled.
Figure 2: Clearance and interference fits
1.1.23 Basic size of a fit:

Common value of the basic size of the two parts of a fit.
1.1.24 Clearance fit:

The fit which always provides a clearance (the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely above
that of the shaft)
hole
Clearance fit
shaft
1.1.25 Interference fit:

The fit which always provides an interference (the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely
below that of the shaft)
shaft
Interference fit
hole
1.1.26 Transition fit:

The fit which may provide either a clearance or an interference (the tolerance zones of the
hole and the shaft overlap)
1.1.27 Minimum clearance:

In a clearance fit, difference between the minimum size of the hole and the maximum size of
the shaft.
hole
Min. clearance
shaft
1.1.28 Maximum clearance:
In a clearance or a transition fit, difference between the maximum size of the hole and the
minimum size of the shaft.
shaft
hole
Max. clearance
shaft
Max. clearance
hole
1.1.29 Minimum interference:

In an interference fit, magnitude of the (negative) difference between the maximum size of
the hole and the minimum size of the shaft, before assembly.
shaft
Min. interference
hole
1.1.30 Maximum interference:

Magnitude of the (negative) difference between the minimum size of the hole and the
maximum size of the shaft, before assembly.
shaft
shaft
Max. interference
Max. interference
hole
hole
1.1.31 Shaft-basis system of fits:

System of fits in which different clearances and interferences are obtained by associating
various holes with a single basic shaft.
1.1.32 Hole-basis system of fits:

System of fits in which different clearances and interferences are obtained by associating
various shafts with a single basic hole.
Figure 3: Basic hole and shaft system
Figure 4: Hole and shaft system
10
1.2 Symbols for Tolerances and Deviation and Symbols for Fits
1.2.1 Tolerance values:

The tolerance value is a function of the basic size and is indicated by a number
called the grade.
1.2.2 Tolerance position:

The position of the tolerance zone with respect to the zero line, is indicated by a
letter symbol, a capital letter for holes and a small letter for shafts.
The tolerance size thus defined by its basic value followed by a symbol composed
of a letter and a number.
Example: 45 g7
1.2.3 A fit:
A fit is indicated by the basic size common to both components, followed by
symbol corresponding to each component, the hole being quoted first
Example: 45 H8 g7
Possibly 45 H8 g7
Or 45 H8/g7
1.3: Grades of tolerances

Eighteen grades of tolerances are provided IT01, ITO and IT1 to IT16
The Table 1.1 gives the possible degrees of precision or grade of tolerance, achieved with
different machine tools.
11

Table 1.1: Possible degree of precision or grade of tolerance
Tolerance grade
I T 01
IT0
IT1
IT2
IT3
IT4
IT5
IT6
IT7
IT8
IT9
I T 10
I T 11
I T 12
I T 13
I T 14
I T 15
I T 16
Intended for
Applicable to components or machines

Slip blocks, Reference gauges
Gauges
High quality gauges
Fits
Ball bearing
Grinding, Honing
Broaching
Center lathe turning
Worn automatic lathe
Milling
Drilling, Rough turning
Not for fits
Light press work

Press work
Die casting
Stamping
Sand casting
Figute 5: Position of the various tolerance zones for a given diameter in the ISO system
12
Figure 6: Respective positions of various tolerance zones for hole
13
14
1.4 Fundamental tolerance unit
1.4.1Values of standard tolerances:

T = 10 0.2 (G 1) (0.45 3D + 0.001D)
G = Tolerance grade IT6 IT 16
K = multiplier factor, depending on the tolerance grade G
1.4.2 Fundamental deviations:
1.4.2.1 Shaft deviation:

1) For each letter symbol defining the position of the tolerance zone, the magnitude
and sign of one of the two deviations which is known as the fundamental deviations (upper
deviation) es or lower deviation ei are determined by a formulae given in Table 6.
2) The other deviation is derived from the first one using the magnitude of the
standard tolerance IT, by means of the following algebraic relationship:
ei = es IT
or
es = ei + IT
3) The fundamental deviation given by the formulae in Table 6 is, in principle, that
corresponding to that limit closet to the zero line, in other words, the upper deviation es for
shafts (a) to (h), and the lower deviation ei for shafts (j) to (Zc).
15

1.4.2.2 Hole deviation:
For each letter symbol, defining the position of the tolerance zone, the magnitude and
sign of the fundamental deviation (lower deviation EI for holes (A) to (H) and upper
deviation ES for holes (J) to (Zc), are derived from the fundamental deviation es or ei
of the shaft with the same letter.
1) EI = - es
for A to H
for J to Zc
ES = -ei
2) The other deviation is derived from the first one, using the magnitude of the tolerance IT
by means of the following relationships.
ES = EI + IT
or
EI = ES - IT
1.4.3 Numerical values:

Fundamental shaft deviations:
Table 1.2 gives, for each dimension step, the values of the fundamental shaft
deviation:
Upper deviation es for shafts with symbols (a) to (h).
Lower deviation ei for shafts with symbols (J) to (Zc).
The other deviation can be derived from the fundamental deviation, as indicated before, by
adding or subtracting, as the case may be, the value of the standard tolerance IT are given
in Table 1.2 for the grade in question.
16
Figure 7:
Two comparable fits, with basic hole and basic shaft, in which a hole of a given grade is
associated with a shaft with next finer grade (H7/P6 and P7/h6), have exactly the same
clearance or interference.
17
Table 1.2: Values of fundamental tolerances
Standard tolerances in
microns(0.001mm) for diameter
steps in millimeters
Grade
<3
> 3 to 6
> 6 to 10
> 10 to 18
> 18 to 30
> 30 to 50
> 50 to 80
> 80 to 120
> 120 to 180
> 180 to 250
> 250 to 315
> 315 to 400
> 400 to 500
01
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
2
2.5
3
4
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.8
1
1
1.2
1.5
2
3
4
5
6
0.8
1
1
1.2
1.5
1.5
2
2.5
3.5
4.5
6
7
8
1.2 2
1.5 2.5
1.5 2.5
2
3
2.5 4
2.5 4
3
5
4
6
5
8
7 10
8 12
9 13
10 15
up to 1 mm, grades 14 to 16 are not provided
10
11
12
13
14*
15*
16*
3
4
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
4
5
6
8
9
11
13
15
18
20
23
25
27
6
8
9
11
13
16
19
22
25
29
32
36
40
10
12
15
18
21
25
30
35
40
46
52
57
63
14
18
22
27
33
39
46
54
63
72
81
89
97
40
48
58
70
84
100
120
140
160
185
210
230
250
60
75
90
110
130
160
190
220
250
290
320
360
400
100
120
150
180
210
250
300
350
400
460
520
570
630
140
180
220
270
330
390
460
540
630
720
810
890
970
250
300
360
430
520
620
740
870
1000
1150
1300
1400
1550
400
480
580
700
810
1000
1200
1400
1600
1850
2100
2300
2500
600
750
900
1100
1300
1600
1900
2200
2500
2900
3200
3600
4000
By Dr. Saied. M. Darwi h
19
PROBLEMS
Problem 1
Define each of the following terms (use sketches whenever possible)
Basic size - Dimension - Size - Maximum material limit - Upper deviation - Lower
deviation - Basic hole - Basic shaft - Transition fit - Clearance fit - Maximum
interference Straightness error - Cylindricity error - Roundness error - Run out (axial
and radial).
Problem 2
A shaft with a nominal size of 42 mm is fitted with an inner ring. The fitting condition is
K 5/h6.
- Determine the type of fit between the shaft and the hole.
- Mention, whether it is a hole-based or a shaft-based.
- Find the shaft and hole dimensions with upper and lower deviations.
Problem 3
(a)
Describe by sketch the available classes of fits. What is the

difference between the unilateral and bilateral tolerance systems.
Then sketch a unilateral hole-based clearance fit.
(b)
A shaft with a nominal size of 35 mm is fitted with an inner region of a ball

bearing bearing (hole). The fitting condition is H7/P6
- Determine which type of the fit class is between the shaft and the hole. Find the
hole and shaft dimensions with upper and lower deviations.
Problem 4
Figure (1-a), shows a stepped shaft with four concentric diameters and a flange which must
run true with the datum axis. The shaft is to be located within journals at X and Y and these
are identified as datums. Fig. (1-b) shows a group of dial gauges used to test the geometrical
tolerances given in Fig. (1-a). Define each of these geometrical tolerances, ten give the
reading that each dial gauge should indicate.
CHAPTER ONE: Fits and Tolerances
20
CHAPTER TWO:
21
FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL CUTTING
2.1 Geometry of single point tool

The chip removal process may be performed by cutting tools of definite geometry. These
cutting tools can be classified as single point cutting tool, used in lathe, planer and, slotter
and multi point cutting tool used in milling, drilling and broaching.
A typical single point cutting tool for lathe and its geometry is shown in figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Nomenclature of a single point cutting tool
2.1.1 Right cut tool

A right cut tool is the tool in which the main cutting edge faces the headstock of the lathe,
when the tool is clamped and in this case the tool cuts from right to left.
2.1.2 Left cut tool

In this case the main cutting edge faces the tailstock of the lathe and consequently the tool
cuts from left to right as shown in figure 2.2.
22
CHAPTER TWO: Fundamentals of Metal Cutting
Left cut
Right cut
Figure 2.2: Two basic types of single point cutting tools
2.1.3 Tool planes

To define the tool angles, some reference planes are suggested.
a-The basic plane: Is the plane containing the tool base.
b-Auxiliary plane of main cutting edge: Is the plane containing the main cutting edge and
perpendicular to the basic plane.
c- Auxiliary plane perpendicular to the projection of main cutting edge: It is the plane
perpendicular to the projection of the main cutting edge and both planes mentioned above. As
shown in figure 2.3
Figure 2.3: Tool planes
23

2.2 Tool angles
The main tools angles are shown Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Single point cutting tool angles

2.2.1 Clearance angle : It is the angle between the main flank and the auxiliary plane z,
measured in the auxiliary plane c.
2.2.2 Wedge angle : It is the angle between the tool face and the main flank, measured in
the auxiliary plane c.
2.2.3 Rake angle : It is the angle between the tool face and a plane passing through the
point of the intersection of the main cutting edge with auxiliary plane c and parallel to the
basic plane a, it also measured in the auxiliary plane c.
2.2.4 Cutting angle : It is the sum of the clearance angle and wedge angle.
24

According to the figure.
90
The rake angle may be positive when the face slopes downwards, and negative when the face
slope is upward, with respect to the basic plane. It is equal to zero when the face is parallel to
the basic plane.
2.2.5 Auxiliary angles

In addition to the above mentioned main angles, the single point tool has auxiliary angles,
' ' ' 90

2.2.6 Nose angle
It is the angle included between the projections of the main and auxiliary cutting edges on the
basic plane.
2.2.7 Setting angles
It is the angle between the projection of the main cutting edge on the basic plane and the
direction of the feed.
Generally the tool angles are chosen with respect to:
1- The material to be machined, negative rake for hard and brittle materials and positive
for ductile materials.
2- The tool material.
3- The machining method.
25

2.3 Requirements of tool materials:
2.3.1 High hardness and high hot hardness: The tool material must posses higher hardness
then that of the machined workpiece. It should have high hot hardness, (the ability to retain
hardness at high temperatures).
2.3.2 High wear resistance: The tool material must resist mechanical abrasion caused by the
sliding contact with the chips and machined surfaces.
2.3.3 High strength and toughness (impact resistance): The tool material should have
sufficient strength and toughness to withstand static and impact loads.
2.3.4 High thermal conductivity: Cutting tool materials possing higher thermal
conductivity is desirable, since it enables part of the heat generated at the cutting edge
to be transferred readily to the tool post and machine parts.
2.3.5 Low cost: For economical production, the tool cost must be as low as possible.
2.4 Common tool materials

2.4.1 Tool carbon steels: It contain 0.6 1.4 percent carbon and low percentages of Mn, Si,
S, P, and heat treated, it withstand temperatures < 250C.
2.4.2 Alloy tool steels: The cutting performance of steel can be improved by adding alloying
elements such as chromium (Cr), vanadium (V), molybdenum (Mo) and tungsten (Tn). When
these steels properly heat treated, they can work at temperatures up to 300C.
2.4.3 High speed steels: It contain 8 19% tungsten and 3.8 4.6% chromium. They can
withstand temperatures up to 600C.
2.4.4 Cemented carbides: Also known as sintered carbide, they have high wear resistance at
high temperatures. These carbides are used to produces cutting tools by powder metallurgy
technology.
26

Carbide cutting tools can be used at considerably higher cutting speeds, and they can be used
in case of those materials which are hard and difficult to cut by other tools. The applications
of common sintered carbides are summarized in Table 2.1.
Common types of carbides used in the manufacturing of cutting tool are as following.
2.4.4.1 Straight tungsten cemented carbide: It consists of grains of tungsten carbide held in
a matrix of cobalt. It also known as tungsten carbide, used for machining of cast iron and
other ductile materials.
WC Co Tungsten Carbide
2.4.4.2 Titanium -Tungsten cemented carbides: Contain grains of solid solution of

tungsten carbide in carbide of titanium bonded by cobalt. It can be used for machining of
unhardened carbon and alloy steel.
WC
Tungsten
Carbide
TiC
Titanium
Carbide
Co
Titanium-tungsten Carbide
Cobalt
(binding agent)
2.4.4.3 Titanium Tantalum Tungsten cemented carbides: Contain grains of solid

solution of titanium carbide in tantalum and tungsten carbide, cobalt is used as binding agent.
TiC +
Titanium
Carbide
WC
Tungsten
Carbide
TaC
Tantalum
Carbide
Co
Cobalt
(binding agent)
According to ISO, sintered carbides are grouped into three main groups, identified by the
letters P(blue), M(yellow), and K(red).
27
1- GroupP: Mainly intended for machining of steels and they contain a relatively
higher percentage of titanium carbide and tantalum carbide. Titanium carbide and
tantalum carbide are characterized by their hardness and lower toughness. Therefore,
they can withstand high speeds but they are sensitive to shocks and vibration.
2- Group K: Mainly composed of tungsten carbide and Cobalt. Tungsten carbide is
characterized by its toughness, used for machining materials producing short broken
chips and they withstand shocks and vibrations.
3- Group M: It is an intermediate group that contains higher percentage of tungsten
carbide. They are tougher than those in group P. used for machining of cast iron and
steels.
2.4.5 Ceramic tool materials
Ceramic materials are made by compacting followed by sintering of aluminum oxides at high
temperature (1700C). They are enable to machine all materials at very high cutting speeds
with higher surface finish and no coolant is required. The ceramic tools are inexpensive as
compared with cemented carbide tools. Al2O3 is the common material used in producing
ceramic. Brittleness and low impact strength are the disadvantages of ceramic. When ceramic
tools replaced sintered carbides, the machining time is reduced by 30 50 %, due to the
increase in cutting speeds.
2.4.6 Diamonds
Diamonds are the hardest materials; they can work up to 1500C. It is found in nature or
synthetically produced from ordinary graphite by subjecting it to extremely high pressures
and temperatures. They are used for finishing ferrous metals and alloys, dressing and truing
grinding wheels. Metal cutting tools, wire drawing dies, penetrators of hardness testers, and
lapping powder are common applications of diamonds.
28

2.4.7 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
Cubic Boron Nitride is the hardest known material next to diamond. It is ment to transform
the crystal structure of carbon from hexagonal to cubic. CBN does not react with iron and
nickel, therefore the applications of CBN is the machining of steel and nickel based alloys.
CBN is expensive, and the application must justify the additional tooling cost.
Figure 2.5: Improvement in cutting tool materials have reduced machining time
Figure 2.6: Typical hot hardness relationship for selected tool materials. Plain carbon steel
shows a rapid loss of hardness as temperature increases, while cemented carbide and
ceramics are significantly harder at elevated temperatures.
29

2.5 Methods of fixation of sintered carbides, ceramics and diamond tools
The cutting tools made from sintered carbides, ceramic and diamonds are available in the
form of tips (inserts). These inserts can be used with the common tool shank. There are two
methods of fixation commonly used. One is brazing and the other is mechanical clamping,
both methods have their advantages and disadvantages.
2.5.1 Mechanical clamping
Mechanical clamping is used for cemented carbides, ceramics, and other hard materials. In
this method the cemented carbide, ceramic, and diamond inserts clamped mechanically with
the tool shank.
2.5.2 Brazing
In this method of fixation, the tool bits are bonded with the shank by applying soldering
materials.
2.6 Disadvantages of mechanical clamping
Mechanical clamping of cutting inserts does not always ensure a contact stiffness that
is sufficiently high to prevent vibrations which develop in machining.
These vibrations shorten the life of the insert and often produce machined surfaces
with poor finish.
The clamping arrangement is often of comparatively large size, which in many cases
limits the cutting parameters of the tool such as depth of cut, width of cut.
2.7 Disadvantages of brazing
Micro fissures are often produced due to the high temperature of the brazing
operation.
The proportion of rejects due to cracks in tips is 10 40%.
High skills is required for brazing.
Difficulty in changing the worn insert.
30
Figure 2.7: Method of fixation brazing and mechanical clamping
31
Table (2.1): Application of different types of sintered carbides

Group
P
(blue)
Type
P01
Steel and cast steel
P10
Steel and cast steel
P20
Steel, carbon steel, tempered

cast iron
P30
Steel, carbon steel, tempered

cast iron
P40
&P50
M10
M
(yellow)
M20
M30
M40
K01
K
(red)
Material machined
K10
K20
K30
K40
Steel, carbon
enclosures
steel
with
Steel,
carbon
steel,
manganese carbon steel, cast
iron, alloy cast iron
Steel, cast steel, austen steel,
manganese steels, cast iron,
Steel, cast steel, austen steel,
cast iron, heat resistant steels
Automatic
steels,
light
metals
Hard cast iron, aluminum
alloys with high Si contents,
hard
steels,
plastics,
porcelane
Cast iron BH>220, copper,
brass, aluminum, wood
Cast iron BH<220, copper,
brass, aluminum, wood
Cast and steels of low
strength, wood
Soft and hard wood, nonferrous metals
Application
Fine turning and boring, high speeds,
small chip cross-sections, high accuracy
and good surface quality, vibrations not
allowed.
Turning, copying, threading, milling,
high speeds, small and medium chip
cross-section
Turning, copying, milling, medium chip
cross-section, medium speeds, fine
planning
Turning, milling, planning, small and
medium speeds, medium and great chip
cross-sections
Turning, planning, low speeds, great
chip cross-sections may be applied on
automatics
Turning, planning, low speeds, great
chip cross-sections may be applied on
automatics
Turning, milling, medium cutting
speeds, medium chip cross-sections
Turning, milling, planning, medium
cutting speeds, medium chip crosssections
Turning, form turning, cutting off;
applied on automatics
Turning, fine turning and boring, fine
milling, scraping
Turning, milling, boring, reaming,

scraping, broaching
Turning, milling, planning, reaming,
broaching
Turning, milling, planing
Turning, milling, planing
32
M
(yellow)
K (red)
Type
Steel, Cast
Steels,
tempered C.I.
P 01.2
P 01.3
P 01.4
P 05
P 10
P 20
P 25
P 30
P 40
P 50
C.I, alloy C.I.

tempered
C.I., nonferrous
metals,
Steels,
Manganese
steel, steel,
cast steel
C.I. hard C.I;
nitrided steel,
non-ferrous
metals, wood,
plastics, non
metallic
materials
1 2
TiC
TaC
%
Co
%
64
43
33
18
28
14
20
8
12
15
6
6
5
5
9
10
9
10
13
17
10
10
10
6
6
8
9
15
4
3
2
2
1
-
4
6
6
6
9
12
WC
%
Rest
Spec.
wt.
g/cm3
Bend str.
Kg/mm2
Compr.
Str.
Kg/mm2
P (blue)
Material
machined
Composition
Vickers
Kg/mm2
Group
Hardness 1
Toughness
2
Table (2.2): Composition, mechanical and physical properties of different types of

sintered carbide.
7.2
8.5
10.1
12.2
10.7
11.9
12.5
13.1
12.7
12.5
1800
1750
1750
1700
1600
1500
1450
1450
1400
1300
75
90
100
110
130
150
175
175
190
210
490
500
500
500
470
400
53,
54,
55,
56,
56,
52,
13.1
13.4
14.4
13.6
1700
1550
1450
1300
135
160
180
210
500
480
440
53
57
54
15.0
14.5
14.8
14.8
14.5
14.3
1800
1750
1650
1550
1400
1300
120
135
150
170
190
210
590
570
550
480
450
63
63
62
58
57
Mod. o
Kg/
45,
1 2
M 01
M 20
M 30
M 40
K 01
K 05
K 10
K 20
K 30
K 40
12
Rest
Rest
33
Table (2.3) : Ks Values according to Prof. Kienzle (1957)
ks = ks1.1 h-z
Strength or
hardness
Kg/mm2
St 50
52
0.26
0.74
St 60
62
0.17
St 70
72
Ck 45
Material
1-z
Ks 1.1
h = 0.1mm
h = 2.5mm
199
361
158
0.83
211
308
182
0.30
0.70
226
450
174
67
0.14
0.86
222
304
196
Ck 60
77
0.18
0.82
231
315
181
16Mn Cr5
77
0.26
0.74
210
383
167
18Cr Ni5
63
0.30
0.70
226
451
175
34Cr Mo4
73
0.26
0.74
250
450
200
Hard CI
RC 46
0.19
0.81
206
319
174
Grey CI
HB 200
0.26
0.74
116
211
93
h = 1mm
34
CHAPTER THREE: Mechanics of Metal Cutting
CHAPTER THREE:
MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING
3.1 Mechanics of metal cutting

Till now, there is conflicting evidence about the nature of the deformation zone in metal
cutting. This has led to two basic schools of thought in analyzing the metal cutting
operation.
Many workers such as Merchant have favored the thin plane model, where as some
others such as Palmer & Oxley have based their analysis on a thick plastic zone.
The observations indicate that the thick model may describe the cutting process at very
low cutting speed, and at higher cutting speeds, the thin model is likely to be the most
useful for practical cutting conditions.
Here we shall deal only with Merchant analysis which is based on the thin-zone model.
Figure 3.1: The two basic models for chip formation
3.2 Basic methods of metal cutting

There are two basic methods of metal cutting using a single point tool, namely orthogonal
or two dimensional and oblique or three dimensional cutting.
3.2.1 Oblique cutting

In this case the resulting cutting force R is resolved into three mutually perpendicular
components acting on the tool, as shown in figure 3.2, these components are

A:
The main cutting force Ps, which is tangential to the surface of the cut and
coincidence with the direction of the cutting speed V.
B:
The axial or feed force P f which acts parallel to the work axis, in the opposite
direction of the feed motion.
C:
Radial force Pr which is acting in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the
work.
The resultant cutting force R is
R Ps Pf Pr
2
The relationship between the three components, depends on the cutting variables, tool
geometry, work material, and tool wear.
Figure 3.2: Force components in Oblique cutting
35

3.2.2 Orthogonal cutting
The essential features of orthogonal cutting are:
1: The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to the direction of tool travel.
2: The cutting edge clears the width of the workpiece on either ends.
3: Only two perpendicular components of the cutting force are acting on the tool, that is
the entire force system lies in a single plane as shown in figure 3.3
Figure 3.3: Orthogonal cutting
3.3 Measuring the cutting force components

When using the three components force dynamometer, the values of the three
components can be measured.
1:
The main cutting force Ps is the power component and is responsible for
producing internal shear.
2:
The feed force Pf forms the energy required to feed the tool into the work.
36

3:
The radial force Pr is a result of the elastic deflection of the work surface being
cut.
Both Ps and P f are responsible for lateral deflection and hence the accuracy of the
product.
The examples of orthogonal cutting are mentioned in figure 3.4
Figure 3.4: Examples of orthogonal cutting
37
38
PROBLEMS
Problem 1
A shaper tool, making an orthogonal cut, has a -10 rake angle. The depth of cut t 1 = 0.6
mm, the width of cut b = 3 mm. The cutting speed Vc = 40 m/min. Two components
dynamometer is used to determine the main cutting force (P s = 3600 N), and normal
component (Pf = 2400 N). A high speed photograph shows a shear plane angle 20.
Calculate:
1. The expected chip thickness t 2.
2. The shearing stress on the shear plane s
3. The machining power Pm.
4. The specific cutting energy k s.
Draw to scale the Merchant force diagram and determine
1. Friction force Pfr
2. Shearing forced Psh
Problem 2
Derive an expression for the spec. cutting energy k s in terms of shear angle and the
shear strength of the work material s in orthogonal cutting.
Problem 3
An orthogonal cut 3.0 mm wide is made at a speed of 45 m/min and a feed rate of 25
mm/rev, with a high-speed steel tool having a 15 rake angle. The chip thickness ratio r
is found to be 0.58, the cutting force, Ps is 1000 N and the normal force Pf is 280 N.
Calculate:
- chip thickness t2.
- shear plane angle
- resultant cutting force R.
- machining power Pm and spec. cutting energy ks
Draw to scale the Merchant force diagram and determine
- coeff. of friction on the tool face
- the force component normal to the shear plane P ns
Problem 4
A workpiece is being cut at Vc = 100 m/min. The machining power is found to be 3 kW.
The feed f = 0.2 mm/rev., and depth of cut t=0.5mm.
a) What is the main cutting force Ps in N.
b) What is the spec. cutting energy k s in N/mm2.
c) Estimate the necessary machining time if the diameter of the machined bar is
D = 50 mm and its length = 250 mm.
Problem 5
Calculate the main cutting force component P s for the following turning
operation:
Material: mild steel
spec. cutting energy k s
initial diam. of work
final diam. of work
feed rate f
= 3500 N/mm2
= 80 mm
= 74 mm )
= 0.4 mm/rev,
Calculate then the machining power if the spindle speed n = 710 r.p.m.
Problem 6
In a test to determine the main cutting force through power measurement during turning
operation, the following data are obtained.
Input power at full load
Input power at no load
W1 = 2100 Watt
W2 = 500 Watt
Calculate:
1- The spec. cutting energy ks of the machined material if V c = 30 m/min,
chip cross-section = 0.25x1.5 mm2.
2- The lathe efficiency under the given machining conditions.
39
CHAPTER FOUR: Tool Wear and Tool Life
CHAPTER FOUR:
TOOL WEAR AND TOOL LIFE
4.1 Tool wear

During the cutting operation, the cutting edge is stressed mechanically and thermally
until it becomes completely blunt and unable to cut, 100 % wear occurs both on face and
flank, but depending on the machining conditions, one of the types of wear predominate.
Figure 4.1: Sketch of worn cutting tool, showing the principal locations and types of wear
that occur during oblique cutting
40

In case of crater wear:
KT
KM
q should not exceed a certain value ( 0.4 0.6), otherwise weakening of the tool and
catastrophic fracture of cutting edge occur.
The measurement of the amount of crater wear is not as simple as that of the flank wear.
The dependence of the flank wear on the time of the tool operation is shown below.
II
III
Figure 4.2: Tool wear as a function of cutting time, flank wear is used here as the
measure of tool wear.
within interval I:
The flank wear increases rapidly till point a. Rapid increase of the wear is due to the
unevenness of the newly sharpened edge is being quickly smoothed.
within interval II:

It increases at normal rate and termed as normal wear, and the slope of the wearing curve
is dependent upon the cutting conditions such as speed, geometry, work piece material
and coolant type.
41
42

within interval III:
The flank wear increases rapidly till the cutting edge is completely damaged and any
control is hardly possible. The reason is the appearance of the flank wear associated with
the formation of thermal cracks and plastic deformation.
Once the tool enters in the destructive wear interval III, it is uneconomical to sharpen the
tool, the machining accuracy is lost.
The moment when the tool becomes completely blunt is recognized by appearance of
bright strip on the machined surface (H.S.S. tools), and by intensive sparking in the place
of cut, in case of widia tool.
4.2 Tool life (cutting edge durability)

The tool life or cutting edge durability is the total time at which the tool is able to take off
the chip. It is the sum of actual cutting times in which the tool is operating from
sharpening to economical blunting. In other words, the tool life is the cutting time elapsed
between two consecutive sharpening. The tool life can be expressed in different ways:
1- Actual cutting time to failure.

2- Length of work cut to failure.
3- Volume of material removed to failure.
4- Number of components produced to failure.
5- Cutting speed for a given time of failure.
Factors affecting tool life:

1- Material of machined workpiece.
2- Required surface quality of the workpiece.
3- Tool material.
4- Tool geometry and sharpening condition.
5- Fixation of tool and workpiece.
6- Machining variables such as, speed, feed, and depth of cut.

7- Type of coolant used.
8- Condition of cutting tool with respect to vibrations.
The most important factor affecting the tool life is the cutting speed. Therefore, its effect
will be discussed in detail.
Figure 4.3: Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear for three cutting speeds.
Hypothetical values of speed and tool life are shown for a tool life criterion of 0.020 inch
flank wear.
4.3 Taylor tool life equation:
If the tool life values for the three wear curves are plotted on a natural log log graph,
cutting speed versus tool life. The resulting relationship is a straight line as shown in
figure 4.4.
43
Figure 4.4: Natural log log plot of cutting speed versus tool life.
The discovery of this relation around 1900 is credited to F.W. Taylor. It can be expressed
in equation form and it is called Taylor tool life equation.
VT n C
where:
V = cutting speed (m/min)
T = Tool life (min)
C = a constant representing the cutting speed that results in 1 min tool life
n can be found as following:

V1T1 V2T2
n
V2 T1

V1 T2
n
log V2 log V1
log T1 log T2
44
4.4 Tool life criterion in production:

The criterion of Taylor equation is not practical in a factory environment, the following
are some alternates that are more convenient to use in production:
a- Changes in the sound emitting from operation.
b- Degradation of the surface finish on work.
c- Complete failure of cutting edge.
d- Workpiece count.
e- Chips become ribbon form or string
4.5 Machining economic:

Besides technical considerations, the economic of metal removal process is very
important. In machining a certain part, we want to determine the parameters that will give
us either the minimum cost per part or the maximum production rate.
Figure 4.5: Cost per unit for a machining process versus cutting speed.
45
Figure 4.6: Production time versus cutting speed
The time needed to produce a part is:
T p Tl Tm
Tc
Np
Where:
Tl = time involved in loading and unloading the part, changing speed and
feed rates.
Tm = machining time per part.
Tc = time required to grind the tool.
Np = number of parts machined per tool ground.
46
Tm
L LD
fN
fV
From tool life equation, we have:
VT n C
1
C
T
V
Where T, is time, in minutes, required to reach a flank wear of certain dimension, after
which the tool has to be reground or changed. The number of pieces per tool grind is thus
can be obtained as following:
Np
T
Tm
or
Np
fC 1 / n
LDV (1 / n )1
In order to find the optimum cutting speed and also the optimum tool life for maximum
production, we have to differentiate Tp with respect to V and set it to zero.
T p
V
we find that the optimum cutting speed Vopt now becomes,
47
Vopt
C
1 / n 1Tc n
and the optimum tool life is,

Topt 1 / n 1Tc
4.6 Cutting fluids

Cutting fluids also known as lubricants or coolants, are used extensively in machining
operations to:
1- Reduce friction and wear, thus improving tool life and surface finish.
2- Reduce forces and energy consumption.
3- Cool the cutting zone, thus reducing workpiece temperature and distortion.
4- Wash away the chips.
5- Protect the newly machined surfaces from environmental corrosion.
48
49
Table 4.1 Relative severity of machining operations

Cutting operations
Broaching (internal)
Operation
severity
Cutting speed
High
Cutting fluid
activity
High
Tapping
Broaching (external)
Form and threading
Grinding
Gear shaping
Thread rolling
Reaming
Deep drilling
Hobbing
Milling
Turning
Band and hack
sawing
High
Severity:
It is defined as the magnitude of temperatures and forces encountered, the tendency for
built up edge formation, the ease with which chips are disposed of from the cutting zone.
4.7 Effect of cutting fluids on machining:

A machining operation is being carried out with an effective cutting fluid, explain the
changes in the mechanics of the cutting operation and total energy consumption if the
fluid is shut off.
50

When the fluid is shut off, the following chain of events take place:
1- Friction at the tool chip interface increases.
2- The shear angle decreases.
3- The chip is thicker.
4- A built-up edge is likely to form.
As a consequence:
a- The shear energy in the primary zone increases.
b- The friction energy in the secondary zone increases.
c- The total energy increases.
d- Surface finish is likely to deteriorate.
e- The temperature in the cutting zone increases, hence the tool wear increases.
f- Tolerances may be difficult to maintain because of the increased temperature
and expansion of the workpiece during machining.
4.8 Selection of cutting fluid:

The selection of a cutting fluid should include the following consideration.
a- Effect on workpiece material. (Washing machined parts to remove any cutting
fluid residual).
b- Effect on machine tool (Compatibility with the machine member materials).
c- Biological effects (human and environment).
4.9 Continuous chips with built-up-edge:

On closely observing the cutting edge of the tool, a small lump of material known as
built-up-edge (BUE) is found to be welded on it.
Increased temperature of metal being machined in conjunction with high pressure exerted
by the tool, will change the metal into plastic state.
The hardness of the BUE may be two or three times that of the metal being machined,
that is the reason why the cutting edge remains active even when it is covered with BUE.
The BUE, changes the tool geometry, for instance, the cutting angle is less then the actual
cutting angle

The BUE effects:
1- Tool wear
2- Cutting forces
3- Surface roughness
BUE is formed periodically on the tools, when it reaches a comparatively large size, it
breaks off and carried away by both, the chip and workpiece. It affects dimensional
accuracy and surface finish.
The tool rake angle and the cutting speed V, have a combined influence on the formation
of the BUE, as shown in the figure below.
As it is clear from the figure, the machining condition should be selected to avoid the
formation of BUE.
Carbide and ceramic tipped tools are less inclined to have BUE then metal tool.
51
Problems
Problem 1
The durability of a turning tool at V = 50 m/min was found to be 30 min. If Taylor
exponent n = 0.25, calculate:
(a) Cutting edge durability at v=30 m/min
(b) Cutting speed corresponding to T = 120 min.
Problem 2
The durability of a cutting tool is 40 min at a cutting speed of 120 m/min, and 100 min at
a cutting speed of 60 m/min, calculate:
(a) Taylor exp. n, and Taylor const. C, if VT n = C
(b) T V = 70, and V T=120
Problem 3
For a given metal cutting operation, it has been found that the economical durability is 64
min. Determine the economical cutting speed Vopt, if, VT 1/3 = 100
Calculate then Topt and Vopt if tool exchange time TC = 13.5 min.
Problem 4
A tool used for metal cutting operation shows a tool life-speed relationship of
V T 0.125 = 44.5
Originally, 15 minutes were required to replace a dull tool, but a new tool holder has
made it possible to reduce the time to 5 minutes. What increase in cutting speed does this
permit to obtain the max. rate of production from the operation?
Problem 5
The outside diameter of a cylinder made of titanium alloy is to be turned. The starting
diameter = 500 mm and the length = 1000 mm. Cutting conditions are f = 0.4 mm/rev
and d = 3.0mm. The cut will be made with a cemented carbide cutting tool whose Taylor
tool life parameters are n=0.23 and C=400 (m/min). Compute the cutting speed that will
make the tool life equal to the machining time.
52
CHAPTER FIVE: Drilling Operation
CHAPTER FIVE:
DRILLING OPERATION
5.1 Drilling operation

Drilling is an extensively used process, by which through or blind holes are originated or
enlarged in the workpiece.
The process involves feeding a rotating cutting tool into a stationery workpiece.
Drilling should be considered as a roughing operation and therefore the accuracy and
surface roughness in drilling are not of much concern.
Mt
Figure 5.1 : Drill operation
If high accuracy and high quality finish are required, drilling must be followed by some
other operations such as reaming, boring or internal grinding.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 5.2: Sequence of operations required to obtained an accurate size hole: (a)
centering and countersinking, (b) drilling, (c) boring, and (d) reaming
53

5.2 Twist drill nomenclature
The most widely employed drilling tool is the twist drill which is available in diameters
ranging 0.25 to 80 mm. The twist drill consists of a shank, neck, body and point as shown
in figure.
Figure 5.3: Nomenclature and geometry of conventional twist drills
5.2.1 The body

It is a portion of the drill extending from the neck to the outer corners of the cutting lip. It
is provided with two helical flutes for the admission of coolant and ejection of the chips.
5.2.2 The shank

It is a part of the drill through which it is held and driven. It may be straight and held by
three jaws drilling chuck, or taper and held through friction by a special sleeve.
54
55
Figure 5.4: Taper shank
5.2.3 The neck

It is the section of reduced diameter between the body and the shank.
5.3 Drilling angles

5.3.1 Point angle: The point angle on a conventional drill is 118 o for drilling medium
carbon steel and cast iron, where it should be 125o for drilling hardened steel, and 130 o to
140o for drilling brass and bronzes.
Figure 5.5: Point angle
5.3.2 The lip clearance angle

The lip clearance angle vary according to the drilled material, for hard material the range
is 6 9o and for soft materials up to 15o.
Figure5.6: Lip angle

5.3.3 The chisel edge angle
The chisel edge angle is also vary according to the drilled materials, for hard material it
should be 120o and for soft materials 135 o.
Figure 5.7: Chisel angle
5.4 Drill materials

Twist drills are manufactured by High speed steel, and also carbide tipped design.
5.5 Torque, power and cutting force components in drilling

The cutting force component in drilling operation is shown in figure. These components
are assumed to be acting at the mid point of both main cutting edges (lips, at a distance of
D/4).
On each lip three components mutually perpendicular to each other are acting namely P s,
Pf and Pr. as shown in figure 5.8.
56

The magnitude of these components depends on the following:
1. Properties of the material to be drilled.
2. Tool geometry of the twist drill.
3. Chip cross-section area.
4. Cutting conditions, such as feed, cutting speed, coolant
Figure5.8: Cutting force components in drilling.
5.5.1 The main cutting force Ps

It is a horizontal force, acting on each lip in the direction of the cutting speed V, and can
be calculated by the formula:
Ps K s A
Where
Ks = specific cutting resistance of the material to be drilled.
A = chip cross-section area = S/2 * D/2 or (D*S)/4 or b*h
57

The detail is shown in figure 5.9.
Figure 5.9: Chip cross section in drilling
5.5.2 The feed force Pf

The feed force P f acts on each lip vertically upwards in the direction of the feed. It
produces the penetration of the drill into the work.
5.5.3 The radial force Pr

The radial force acting on both lips towards the center are considered in the majority of
cases to counterbalance each other. In case if the drill is not properly sharpened, radial
forces on both lips are not equal. It causes holes not to be accurate and stressing of the
machine spindle bearings.
5.5.4 Drilling torque

The required torque for drilling operation M, can be calculated if the main cutting force
Ps and the drill diameter are known.
58
M Ps D / 2
DS
D/2
4
Ks
M Ks
D2 S
8
5.5.5 The total drilling power

The total drilling power N is equal to the main drilling power N s plus the feed power Nf
which is negligible if compared with N s.
N Ns N f
2Ps V / 2 2Pf S n
Ps V
N motor
Ps V
mech
the machining time is:
tm
L ( D / 4)
f N
And material removal rate is
DN
1000
DS
4
D 2 S N
4 1000
59

5.6 Reaming
Reaming removes a small amount of material from the surface of holes. It is done for two
purposes.
1. To bring holes to a more exact size.
2. To improve the finish of an existing hole.
No special machines are built for reaming operation. The same machine tool that was
employed for drilling the hole can be utilized for reaming operation by changing the
cutting tool.
To obtain proper results, only a minimum amount of material (as little as 0.125mm)
should be left for removal by reaming. A properly reamed hole will be within 0.025mm
of the correct size and have a fine finish.
Figure 5.10: Typical reamer

5.6.1 Type of reamers
Following types of reamers are commonly used:
1. Hand reamers
2. Machine or chucking reamers
3. Expansion reamers (to compensate for wear)
4. Taper reamers are used for finishing holes to an exact taper
5.6.2 To meet quality requirements

Including both finish and accuracy (tolerances on diameter, roundness, straightness)
reamers must have adequate support for the cutting edges, and reamer deflection must be
minimal.
60

Reaming speed is usually two third the speed for drilling the same materials. However,
for close tolerances and fine finish, speed should be slower.
Reamers tend to chatter when not held securely, when the work or work holder is loose or
when the reamers are not properly ground.
5.7 Boring and boring machines

Boring is similar to turning. It uses a straight point tool against a rotating workpiece. The
difference is that boring is performed on the inside of an existing hole rather than the
outside diameter of an existing cylinder.
Machine tools used to perform boring operations are called boring machines. Boring
machines can be horizontal or vertical. The designation refers to the orientation of the
axis of rotation of the machine spindle or workpiece.
In a horizontal boring operation, the setup can be arranged in either of two ways.
First setup
In this setup the work is fixed to a rotating spindle, and the tool is attached to a boring bar
that feeds the tool into the work, as shown in figure 5.11. The boring bar in this setup
must be very stiff to avoid deflection and vibration during operation. (the boring bar is
made of cemented carbide).
Figure 5.11: First setup of boring; boring bar is fed into a rotating workpiece.
61

Second setup
In this setup the tool is mounted to a boring bar and the boring bar is supported and
rotated between centers as shown in figure 5.12. The work is fastened to a feeding
mechanism that feeds it past the tool. This setup can be used to perform boring operation
on conventional engine lathe.
Figure 5.12: Second setup of boring; work is fed past a rotating boring bar.
5.8 Vertical boring machine

A vertical boring machine is shown in figure 5.13. This machine is used for heavy
workparts.
Workparts up to 40 feet diameter can be machined on vertical boring machines.
Figure 5.13: A vertical boring mill.
62
63
PROBLEMS
Problem 1
In a drilling operation:
Hole diameter =30 mm
Hole depth = 100mm
Cutting speed = 300 r.p.m
Feed =0.25 mm/rev
Specific cutting resistance = 2000
2
N/mm
Calculate:
abcd-
The chip area.

The main cutting force.
Machining time.
Material removal rate.
Problem 2
In a drilling operation using a twist drill, the lip angle is 120 degree (standard), the
spindle speed is 300 rpm, the feed is 0.2 mm/rev and the drill diameter is 10 mm.
Calculate:
a - the machining time to drill a through hole 30 mm long.
b - the drill torque in [N-m] assuming that specific cutting resistance for the work.
material is 200 Kg/mm2.
c - the amount of material removed at the first 10 sec after full engagement of drill.
d - the cutting power if cutting force is 2000 N.
Problem 3
A gun drilling operation is used to drill a 7/16 in.- diameter hole to a certain depth. It
takes 4.5 min to perform the drilling operation using high-pressure fluid delivery of
coolant to the drill point. The cutting conditions are N = 300 rev/min at a feed = 0.001
in./rev. To improve the surface finish in the hole, it has been decided to increase the
speed by 20% and decrease the feed by 25%. How long will it take to perform the
operation at the new cutting conditions?
CHAPTER SIX: Milling Operation
CHAPTER SIX:
MILLING OPERTAION
6.1 Milling operation

Milling is a machining operation in which a workpiece is feed past a rotating cylindrical
tool with multiple cutting edges. This cutting tool in milling is known as milling cutter
and the machine tool that traditionally performs the operation is called milling machine.
Milling is an interrupted cutting operation, the teeth of milling cutter enter and exit the
work during each revolution. This interrupted cutting operation subjects the teeth to a
cycle of impact force and thermal shock on every rotation as shown in figure 6.1. A chip
of variable thickness is produced.
Figure 6.1: Conventional face milling with cutting force diagram for Fc, showing the
interrupted nature of process.
6.2 Types of milling operations
There are two basic types of milling operations.
6.2.1 Peripheral or slab milling: In this milling operation the axis of tool is parallel to
the surface being machined. In this operation there are two opposite directions of rotation
that the cutter can have with respect to the work. These cutter directions distinguished
two forms of milling operations, up milling and down milling.
64
65
Figure 6.2: Peripheral milling operation.
Figure 6.3: Peripheral milling operations: (a) slab milling, (b) slotting, (c) side milling,
and (d) straddle milling.
6.2.1.1 Up milling: In up milling the direction of motion of the cutter teeth is opposite to
the feed direction. In this type of milling operation, the chip formed by each cutter tooth
starts out very thin and increases in thickness during the sweep of the cutter. The chip
length is longer than in down milling.
The cutter tends to push the work along and lift it upward from the table, therefore
greater clamping force must be employed. In up milling, chips can be carried into the
newly machined surface, causing the surface finish to be poorer.

6.2.1.2Down milling: In down milling, the direction of motion of the cutter teeth is same
as the feed direction. In this operation each chip starts out thick and reduces in thickness
throughout the cut. The length of the chip in down milling is less than in up milling. This
tends to increase tool life. The cutter force direction is downwards, tending to hold the
work against the work table.
Figure 6.4: Two forms of milling with a 20-tooth cutter: (a) up milling and (b) down
milling.
6.3 Face milling
In face milling the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the surface being milled, as
shown in the figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5: Face milling.
66
Figure 6.6: Face milling operations: (a) conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling,
(c) end milling, (d) profile milling, (e) pocket milling, and (f) surface contouring.
6.4 Cutting conditions in milling

The cutting speed is determined at the outside diameter of a milling cutter. This can be
converted to spindle rotation speed.
N
Where
N = spindle speed in rpm
V = cutting speed
D = diameter of milling cutter
V
D
67
6.5 Chip thickness in milling
Figure 6.7: Chip thickness detail in milling operation.
The milling operation is characterized by the changing of chip thickness as the cutting
proceeds. Therefore the maximum and mean values of chip thickness are to be calculated
Since the chip thickness is an important factor for calculating the cutter forces and power,
therefore the maximum and mean values of chip thickness will be calculated. From figure
6.7
he S z sin e
U
* sin e
nz
hm 1/ 2he
Where
Sz = feed of workpiece/tooth = U/(n-z)
e = angle of rotation of milling cutter during which each tooth remains
engaged in workpiece material
68
69
U = feed of workpiece/min.
n = rotational speed of cutter in rpm
z = number of teeth on cutter
since e is small such that sin e = e
sin e
( D / 2) 2 ( D / 2 e) 2 2
e/ D
D/2
where
e = depth of cut
D = outside diameter of milling cutter
Substituting the values of sine, we get
since hm = he therefore
he
2U
e/d
n z
he
U
e/d
n z
6.6 Cutting forces and power in milling

In figure 6.9, the resultant force R acting on a single tooth in peripheral milling operation
can be resolved into tangential and radial components (Ps, Pr) or horizontal and vertical
components (Ph, Pv).
Therefore
R Ps Pr
2
70
R Ph PV
2
In case of helical milling cutter, there will be an axial component P a acts along the cutter
axis and its magnitude depends on the helix angle of the cutter. In this case the resultant
cutting forces on each tooth is given by:
Figure 6.8: Cutting force components in milling operation.
R Ps Pr Pa
2
6.7 The main cutting force Ps in peripheral milling
Ps K s b h
h = momentary chip thickness changing from zero to he in up milling
or from he to zero in down milling
Ps max K s b he
Ps max Kz b
zu
e/ D
n* z
Ps mean Ks b
u
e/ D
n* z
The total mean tangential force is:
Ps mean(total) Z e K s b
u
e/ D
n* z
Where
Ze = numbet of cutting teeth in the same moment
Ze Z
e
2
In peripheral milling:
e sin e 2 e / D
Therefore
Ze
Ps (total)
e/ D
e / D Ks b
U
e/ D
n* z
71
Ps (total) mean
U eb
Ks
n D
6.8 The cutting power in peripheral milling

The main chipping power Ns can be calculated as follows:
N s Ps (total) mean V
Ns
U eb
Dn
1
(kW)
Ks
n D
1000
60 102
Ns
U eb
Ks
60 102 1000
(kW)
The feed power Nf is given by:
Nf
Pf U
60 102 1000
(kW)
The total power is:

Ne N s N f N s
N mot
(approximately)
U e b Ks
1
60 102 1000 mech
(kW)
72

6.9 Machining time in peripheral milling
From figure, it can be noted,

L 2 e( D e) 2C l
L
U
Where
U = feed of the workpiece per minuite
6.10 Material removal rate

Material removal rate can be calculated as following:
MRR
Where
L = length of the cut
W= width of the cut
e = depth of the cut
t = machining time
L W e
t
73
PROBLEMS
Problem 1
A slab milling operation is performed to finish the top surface of a steel rectangular
workpiece 250 mm long by 75 mm wide. The helical milling cutter, which is 65 mm in
diameter and has eight teeth, is set up to overhang the width of the part on both sides.
Cutting conditions are v=35 m/min, f = 0.225 mm/tooth, and d = 0.250 in.
Determine:
(a) the time to make one pass across the surface
(b) the metal removal rate during the cut.
Problem 2
A peripheral milling operation is performed on the top surface of a rectangular workpart
that is 300 mm long by 100 mm wide. The milling cutter, which is 75 mm in diameter
and has four teeth, overhanges the width of the part on both sides. Cutting conditions are
V = 80 m/min, f = 0.2 mm/tooth, and d = 7.0 mm.
Determine:
(a) the time to make one pass across the surface
(b) the material removal rate during the cut.
Problem 3
In horizontal milling, the following conditions exist:
Work (mild steel with specific cutting energy 3200 N/mm2); Cutter (No. of teeth 12, tool
diameter 120 mm, tool width 30 mm); Machining parameters (cutting velocity 45 m/min,
feed velocity 360 mm/min, depth of cut 2.5 mm).
Calculate:
(a) Maximum chip thickness.
(b) Maximum tangential force/tooth.
(c) Machining time for one travel, if work length is 450 mm.
(d) Machining power
74
CHAPTER SEVEN: Grinding Operation
CHAPTER SEVEN:
GRINDING OPERATION
7.1 Grinding operation

Grinding is a material removal process in which abrasive particles bonded as grinding
wheel that operates at very high surface speeds. The grinding wheel is precisely balanced
for high rotational speeds.
Grinding may be linked to the milling process. Cutting occurs on either the periphery or
the face of the grinding wheel, similar to peripheral milling and face milling. Figure 7.1
7.2 Significant differences between grinding and milling

1. The abrasive grains in the wheel are much smaller than the teeth on the milling
cutter.
2. Cutting speeds in grinding are much higher than in milling.
3. A grinding wheel is self sharpening (as the wheel wears, the abrasive particles
become dull and either fracture to create fresh cutting edges or are pulled out of
the surface of the wheel to expose new grains).
Figure 7.1: (a) The geometry of surface grinding, showing cutting conditions; (b)
assumed longitudinal shape and (c) cross-section of a single chip.
75
76

7.3 The grinding wheel
The grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles and bonding materials. The bonding
material holds particles in place and establishes the structure and shape of the wheel.
7.4 Abrasive material

General properties of an abrasive material used in grinding wheels include high hardness,
wear resistance, and toughness.
The abrasive materials of greatest commercial importance are:
1. Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
2. Silicon carbide (SiCa)
3. Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
4. Diamond (natural and synthetic)
7.5 Grain size

There are two main grain sizes available, small grain size, suitable for hard materials
grinding with better surface finish. Large grain size is suitable for soft materials with high
material removal rate.
7.6 Bonding materials

The bonding material must be able to withstand the centrifugal forces and high
temperatures. Following are some common bonding materials:
1. Vitrified bond (clay and ceramic materials)
2. Silicate bond (sodium silicate)
3. Rubber bond
4. Metallic bond (usual bond)
Marking system for conventional grinding wheels
The grinding wheels come with the following marking system.
A
46
(Abrasive type)
(Grain size)
record)
(Grade) (structure) (Bond type)
xx
(Manufacturers
Abrasive type:
A = Aluminum oxide
C = Silicon
Grain size:
Coarse
= 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 20, 24
Medium = 30, 36, 46, 54, 60

Fine
= 70, 80, - - - - - - 180
Very fine = 220, 240, - - - - -600

Grade (A H)
A = Soft, M = Medium, Z = Hard
Structure
1 Very dense
15 Very open
Bond type
B = Resinoid
E = Shellac
R = Rubber
S = Silicate
V = Vitrified
7.7 Standard grinding wheel shapes

Grinding wheels are available in different shapes, in figure some standard grinding wheel
shapes are shown.
Figure 7.2: Some standard grinding wheel shapes: (a) straight, (b) recessed two sides, (c)
metal wheel frame with abrasive bonded to outside circumference, (d) abrasive cutoff
wheel, (e) cylinder wheel, (f) straight cup wheel, and (g) flaring cup wheel
77

7.8 Dressing of grinding wheel
As the wheel is used, there is a tendency for the wheel to become loaded with metallic
chips and the grains become dull or glaze. To improve the condition of wheel a process
termed as wheel dressing is used as shown in figure 7.3.
Dressing stick
Pushed into the wheel at
constant force or constant
infeed rate
Grinding wheel
Figure7.3: Schematic arrangement of stick dressing.
7.9Truing of grinding wheel

Grinding wheels loose their geometry during use. Truing operation restores the original
shape. A single point diamond tool is used to true the wheel as shown in figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4: Diamond nibs may be used for truing wheels in batch operations
78
7.10 Grinding operations and grinding machines
7.10.1 Cylindrical grinding:

Cylindrical grinding as its name suggests, is used for rotational parts. These grinding
operations are divided into two basic types.
(a) External cylindrical grinding which is similar to external turning. The grinding
machine used for these operations closely resemble a lathe in which the tool post has
been replaced by a high speed motor to rotate the grinding wheel. The cylindrical
workpiec is rotated between centers. Two types of feed motion are possible, traverse
feed and plunge cut, as shown in figure 7.5 (a). In traverse feed, the grinding wheel is
fed in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece. In plunge cut, the
grinding wheel is fed radially into the work.
(b) Internal cylindrical grinding operates somewhat like a boring operation. The
workpiece is usually held in a chuck and rotated to provide surface speed. The wheel
is fed in either of two ways: (1) traverse feed or (2) plunge feed as shown in figure
7.6. The wheel diameter in internal cylindrical grinding must be smaller than the
original bore hole. Internal grinding is used to finish the hardened inside surfaces of
bearing races and bushing surfaces as shown in figure 7.5 (b).
79
Figure 7.5: Two types of cylindrical grinding: (a) external and (b) internal
Figure 7.6: Two types of feed motion in external cylindrical: (a) traverse feed and (b)
plunge-cut.
7.10.2 Surface grinding
Surface grinding is normally used to grind plain flat surfaces. It is performed using either
the periphery of the grinding wheel or the flat face of the wheel. Since the work is held
in a horizontal orientation, peripheral grinding is performed by rotating the wheel about
a horizontal axis, and face grinding is performed by rotating the wheel about a vertical
axis.
80

Four types of surface grinding machines are used in surface grinding operation. (a)
horizontal spindle with reciprocating worktable, (b) horizontal spindle with rotating
worktable, (c) vertical spindle with reciprocating worktable, and (d) verticall spindle with
rotating worktable.
Figure 7.7: Four types of surface grinding: (a) horizontal spindle with reciprocating
worktable, (b) horizontal spindle with rotating worktable, (c) vertical spindle with
reciprocating worktable, and (d) vertical spindle with rotating worktable.
7.10.3 Centerless grinding
Centerless grinding has a number of advantages over cylindrical grinding. It is a self
centering, the stock removal rate is higher, and the work is firmly held by the support
plate and control or regulating wheel, which results in better dimensional accuracy, as
mentioned in figure 7.8 and 7.9.
81
Figure 7.8: External centerless grinding.
Figure 7.9: Internal centerless grinding.
7.11 Forces and power in grinding

There are three force components involved in the grinding operation, as shown in figure
7.10.
Pr = Radial force, Pa = Axial force, Ps = Main cutting force (Tangential force).
82
Figure 7.10: Force components in grinding.
The power can be calculated from the following formula.
Ns
Ps V
102 60
(kW)
7.12 Related abrasive processes

7.12.1 Honing
Honing is an abrasive process performed by a set of bonded abrasive sticks.
A common application is to finish the bores of internal combustion engines, other
applications
In addition, honing produces a characteristic cross hatched surface that tends to retain
lubrication during operation of the component, as shown in figure 7.11.
83
84
Figure 7.11: The honing process: (a) the honing tool used for internal bore surfaces
(b) cross hatched surface pattern created by the action of the honing tool.
The honing tool consists of a set of bonded abrasive sticks. Two to four sticks would be
used for small holes, and a dozen or more would be used for larger diameter holes.
The motion of the honing tool is the combination of rotation and linear reciprocation.
Honing speed range is between 50 to 500 ft/min. During the process, the sticks are
pressed outward against the hole surface to produce the desired abrasive cutting action.
A cutting fluid must be used in honing to cool and lubricate the tool and to help remove
chips.
7.12.2 Lapping
Lapping is an abrasive process used to produce surface finish of extreme accuracy and
smoothness. It is used in the production of optical lenses, metallic bearing surfaces and
gauges as shown in figure 7.12.
Metal parts that are subjected to fatigue loading or surfaces that must be used to establish a
seal with mating part are often lapped. Instead of a bonded abrasive tool, lapping uses a
fluid suspension of very small abrasive particles between the workpiece and lapping tool.
85
Figure 7.12: The lapping process in lens making.

7.12.3 Super finishing
Super finishing is an abrasive process similar to honing. Super finishing differ from
honing in the following respect.
1- The strokes are shorter.
2- High frequencies are used.
3- Lower pressures are applied between the tool and surface.
4- The grit size are smaller.
5- Workpiece speed are slower.
The result of these conditions is mirror like finishes. This process can be used to finish
flat and external cylindrical surfaces, as shown in figure 7.13.
Figure 7.13: Super finishing on an external cylindrical surface.
CHAPTER EIGHT: Broaching Operation
CHAPTER EIGHT:
BROACHING OPERATION
8.1 Broaching operation

Broaching is a machining operation using a multi toothed cutter, to produce through holes
of any cross sectional shapes, external shaped surfaces and gears. Some common
shapes that can be produced by broaching operation are shown in figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1.: Work shapes that can be cut by external and internal broaching operation.
Broaching is a process combining roughing and finishing in one operation. This process
is differs from all other conventional operations in that there is only one cutting motion
(main motion) performed by the tool. The feed is not obtained by moving the workpiece
or the tool, but by an arrangement in series of suitable stepped cutting edges, as shown in
figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2: The broaching operation
86
The broaching machine is driven hydraulically to avoid shock loading and to prevent
overloading.
Since the teeth are generally increasing in size from the front to the rear end of the
broach, each successive tooth removes a layer of material and the size of the hole or slot
is increased. Broach can be pull type or push type, as shown in figure. The main cutting
force is applied to the front of the body of the broach, this force may be the pulling force
or the pushing force, as per type of the broach. A push broach should be shorter than a
pull broach to avoid buckling.
Figure 8.3: A typical broach used for internal broaching
8.2 Advantages of broaching

1- High productivity.
2- High machining accuracy.
3- High surface quality.
4- Useful production process to produce internal shapes.
5- Since the broaches are expensive tool, broaching is only justified for mass
production.
87
8.3 Broach shapes and tooth geometry

A nomenclature of typical broach is shown in figure 8.3. The functions of some part of a
broach are noted as follow:
Pull end: to engage the broach with the broaching machine.
Front pilot: to guide the broach in the previously machined hole.
Roughing or cutting teeth: to remove the main part of broaching allowance.
Semi finish and finish teeth: to finish the size of the hole.
8.4 Broach materials

The broaches are made from high grades of high speed steels, like chromium and
vanadium grades. Cemented carbide broaches are also in use, these broaches have longer
tool life, high cutting speeds and better surface finish.
Figure 8.4: Broach tool geometry
8.5 Broach design

In broaching, the most working parameters are determined in connection with the
construction of the broach. Such as tool geometry, superelevation (feed), pitch, width of
cut. As shown in figure 8.4. These parameters are not selective.
The most important design elements of the broach are:
8.5.1 Cutting length L of the broach
The length of the broach can be formulated as following:
88
L Z * tm
Where
Z = total number of teeth
Tm = mean pitch
When the cutting length L is greater than machine maximum stroke, then it can be
divided between two broaches.
8.5.2 Total number of teeth

Total number of teeth can be calculated with the following formula.
T
S ZM
Where
T
= total depth to be broached
SZM = mean super elevation
8.5.3 Pitch
The pitch t should be determined considering the following points of view:
8.5.4 Sufficient chip space

As shown in figure 8.5, chip space to be provided depends on the workpiece material and
type of chip form
FCS
FC
89
90
where
X = chip space number, it is a function of material type and nature of
operation, roughing or finishing, its value may be in the range of (3-10)
FCS = chip cross sectional area
FC = longitudinal section of the chip
Figure 8.5 Chip space arrangement in broach tool
FCS S Z * l * X
1
1
* X *t * h
* X * t * X * 0.4t
3.6
3.6
Where
l = length of workpiece
t = pitch
h = height of tooth
t 2 9S Z * l * X
t 3 SZ * l * X
8.5.5 Maximum allowable stress of broach material

The acting stress at the minimum broach cross section (Ao) due to the acting total
broaching force Ps, should not exceed the allowable tensile strength of the broach
material (allow).
PS b * S Z * K S * * Ze AO * allow
Therefore
l
b * S Z * K S * * AO * allow
t
t min
b * S Z * K S * * l
AO * allow
Where
b = width of cut
= blunting factor
Ze = number of teeth cutting at the same time
Ao = minimum broach cross-section
l = length of workpiece
t = pitch
tm should be smaller then the value of t obtained from the previous section.
8.5.6 Maximum force exerted by broaching machine
The maximum force exerted by broaching machine shall have the following relation.
Pm Ps
Pm b * S Z * k S * * Z e
Pm b * S Z * k S * *
l
t
91
t min
b * S Z * k S * * l
Pmax
8.5.7 Length of workpiece

The pitch t as previously obtained should not be greater than l/2, where l is the length to
be broached, in order to be sure that minimum 2 or 3 teeth in contact at one time. In this
way a better guide of the tool and more smooth action take place.
8.5.8 Chattering
To prevent possible chattering, and to obtain better surface finish, the pitch t should
made non uniform, as shown in figure 8.6.
Figure 8.6: Variable pitch arrangement in broaching tool to avoid chattering
8.5.9 Cutting speed by broaching

Recommended economical speeds are relatively smaller, for steel 2 8 m/min and for
light metals 3 -15 m/min.
8.5.10Power in broaching
The power in broaching is given by:
NS
b * S Z * * K S * l
*V
60 x10 2 * t
92
93
REFERENCES
1- L eo Alting Manufacturing engineering processesMarcel Dekker, Inc, New York, 1994.
2- E. P. Degarmo, J.T. Black, R. A. Kohser, Materials and processes in manufacturing
Printice Hall, New Jersey, 1997
3- J. A. Schey, Introduction to manufacturing processes McGraw-Hill, 2000.
4- M.P. Groover, Fundamentals of modern manufacturing Printice Hall, New Jersey,
1997.
5- S.
Kalpakjian, Manufacturing engineering and technology, Addison Wesley, 1995.
6- H.A.A. Youssef, Theory of metal cutting, Dar Al-Maaref, 1977, Alexandria.

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The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process;

By Dr. Saied. M. Darwish

CHAPER ONE: Fits and Tolerances

FITS AND TOLERANCES

1.1.3 Actual size (of a part):

1.1.4 Basic size:

Figure: 1 Basic terms of dimensions and limits

The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process;

By Dr. Saied. M. Darwish

CHAPER ONE: Fits and Tolerances

1.1.5 Design size:

11..6 Limits of size:

1.1.7 Maximum limit of size:

1.1.8 Minimum limit of size:

1.1.9 Maximum material limit:

1.1.10 Minimum material limit:

The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process;

By Dr. Saied. M. Darwish

CHAPER ONE: Fits and Tolerances

1.1.12 Zero line:

1.1.13 Upper deviation:

1.1.14 Lower deviation:

1.1.15 Tolerance zone:

1.1.16 Unilateral tolerance:

1.1.17 Bilateral tolerance:

The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process;

By Dr. Saied. M. Darwish

CHAPER ONE: Fits and Tolerances

1.1.20 Basic shaft:

The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process;

By Dr. Saied. M. Darwish

CHAPER ONE: Fits and Tolerances

Figure 2: Clearance and interference fits

1.1.23 Basic size of a fit:

1.1.24 Clearance fit:

1.1.25 Interference fit:

The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process;

By Dr. Saied. M. Darwish

CHAPER ONE: Fits and Tolerances

1.1.26 Transition fit:

1.1.27 Minimum clearance:

The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process;

By Dr. Saied. M. Darwish

CHAPER ONE: Fits and Tolerances

1.1.29 Minimum interference:

1.1.30 Maximum interference:

1.1.31 Shaft-basis system of fits:

1.1.32 Hole-basis system of fits:

The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process;

By Dr. Saied. M. Darwish

CHAPER ONE: Fits and Tolerances

Figure 3: Basic hole and shaft system

The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process;

By Dr. Saied. M. Darwish

Figure 4: Hole and shaft system

The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process;

By Dr. Saied. M. Darwish

CHAPER ONE: Fits and Tolerances

1.2.1 Tolerance values:

1.2.2 Tolerance position:

1.3: Grades of tolerances

The Selection of Manufacturing Engineering Process;